Courses required to take the certification exam :

Education 203-Psychological Foundations of Education

Education 204-Sociological Foundations of Education

Education 328-Human Development (secondary level)

Education 337-Child Development (elementary level)

Education 270-The computer applied to Education

Education 313-Measurement and Evaluation (elementary level)

Education 354-Measurement and Evaluation (secondary level)

Education 340-Introduction to the Exceptional Child

Education 430-Philosophical Foundations of Education

History 253-Puerto Rico (compendium)

History 303-United States (compendium)

 Credits in the specialty (History, Spanish, Mathematics, English, etc.)

 Requirements established by the Department of Education of the Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico.

Human development

It is the scientific study of the quantitative and qualitative changes in human beings
throughout their life. It is a scientific discipline because: it describes the characteristics of
each age, explains why certain behaviors occur, predicts behaviors, suggests ways to
modify development.

Changes: quantitative-refers to quantity, that is, height, weight, vocabulary, etc.

Qualitative-refers to changes related to character, structure, organization, that is, how the
mind works, how the person reacts, how the person feels, etc.

The study of human development covers the following stages: prenatal, neonatal,
infant, preadolescent, adolescent, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood.

Vocabulary that can create confusion:

Prenatal-refers to the stage before birth. (pre=before or before)

Neonatal-refers to the newborn. (neo=new)

The study of human development is important because by understanding how

children of different ages learn best, we can plan more appropriately. We can also better
prepare ourselves for the changes we must face in life.

Influences on development:
1. External and internal:

-heredity from parents, characteristics with which we are born (internal influences)

-the environment, the individual and communal experiences that we live with the world.
Experiences affect us and influence how we react and feel.

2. Normative and non-normative influences:

-normative, they happen to everyone and are expected at a certain age. Ex: puberty,
retirement age, etc.

-non-normative, they are unusual or unexpected situations. Ex: the death of a baby.

Physical development involves changes in the body, brain, sensory capabilities,

and motor skills. These changes influence the intellect and personality. Ex: the baby
knows the world around him through the senses and motor activity. Intellectual
development includes learning, memory, reasoning, the ease of learning language, etc.

Intellectual development is related to motor and emotional development. Social

and personality development affects both physical and cognitive aspects. For example,
the acceptance or rejection that a child experiences influences his or her self-concept,
self-esteem, academic achievement, and the way in which he or she faces problems.

Individual differences: in the pace of life, some children may start crawling earlier than
others, etc. In the developmental results, a difference is seen in height, weight, emotional
reactions, etc. In lifestyles, one could mention the types of homes that are formed, scale
of values, interpersonal relationships, priorities and use of free time, among others.

Psychoanalytic Theory:

Studies the subconscious forces that motivate human behavior. It emerged in the
20th century, with the doctor Sigmund Freud, who originated psychoanalysis. This
 therapeutic method seeks to establish how subconscious conflicts that occurred during
childhood affect behavior and emotions.

A) Psychosexual Theory-Sigmund Freud. He emphasized sex and aggression as motivators

of human behavior. He concluded that the cause of emotional disturbances is found in
traumatic experiences in early childhood.

Components of Personality:

Id-subconscious. Source of desires and motivations, present at birth. He is impulsive,

irrational, asocial and amoral. Children are initially egocentric and do not differentiate
themselves from the world around them. They only seek their satisfaction. It operates on
the pleasure principle.

Ego-the self. It represents reason and common sense. It operates on the principle of
reality. It develops from the first year of age. It is like a balance between the Id and the
Superego. Find an acceptable way to obtain pleasure.

Superego or Superego-consciousness. It represents the values that parents and teachers

communicate to the child. It develops around 4 or 5 years of age. The superego
incorporates the shoulds and shouldn'ts into the child's value system.

Stages of Psychosexual Development-

Oral-The child receives the greatest pleasure in the mouth. (birth to 18 months
approx.)

Anal-Receive more pleasure in the anus region; in defecation. (12/18 months to 5-6
years)

Phallic-Receive more pleasure in the genital area. The relationship with the parent of the
opposite sex is important. Period of the Oedipus Complex (boys) and Electra Complex
(girls). (3 to 5/6 years)

Latency-Period of sexual calm (5 years to puberty)

Genital-Stage of mature and adult sexuality. (puberty to adulthood)

Defense Mechanisms-Ways in which we unconsciously combat anxiety, distorting

reality.

Regression-The return to behavior characteristic of a previous stage. (finger sucking)

Repression-“repress” Block past experiences by forgetting them. (sexual abuse, etc.)

Sublimation-Directing sexual impulses toward acceptable social activities. ( sports)

Projection-Attributing one person's unacceptable thoughts and feelings to another. Saying

that a person envies you, when in reality it is the other way around.

Psychosocial Theory:

Erick Erikson, presents the development of personality throughout life. Emphasizes

the social and cultural influences of the self in each of the eight stages. Each stage
revolves around a personality crisis that involves a different major conflict each time. If
the conflict is not resolved satisfactorily, the person continues to struggle with it, which
will prevent them from continuing their healthy development.

