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BASIC CONCEPTS
reference: act in which a speaker/writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener/reader to identify something (words don't refer, people do) referring expressions
- proper nouns ('Shakespeare', 'Hawaii') - definite noun phrases ('the author', 'the island') - indefinite noun phrases ('a man', 'a woman', 'a beautiful place') - pronouns ('he', 'she', 'them')
The choice of expression depends largely on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows (in shared visual contexts -> deictic expressions) inference: as there is no direct relationship between entities and words, the listener's task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression.
- can use vague expressions ('the blue thing', 'that icky stuff', 'whatsisname') - can use expressions focusing on one feature ('Mister Aftershave is late today)
reference needs to use objectively correct naming, but can work with locally successful choices of expression
Hauptseminar Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html
use in b. (entity only known in terms of descriptive properties) is an attributive use meaning 'who/whatever fits the description' referential use has one specific entity in mind (Donnellan 1966) attributive use is also possible with definite NPs: 'There was no sign of the killer' (when talking about a mysterious death, referential use when a particular person had been identified, chased into a building, but escaped) expressions themselves do not have reference but are invested with referential function in a context by a speaker/writer
Hauptseminar
Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html
pragmatic connection between proper names and objects conventionally associated within a socio-culturally defined community
Hauptseminar
Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html
('wins World Cup' limits the range of possible interpretations) the referring expression provides a range of reference, a number of possible referents
The cheese sandwich is made with white bread The cheese sandwich left without paying
co-text: linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used context: physical environment and (speech) conventions, e.g., a restaurant
The heart-attack mustn't be moved (hospital) Your ten-thirty just cancelled (dentist) A couple of rooms have complained about the heat (hotel)
conventions may differ from one social group to another reference is a social act in which the speaker assumes that the word/phrase chosen to identify an object/person will be interpreted as the speaker intended (not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word/phrase and an object/person in the world)
Hauptseminar
Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html
initial/introductory reference is often indefinite ('a man', 'a woman', 'a cat') subsequent reference with definite NPs ('the man, 'the cat', 'the woman') or with pronouns ('it', 'he', 'she') Reference to already introduced referents is called anaphoric reference (initial expression: antecedent - subsequent expression: anaphor) - anaphoric reference need not be exactly identical to antecedent:
Peel and slice six potatoes. Put them in cold salted water. ('them' now refers to 'the six peeled and sliced potatoes')
It is possible to make inferences when anaphoric expressions are not linguistically connected to their antecedents.
I just rented a house. The kitchen is really big We had Chardonnay with dinner. The wine was the best part. The bus came on time, but he didn't stop I just rented a house. The kitchen is really big requires the inference that if x is a house, then x has a kitchen to make an anaphoric connection knowledge in the listener is assumed (can be specific, e.g. one must know that Chardonnay is a wine, can lead to lack of grammatical agreement (bus - he)) the social dimension of reference is tied to the effect of collaboration - conversation partners must have something in common/share something (social closeness)
Successful reference means that an intention was recognized, via inference, indicating a kind of shared knowledge and hence social connection.
Hauptseminar Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html
What are possible interpretations of this? What is the most likely interpretation and what is necessary to arrive at it? The following notice was found on the back wall of the mens toilet in the Universidade Federal de Brasilia SEA EDUCADO, JOGUE O PAPEL NO LIXO (Be educated, throw the paper in the waste basket) What is the most likely interpretation here? Is the note ambiguous? How is understanding of these contradictory messages dependent on the context? What does anything other in the American notice refer to? What is the paper referred to in the Brazilian notice?
Hauptseminar
Introduction to Pragmatics
http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/~jilka/index.html