Stages:

Trust versus mistrust (birth to 12/18 months) The child develops trust in the world
around him. Decide whether or not the world is a place where you can be safe and
whether people are trustworthy or not. Trust must predominate so that the child develops
the virtue of hope, that is, that his or her needs will be satisfied. Otherwise you may have
problems developing interpersonal relationships. The child's mother is important at this
stage.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years) The child develops
independence and self-control, otherwise he will feel insecure about himself and will
need external controls. They try to do everything themselves and begin to use their own
judgment, instead of their mother's. Parents should not be too self-permissive, because
otherwise children will not know how to follow rules or self-regulate. Children go
through a period of saying “no” to many things and also the “I”, wanting to do
everything. They express their desires with language and become more independent.
(healthcare training is important for the development of self-control and autonomy)

Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years) The child wants to do new things and does not let
himself be defeated by difficulties. A conflict arises between the impulse to carry out
actions to achieve goals and their “moral” judgments. There is a conflict because the
child wants to do new things, but by identifying with his parents, the part of his
personality that is becoming “adult”, evaluates his actions and determines whether they
are correct or not. If you resolve this conflict well, you will develop the virtue of purpose,
the courage to fight for valuable goals.
If they do this they will be adults who enjoy life, with responsibility. If they do not
overcome it, they may be adults who inhibit their impulses, dominated by a feeling of
guilt, they may feel morally superior and feel that they must constantly win.

Industriousness vs inferiority (6 years to puberty) Stage of relative emotional

calm. Children pay attention to school. The conflict they must resolve is the ability to
work productively. You must develop the vision that you are capable of completing tasks.
When they compare their abilities with those of their peers, they form an idea of what
they are like. Otherwise they isolate themselves or feel inferior to others.

Identity vs identity confusion (puberty towards early adulthood) The adolescent

must acquire his or her own self-concept or sense of self. The search for identity is
typical of this stage. The virtue that arises from the identity crisis is fidelity (to friends,
values, etc.). If fidelity is not developed, shyness and obstinacy arise. The achievement of
identity is important so that in your youth, you achieve intimacy that implies
commitment.

Intimacy vs isolation (early adulthood) “university students” The person commits

to others, feels a desire to achieve a deep relationship with another person, but this
depends on the sense of identity that has been acquired in adolescence. If that sense is
firm, you will be prepared to establish a loving relationship, based on love and trust.

Creativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood) Mature adults are interested in guiding

the younger generation, otherwise they feel personally impoverished. They engage in
activities that encourage the development of young people (through teaching, etc.) If the
person does not do anything productive, they may fall into depression.

Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) Elderly people must achieve a sense of
acceptance of their own life and death, otherwise they fall into despair. The virtue of
wisdom is developed, because one accepts the life one has had, even though it could have
been better. Some may fall into despair, because they are no longer able to live in a
different way again.

Mechanistic Theory

Considers human development as a response to external events. People react to

external stimuli; that is, as “machines”. This model includes behaviorist theory and social
learning theory.
Behaviorism or traditional learning theory

Opposite perspective to psychoanalysis. Emphasizes the role of the environment.

They believe that human beings learn just like animals, that they react to features of their
environment, which they may find pleasant, painful or threatening.

They believe that learning occurs basically through conditioning and that development is
the sum of a person's conditioned responses. There are two kinds of conditioning:
classical or responder conditioning and operant or instrumental conditioning.

Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov-He did experiments with a dog who came to associate the sound of a
bell with food. Every time the bell rang, the dog began to salivate in anticipation of being
given food. Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus elicits a response that is not
ordinarily associated with the stimulus.

The sound of the bell (neutral or conditioned stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus)
cause the dog to salivate, which is a conditioned response.

John Watson-First behaviorist to apply stimulus-response theory to the study of

child development. He conditioned a child to be afraid of stuffed animals, because every
time they were presented to him they made a loud noise.

Operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner-maximum exponent of behaviorism. He demonstrated that an

organism tends to repeat the behavior if it is followed by a satisfactory experience and
not to repeat it if the subsequent experience is not satisfactory. The person repeats the
behavior that will be rewarded and avoids the behavior that will lead to punishment. The
behavior can be rewarded (rewarded/positive reinforcement) or punished (negative
reinforcement). Positive-give rewards, so that the action is repeated. Negative-punish so
that the action is not repeated.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura-maximum exponent. According to this theory, we learn by

imitating models. Children learn language, moral norms, and social behavior when they
identify with their parents. He believes that the child takes an active part in his own
learning, because he chooses other models in society to imitate. Children act on the
environment, that is, in a certain way they create the environment. It emphasizes
environmental influences but underestimates the importance of biological influences,
internal motivation and free choice.

Cognitive or Organismic Theory

It sees people as living, active organisms that have their own internal drives and
patterns for development.

He does not see them as machines, but as active agents of their own development.
Development occurs in qualitative stages. At each stage people develop different kinds of
skills and face different kinds of problems. Each stage is based on the previous one and
serves as a basis for the next. Jean Piaget is the greatest exponent of this theory. He
believed that people have an innate tendency to adapt to the demands of their
environment.

Sensioromotiz Stage (birth/2 years) The baby responds through the senses. Then little by
little he organizes the activities in relation to the environment. In this stage you acquire
the following cognitive concepts:

1.permanence of objects: Realize that an object or person continues to exist even if you
do not see it. This is the basis for the child to become aware that he exists as something
apart from objects and other people.

2.causality: Recognize that certain events cause others. This develops around 10 months.
Babies like to turn lights on and off. They prefer toys that they can roll, make noise or
throw. They know that their actions can make things happen.

Little by little they become initiators of activities, their innate sucking schemes
(organized patterns of behavior) are modified and expanded with experience. From the
first month to 4 months, they begin to repeat simple acts focused on their own body to
produce a pleasurable sensation that they previously obtained randomly. Begins to
coordinate and organize different types of sensory information: vision and hearing. From
4 to 8 months, the baby has greater interest in manipulating objects in the environment
(moving a maraca). From 8 to 12 months, they remember past experiences to solve new
problems. From 12 to 18 months, their curiosity focuses on new objects, which they
inspect to learn about their characteristics. He does things to see what happens. Between
18 and 24 months, they are capable of truly thinking. They begin to use language. They
imitate actions and already have the concept of object permanence.
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) Child uses symbols to represent people, places and
events. The preoperational stage lays the foundation for logical thinking. Children can
think about objects, people and events in their absence.

Symbolic function-ability to learn through the use of sensory representations. Ex:

the child asks for ice cream, even though he is not seeing it, since he is hot he remembers
the freshness of the ice cream and asks for it. Children use the symbolic function, using
delayed imitation, symbolic play and language.

Delayed imitation-imitation of an observed action after some time has passed

(child sees father shaving and does the same thing the next day).

Symbolic play-children make an object represent something else (a stick, a horse)

Language-they use language to name absent things and for events that are not happening
at the moment.

Preoperational thinking achievements: Children think in new and creative ways; They
show some partial logic. Understands the relationship and function of things (turn up
switch/light turns on, sees a connection between the two). Understand that some things
remain the same even if they change shape.

Limitations of preoperational thinking: It does not distinguish fantasy from

reality. You tend to focus on one thing and therefore reach illogical conclusions. You
cannot think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation. They cannot understand
that an operation can go in two directions. Ex: if asked if he has a sister he says yes, but
when asked if his sister has a brother he says no. They also concentrate more on states
than on transformations, that is, they concentrate on initial and final states and not on
intermediate ones. Children think in a transductive way, they go from one particular thing
to another without considering the matter in general. This makes them see a causal
relationship where none exists. (I wished my sister bad and she got sick, because I am
responsible for that). Children are egocentric, they are focused on themselves.
Egocentrism is the inability to see things from another person's point of view. That's why
they talk to themselves frequently.

Concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years) Children can think logically but not
abstractly. They are less egocentric. You can classify, manipulate numbers, deal with
concepts of time and space, and distinguish reality from fantasy. They take into account
all aspects of a situation and realize that most physical operations are reversible. His
thinking is still anchored in the here and now; It is tied to particular situations. They
cannot easily apply the same basic mental operation to a different situation, they cannot
transfer.
 Stage of formal or abstract operations (12 and up) The young person can think in
abstract terms and face hypothetical situations. You can face problems in an organized
way, test possible hypotheses and imagine different possibilities. Their thinking is more
scientific and capable of using hypothetical deductive reasoning.

According to Piaget, there are three principles that operate or act at all stages of cognitive
growth. Cognitive organization-organize knowledge to understand what surrounds us to
make sense of the world. Progress is made from simpler structures to more complex ones.
As more information is available, the organization becomes more complex.

Assimilation (modification/accommodation)-It is the ability to include or locate new

information within an existing cognitive structure. (Ex: the baby modifies his mouth
movement to drink milk from the bottle).

Equilibrium-balance or harmony between the organism and the outside world and
between the cognitive elements within the organism.

Humanistic Theory

Humanists emphasize that human nature is neutral or good and that any bad
characteristics are the result of the harm that has been inflicted on the human being in his
development. People are capable of taking charge of their lives and stimulating their own
positive and healthy development through the exercise of the human capacities to choose,
create and self-actualize.

Abraham Maslow-Identified a hierarchy of needs that motivates human behavior. He said

that only when people have satisfied their elementary needs do they fight to fulfill higher
needs.

Hierarchy of Needs:

Physiological needs-hunger, thirst

Need for security-roof, work, feeling protected, out of danger

Need for belonging and love-to relate to others, to be accepted and be part of a group

Need for self-esteem - to feel that you have achieved goals, that you are competent, that
you are approved and recognized

Need for self-actualization-finding satisfaction in realizing one's own potential and

actualizing or developing the same
 Self-actualized person-Perceives reality in an adequate, realistic way. She accepts
herself and others. It is spontaneous (it is authentic, without masks). She has the ability to
solve problems and manage herself. You frequently experience great emotions (richness
of emotional reactions), you desire periods of intimacy and solitude. He identifies with
other human beings. It has a democratic character. She is creative and has a deep sense of
values.

Charlotte Bühler-Developed her theory of human development focused on achieving

personal goals. He argued that self-actualization is the key to healthy development and
that unhappy people feel this way because, in some way, they have not fulfilled
themselves.

Carl Rogers-Emphasizes the importance of man himself. Through the interaction between
the person and their environment, the individual develops the concept of self. This
contributes to achieving self-realization. His book , The Process of Becoming a Person ,
describes the characteristics of the self-actualized person.

Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Lev Vygotsky-His theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and support in
cognitive development. Considers that cognitive development depends much more on the
people in the child's world; insists that children's knowledge, ideas, attitudes and values
develop through interactions with others. He thought that culture and language play very
important roles in cognitive development.

Role of language and private speech-According to Vygotsky, language is critical to

cognitive development because it provides a means to express ideas and ask questions.
He believed that language in the form of private speech (egocentric/talking to oneself),
guides cognitive development. Children do this (private speech), to guide their behavior
and thinking, and gradually, they internalize these verbalizations.

Vygotsky believed that children's thinking (cognition) and language (speech) begin as
separate functions, but become intimately connected during the preschool years as
children learn to use language as a mechanism for thinking. Children initially acquire
much of their cultural knowledge through open speech (conversations with others,
parents, teachers, etc.). As they mature, talking to themselves disappears, they begin to
speak in whispers and then make silent lip movements. As it helps students regulate their
thinking, it is important to encourage students to use private speech at school.

Assisted Learning-Other people provide the child with the information and support
necessary to grow intellectually, that is scaffolding (like a scaffold), as Jerome Bruner
called it. It involves providing information, stimuli, examples and then gradually
allowing students to do more on their own.

Zone of proximal development-It is the area in which the child cannot solve a problem on
his or her own, but can do so with the guidance of an adult or in collaboration with other
 older peers. It refers to the extent of knowledge and skills that students are not yet ready
to learn on their own but could learn with the help of teachers.

 Piaget (biological approach) emphasized the child's solitary explorations of the

environment. For him, knowledge is the result of the interaction between the environment
and the person experiencing it. Knowledge is the result of continuous construction.
Highlights the role of experience in learning.

 Vygotsky (sociocultural approach) Emphasizes the influence of the social environment

on cognitive development. Emphasizes the role that social interaction plays in the
learning process. Human development is inseparable from social and cultural activities.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Heteronomous morality (coarctation) 7-10 years

It is subject to external laws or rules.

He judges rigidly, he sees no middle ground.

Consider the rules to be unalterable, sacred and absolute.

He cannot put himself in someone else's shoes, he does not see others' points of
view.

Judge actions by their real physical consequences.

He feels that the punishment has to be severe.

Autonomous morality (cooperation) 10 years and older

It is more flexible; sees that the rules can be changed or modified.

Judge by the intention behind the action, not by the consequences.

You can put yourself in the shoes of others and see different points of view.

It favors moderate punishment that allows reparation.

He does not confuse natural misfortunes with punishments.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development (three levels of moral reasoning)

Preconventional morality (4-10 years)

Children judge based on their personal needs.

Children obey others' rules to avoid punishment.

They consider the goodness or badness of an action by its physical consequences.

They follow the rules out of interest, to obtain prizes or rewards from others.

Conventional or conformity morality (10-13 years)

Children base their judgments on social norms and traditional values.

Children obey rules because they want to please other people.

They obey to maintain order and good relationships with others.

They have internalized the rules a bit.

They want to be considered good and be approved by others.

They begin to be able to judge the intentions of others and develop their own ideas of
what it means to be good.

They care about fulfilling their duty, respecting higher authority and maintaining social
order.

Post-conventional morality or autonomous moral principles (13 years-adulthood)

It is the achievement of true morality; It is internal; the rules have been

internalized.

If there is a conflict between moral norms, he is capable of choosing between them.

It takes into account individual rights; people think in rational terms, valuing the desire of
the majority and the well-being of society.

People do what they as individuals consider right, regardless of legal restrictions or the
opinions of others.

They act according to internalized norms and blame themselves if they don't.
 They are based on what individual conscience dictates; they imply abstract concepts of
justice, human dignity, equality, etc.

Some ideas about physical and intellectual development (general aspects)

The human brain grows most rapidly during gestation and for approximately the
first two months after birth. Brain plasticity continues throughout most of life; That is
why it is important to stimulate the brain with enriching experiences.

Neonate-

Information processing method - Younger babies have “visual recognition memory”, that
is, the ability to remember and recognize something they have seen before.

Language development (young children)

1. Prelinguistic speech-variety of sounds (cooing/babbling) Around 6 weeks, babies make

squeals and vocal sounds. Around 6 months they babble making simple sounds
(ma,ma,ta, ta, ta). Then they imitate sounds they hear.

2. Linguistic speech-the first word is given around the first year. At the beginning it uses a
single syllable “ma”, which is a holophrase, because it expresses a complete thought in a
single word. The first sentence (combination of words) occurs before turning 2 years old.
They say only what is necessary to be understood (they simplify). They overgeneralize
rules, applying them quickly without exception, that's why they say nonsense like “pony”
(puse). They understand grammatical relationships that they cannot yet express.

An average newborn is about 20 inches long at birth and weighs about 7 pounds. Birth
size depends on race, sex, parental size, and mother's nutrition. Children grow faster
during their first three years than they will grow later in life.

Early sensory abilities-From birth, a normal infant's senses function and develop rapidly.

Touch = It may be the sense that develops earliest. Babies respond quickly when touched
near their mouth.

Taste = Neonates can discriminate between different flavors.

Smell = A few days after birth, they recognize the mother's smell.

Hearing=Newborns turn their heads toward sounds.

Sight = Neonates blink at lights and change their gaze to follow the light.

Early motor development - Neonates turn their heads, kick, and move their arms although
they do not yet have control over their own movements. Locomotion-After 3 months the
baby begins to roll over. Between 5 and 6 months he sits without being supported. At 6
months, he begins to crawl. At 11 or 12 months he begins to stand well. In the first year,
they walk well and at 2 years old they climb stairs, run and jump. At 3 they can balance
on one foot and jump on one leg. The greatest motor achievement of childhood is
walking.

Simple Learning-habituation is the process of having used a sound or stimulus, which

causes the baby to lose interest and decrease its response to it. It involves an alteration of
behavior based on experience. Babies can distinguish new and familiar sounds.

Self-awareness - Arises around 18 months and is the understanding that they are separate
beings from other people and things. At this age, self-recognition also occurs, which is
the ability to recognize one's own image.

Early childhood (3-6 years) “age of first friends”

At this stage they can remember, reason and speak better. At this stage they make
great progress in their motor development. At these ages (3-6), they may want to be left
with a favorite cloth or toy, which are transitional objects (they help them become more
independent). Sometimes they may have night fears. At this age they have developed
perception skills and their language has improved. They improve their ability to use
symbols and manipulate concepts of time and space. They have a limited memory span
and tend to remember only the last thing they saw. Children use words like “because” and
“therefore.” Between 4 and 5, sentences average 4 to 5 words. Between 5 and 6 the
sentences are 6 to 8 words.

Play-Through play, children grow, learn how to use their muscles, coordinate what they
see with what they do, gain control over their bodies, discover what the world is like and
what they are like, stimulate their senses, acquire new skills and They learn how to use
them. The game can be: social (interaction with other children), cognitive (they progress
through play, first repetitive, then constructive “use of blocks” and finally it is
imaginative, which marks the beginning of the preoperational stage.
Parenting Methods-Some parents repeat the parenting patterns they used with them,
others do not. For punishment to be effective, it must be proportional to the offense that
has been committed, it must be immediate, consistent (today he is punished and
tomorrow also for the same offense), physical punishment must be the last resort to be
used and must be given an explanation to the child why he is being punished.

Parenting styles-

Authoritarian: They are less loving, they value control and obedience. Children can be
insecure, distrustful and distant.

Permissive: They value self-regulation (children controlling themselves). They demand

little from their children, they do not demand them. When they go to preschool, they may
be unexploring, insecure, immature and with little self-control.

Democratic: They respect the individuality of their children, but consider it important to
transmit social values. They are affectionate, consistent and respectful of their children's
decisions. Their children live happier lives, they are explorers, assertive and active.

Preadolescence (6-12 years)

Development at this stage is slow and steady. There are great physical differences
at these ages (some are chubby, skinny, tall and short). They are stronger, faster and more
coordinated. Body weight doubles. It is an age in which a lot of television is watched,
hence there are many children with obesity problems. Motor skills improve greatly; They
run faster, jump higher and have more strength to throw objects. This is the stage of
concrete operations. The ability to remember improves greatly in preadolescence. At this
time they develop the skill of metamemory, which is the understanding of how memory
processes work (they use techniques to remember; mnemonic strategies: handwriting,
making notes, etc.).

Self-concept: Pre-adolescence is a very important time for the development of self-

esteem or self-image. Self-awareness is the realization that we are different beings from
other people and other things, that we have the ability to reflect on ourselves and our
actions. (as it appears in the Education brochure 328)

Self-recognition-At 18 months the child recognizes himself in the mirror or in a photo.

Self-definition-The child describes himself according to some characteristics:
(external/internal)

External-Described in physical terms. Ex: I am blonde and I like to play.

Internal-They are described in psychological terms. Develops the concept of what he is

(real self) and what he would like to be (ideal self).

Coordination of self-regulation and social regulation-At school age, the child interacts
with more people; has more responsibilities at home and at school; It has to comply with
more regulations. This leads you to begin regulating your behavior, not only to get what
you need and want, but also to satisfy the needs and desires of other people. During this
process he learns what it means to be a friend or companion.

Preteens worry about being popular and accepted in their group of friends. At this age,
parental divorce can be traumatic.

Conditions that can occur in preteens:

Enuresis-“wetting the bed”. It can occur due to stress, separation from parents, the birth
of a sibling, hereditary, physiological factors (small bladder), lack of maturation of the
nervous system, among others.

Tics-involuntary repetitive movements (blinking, gesturing, etc.). They can be caused by

tension.

Stuttering-involuntary repetition of syllables. It may be temporary. It is due to physical

factors (articulation) or emotional factors (parental pressure to talk).

Preteens can go through emotional disturbances, such as theatrical or antisocial behavior,

anxiety, phobias and depression.

Adolescence (12-20 years)

Transition period in development between childhood and adulthood. In girls it

begins around 10 years old and in boys between 12 and 13 years old. It ends around age
19 or 20. Adolescence begins with puberty, changes that lead to sexual maturity. There is
a sudden growth spurt in children (the famous growth spurt). Girls tend to be taller and
heavier than boys at first, but later they surpass them in both areas. Menstruation appears
in girls (menarche, first menstruation) and in boys there is the presence of sperm, as well
as other secondary sexual changes.

At this age, young people go through a conflict between the desire to find their individual
identity, to affirm their unique self, and the desire to be exactly like their friends. They
may go through a period of concern regarding their physique, which is why they could
suffer from eating disorders, such as bulimia (eating a lot and then vomiting), anorexia
nervosa (letting themselves "starve") or, on the contrary, fall into obesity. At this age they
are vulnerable to falling into drugs, alcoholism or suffering from venereal or sexually
transmitted diseases.

Early adulthood (20-40 years)

Time of great activity and making personal decisions regarding lifestyles,

profession, relationships, etc. Priorities are established and maturation continues in many
aspects. At 20 years old the body is fully developed. Between the ages of 25 and 30, the
maximum point of muscular strength is reached, and from the age of 30 it begins to
decline. People of this age should maintain a good diet to prevent heart disease. The
organization of the person is essential to avoid stress, which is the physiological and
psychological reaction of the organism to the demands made on it. There is a stress that is
essential and invigorating, eustress (it drives us to continue fighting). Distress is bad,
because it causes hypertension, heart attacks, ulcers, etc.

Intellectual Development-Horn and Cattell established the difference between

crystallized and fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence, characterized by the ability to
process new information, is what young people possess. Crystallized intelligence is what
older people possess because it is the ability to remember and use learned information
and therefore depends more on education and cultural experience. That is, it depends on
the use of stored information to solve problems and generate new alternatives. Robert
Sternberg indicates that there are three different aspects of intelligence that each person
has to a greater or lesser degree. These are :

The component element or critical-central aspect of intelligence (analytical part) serves to

indicate how problems should be approached, how to solve them, how to monitor and
evaluate the results.

The experience or empirical element is about facing new tasks and proposing new ways
of integrating data.

The contextual or practical element-ability to adapt and act in the environment.

Postformal Thinking-adult thinking is flexible, open and adaptive; It goes beyond abstract
or formal logic. Postformal thinking is based on subjectivity and intuition, as well as
logic and acquired experience. There are two experiences that contribute to moral
development, university and work.

The two main approaches to adult development are: the normative crisis model and the
event programming model. From 20 to 30 years old, people worry about consolidating
their careers, obtaining promotions, etc. Around age 40, they stop thinking compulsively
about work and become explorers of their inner world (How have I lived until now?). The
event programming model analyzes how people respond specifically to certain events and
the times in which they occur. This is where normative and non-normative events come
in. In early adulthood, the following events may be faced: marriage, motherhood and
fatherhood, domestic violence, divorce, cohabitation (cohabitation), male or female
sterility, and the possibility of adoption.

Middle Adulthood (40-65 years)

This is the “generation of command,” because they are the people who occupy
leadership positions in the government and in private companies. It is a time of taking
inventories; what has been done so far and what has been achieved is reevaluated. In this
stage there is physical wear and tear, which is characterized by changes in motor and
sensory abilities. In women, menopause occurs, which is a biological event in which the
woman stops ovulating and menstruating and can no longer conceive more children. Men
go through what is known as the climacteric, a period of cyclical fluctuations in hormone
production.

Intellectual Development-Older people use crystallized intelligence (stored information).

There is no evidence of decline in intellectual functioning before age 60. Hence, the
number of older people who are returning to university has increased. People of this age
can also go through a period of stress from “burn out” in their work. Some call this stage
the “mid-life crisis”, which explains the great tensions that can be experienced at those
ages (40-65 years).

According to Erickson, people feel the need to participate in the continuation of life, that
is, they feel an interest in contributing and being productive, otherwise they stagnate and
become inactive.

Couples of this age must deal with the crises of teenage children.

Late Adulthood (65 and older)

For many who are prejudiced, old age is a period of weakness, inability, and
narrow-mindedness. Scientific advances have extended life expectancy, therefore there
are older people today than in previous times. Old age is a complex process influenced by
heredity, nutrition, health and environmental factors and it is not known exactly why
people's bodies function less efficiently as they age.

Intellectual Development-There appears to be a decrease in fluid abilities while

crystallized abilities are maintained or increased. Many can benefit from memory training
programs (mnemonics). Ex: use of signs in the house to remember, etc. Older people
seem to perform better when they are introduced to the material little by little. At this
stage they face retirement, which can be rewarding if the person has prepared for it and
plans how they will use their free time. People have a desire to leave a legacy for their
 children or the world and a desire to transmit the fruits of their experience and give
meaning to their experiences.

Erikson-“The elderly feel the need to accept their life (the way they have lived) in order
to accept the proximity of death.”

Many struggle to achieve a sense of integrity and coherence in their lives; otherwise in
their life, otherwise they fall into despair as they find themselves unable to live
differently again. Those who achieve a sense of order and meaning in their lives. The
virtue that is developed is wisdom because the acceptance of the life that has been led
without great regrets for what could have been done differently.

Five stages in the death process:

1. Denial-Refusal to accept the reality of what is happening (saying “no, this can't be
happening to me).

2. Anger-Feeling anger towards others who are healthy despite being older or not good.

3. Search for extra time-Ask God to give you time to see the birth of a grandchild, the
graduation of a child, etc.

4. Depression-Feeling of sadness, discouragement, neglect due to the loss of your life.

5. Final Acceptance-Those who are satisfied with what they have done in their lives feel
peace.

Not all people go through these stages, some may even go through them in different
sequences.

Terms related to death:

Euthanasia-“mercy death” Deliberate action, executed with the purpose of taking a

person's life to end their suffering or to fulfill the wishes of a terminal patient. Euthanasia
is passive, when no treatment (medicines, tubes, etc.) is applied that could prolong the
patient's life.

Suicide-It has been increasing among the younger population (children and adolescents).

Suicide Warning Signs:

 Isolate yourself from family and friends, from work and other usual activities

Talk frequently about death

Gift valuable possessions

Alcohol and drug abuse

Changes in personality, unusual abandonment of physical appearance

Excess or lack of sleep or appetite

Feeling of inadequacy, exaggerated anxiety, panic, despair

Víktor Frankl-Developed the personalistic therapy known as “logotherapy”, to help

people find the meaning of life. Those who have found a great purpose in their life are
less afraid of dying.

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is a discipline whose objective is to understand the

teaching and learning processes to improve them. It studies the way people think and
learn, the factors that influence what they feel and do, the problems that arise in
classrooms in teacher-student interaction. Psychology provides us with a framework for:

Observe the comprehensive development (physical, intellectual, emotional and

social) of the student.

Analyze the learning process and the factors that facilitate or hinder it.

Apply learning and motivation development theories.

Select teaching methods, classroom management techniques and strategies that contribute
to creating enriching environments that stimulate learning.

Promote the development of a social dynamic that encourages the growth of tolerance,
collaborative work, responsibility, self-regulation, creativity, effective communication,
decision making and solid and meaningful interpersonal relationships.

Four key elements of the teaching and learning process:

1. Characteristics of the students-Each student is unique and different. (motivation,

expectations, needs, behavioral patterns, etc.).
2. Characteristics of teachers-Attitudes of teachers towards themselves, students and the
teaching and learning process.

3. The teaching strategies used in the classroom-It is important to know the learning theories,
teaching methods, instructional models, etc.

4. The curricular subjects that are taught-It is important to know the subject that is going to be
taught.

Theorists:

William James-First to consider psychology as an independent discipline. In the 19th

century, this was part of philosophy. James is considered one of the fathers of American
psychology. He studied the process of teaching and learning. He was the first to express
the importance of individualized teaching in which the teacher must adjust his methods to
the needs of the learner and not to the expectations that he himself has about the interests
of his disciples. He defined psychology as the science of mental life.

Edward Thorndike-Considered as one of the first educational scientists. He believed that

to understand the learning process it was much more scientific to experiment with
animals in a laboratory than to observe children in the classroom.

He was interested in trial and error learning and the connection between stimulus and
response. He demonstrated that transfer in learning “only occurs when the elements of
one situation are identical or very similar to those of another.” (transfer=I apply what I
learned in a previous experience to another very similar one. ).

John Dewey-Maximum exponent of Pragmatism (Progressivism). He believed that

learning cannot be studied abstractly, that it must be interpreted in the context in which it
occurs. (It means that in each educational environment there may be particular situations
and that we cannot study them by generalizing the facts or staying only with the theory;
each case is different). He emphasized that educational activities should be based on the
interests and abilities of the students. He was one of the first to see education as an
interactive process in which the child constructs his knowledge.
Maxime Greene-Educational philosopher. Consider teaching is the art of doing
philosophy. It emphasizes that education should foster the growth of students, helping
them to be more reflective, tolerant, pluralistic, socially responsible, and able to make
decisions freely.

Self-image and Teaching:

Self-image is what we think we are or have. It is the set of thoughts, feelings,

expectations and fears that each man has regarding himself. In other words, it is what one
feels or thinks about oneself.

The teacher's commitment:

Teachers can go through three stages:

Excitement stage-You feel happy and motivated, you see that the students respond to you
and you work with enthusiasm.

Stage of disillusionment-You feel that the children do not respond as you imagined, you
see that the parents do not take care of you and you wonder if this is your true vocation.

Relusion Stage-Reflect and regain your commitment in a more realistic way.

Learning styles:

Sensory and Perceptive Children-They need freedom to act. They like the “good life” and
often drop out of school. They love risk, competition, action and entertainment. They
learn easily with videos, audiocassettes and computers. They develop a deep sense of
loyalty towards their peers. They rebel against all authority and often misbehave. They
hate routine and prefer everything that involves activity (theater, music, art, crafts,
mechanics, etc.). They tend to be unstable and often do not finish what they start. They
don't like writing, but if something visual is added to the verbal, then they learn, because
this keeps them interested. They don't like lectures, the Socratic method of asking
questions, workbooks, or assignments.
 Sensory-Judgmental Children-They love to belong to groups, they are responsible,
reliable, helpful and do their duty. They see the teacher as an authority figure, so they
please and accept him. They don't question the rules. They need the material to be
presented to them in a structured way, and to be given clear and precise instructions
because then they know what is expected of them. They prefer questions and answers
(Socratic method). They are obedient and like to belong to student organizations. They do
not like to improvise, speculate, guess or invent.

Intuitive-Thinking Children-They long to feel and know themselves competent. They

love to command, build, structure and invent. They love to analyze the why of things.
They have great intellectual curiosity, they tend to learn on their own and seek all
information that satisfies their thirst to understand things. Some who are very introverted
may feel very alone in the room. If he is very intelligent, he needs to be helped to
appreciate and acquire other qualities in addition to intellectual ones (eg, those of social
interaction).

His excessive ambition to know everything can lead him to an obsession with studying
and forgetting to be distracted. He is extremely vulnerable to failure and demands more
of himself every day. They appear cold and insensitive. Physically punishing such a child
is very dangerous because their sense of justice and dignity would be offended, and they
would also harbor great resentment. These children respond well to dialogue and accept
their mistakes.

Intuitive-Emotive Children-They constantly desire to deepen their knowledge of

themselves and experience their identity as people. In this group are the future
charismatic figures of society and idealists. They are extremely sensitive and are affected
by very tense situations. To grow they need affection, recognition, personal attention and
intimacy. They need the teacher to know their name, recognize it and motivate them to
keep going. He loves to interact with others. Learn a lot through the discussion method,
role playing, sociodramas and fictional literature. His vocabulary is extensive. They can
stay alone if they are not helped to establish friendship (if they are very introverted). He
identifies with the pain of others and prefers subjects that deal with people (liberal
arts/humanities), rather than science or mathematics.

 It is important for each teacher to understand that he and each of his students has a
particular temperament that must be respected.

Self-concept, Self-esteem and School Life:

Self-concept helps us understand ourselves, regulate and direct our behavior, and
make decisions about what we are going to do and be in the future. The sense of self
develops gradually.
 Self-awareness process:

1. Self-recognition - around 18 months the child recognizes himself in a mirror or in a photo.

2. External self-definition - around 3 years old they are described according to physical
characteristics.

3. Internal or psychological self-definition - It begins at age 6, when they have a certain

notion of the characteristics of their personality, their feelings, etc.

4. Towards preadolescence-They begin to harmonize their self-concept with the concept that
others have of them. They include interpersonal characteristics and social qualities in
their self-concept (they describe themselves as friendly, cooperative, generous). They
harmonize social demands (what is expected of them) with personal demands (what they
want).

5. In adolescence-They define their personal identity and make vocational decisions, about
their lifestyle and interpersonal relationships, etc.

Self-esteem-It is the evaluation of our own self-concept. If the person has a positive self-
concept, their self-esteem will be high. Children's opinion of themselves has a great
impact on their personality development. A child with high self-esteem will perform
better in school.

Intelligence- Ability to learn, the knowledge that has been acquired, the ability to adapt
to new situations, the ability to solve problems and generate new alternatives.

Spearman-Suggested that there is a general intelligence, but that there are also specific
abilities and that individuals vary in both. He considered that both factors determine
performance on mental tasks.

Thurstone-He pointed out primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, memory,

reasoning, ability to visualize spatial relationships, numerical ability, ease of speech and
perceptual speed.

Guilford proposed that there are three basic categories or phases of the intellect: mental
operations, content, and products.

Among the mental operations are:

a) cognition-recognizing old information and discovering new

b) convergent thinking-where only one answer or solution is given (true or false)

c) divergent thinking-when several possible responses are produced

d) evaluation-decisions related to how appropriate or not something is

e) memory registration-immediate memory

f) memory retention-what is remembered after several days

Content is what we think. It is subdivided into visual and auditory content, meaning of
words, symbols and behaviors.

Final products-results of our thinking; They can be units, classes, systems, implications,
transformations, etc.

Sternberg-Promotes the trifunctional theory of intelligence. Defines mental skills as:

1. Analytical intelligence-ability to think abstractly, process information and determine what

needs to be done. The tasks that this component measures are: analogies, syllogisms,
vocabulary, etc.

2. empirical intelligence-ability to formulate new ideas and combine unrelated facts; ability
to handle new tasks; It is related to experiences.

3. contextual intelligence-ability to adapt to a changing environment and shape one's world to

optimize opportunities; It is the individual's ability to solve problems in specific or
practical situations. (I put it into practice).

How is intelligence measured?

Psychometric method-Tries to measure intelligence in terms of quantity. Alfred

Binet and Theodore Simon designed a test to measure intelligence in numerical
categories, the Stanford-Binet scale is based on the one they prepared. IQ is obtained by
dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.

IQ= ME x 100

E.C.

Piagetian method-His method describes qualitatively different stages in cognitive

development; describes how the child thinks at each stage from childhood to adolescence.

Vocabulary:

1. qualitatively-“qualities” refers to aspects that cannot be assigned a numerical value

2. quantitatively-refers to data or aspects that can be quantified, that is, they can be given a
numerical value

3. deductive-goes from the general to the particular

4. inductive-goes from the particular to the general

5. convergent-a single answer or alternative

6. divergent-several alternatives; Teachers should promote divergent thinking among their

students for problem solving.

Multiple intelligences:

Fairly recent theory (1993). It is a pluralistic view of the mind that recognizes
many different facets of cognition, taking into account that people have different
cognitive potentials. The promoter of this theory is Howard Gardner, who proposes a
concept of an individual-centered school that takes into account this multifaceted vision
of intelligence. Gardner defined 7 types of intelligence:

1. linguistics-Ability exhibited by poets and writers. They like to talk, write and read. They
are expressed orally and in writing. Understand and enjoy word games. (actors, speakers,
historians and politicians)

2. logical-mathematical-Scientific ability, which deals with inductive and deductive thinking,

with numerical and abstract patterns. He is good at problem solving and can remember
formulas and strategies.

3. spatial-Ability to form a mental model of a spatial world. It is characterized by easily

creating mental images; have a good sense of direction and understanding of maps; he
likes to paint; draw, work with clay, etc. (sailors, sculptors, surgeons, architects and
painters)

4. musical-Ability to recognize tones, sounds, rhythms and beats. He likes to compose

melodies. He whispers as he walks, taps with his fingers or a pencil as he works. You can
remember songs easily.

5. corporal and kinetics-Ability to solve problems or produce a product, using the body or
parts of it. They are good at sports, they like to show others how things are done. They
have difficulty sitting still and use body gestures to express themselves. (mimes,
gymnasts, dancers, athletes)

6. interpersonal-Ability to understand others (empathy = putting yourself in the other's

place). He is good at listening and communicating with others. You are sensitive to the
feelings of others and can work as a team. (religious leaders, psychologists, social
workers, doctors, teachers and salespeople)
7. intrapersonal-Capacity oriented inward, towards introspection, ability to form a true model
of oneself. He looks for the meaning of things, he is very intuitive, self-reflective and
conscientious. He constantly asks questions, he has an avid curiosity. He is individualistic
and independent, he is not concerned about the opinions of others; “live your life.” It is
the most private of intelligences.

The seven intelligences have the same degree of importance. The intellect is pluralistic (it
is not uniform, it is not always the same). Intelligences work together in people to solve
problems. We don't all learn the same way; Therefore, education cannot be
unidimensional (a single direction or approach) but must be pluralistic.

Learning:

It is the process in which one or more experiences produce a relatively permanent

change in a person's knowledge or behavior. For it to be learning, the change has to be
the result of the experience of a person's interaction with their environment (the
environment around them, other people, etc.). Changes that are due only to maturation
(growth, aging) are not classified as learning. Nor are changes related to illness, fatigue
or hunger.

Cognitive psychologists think that learning is an internal mental activity that

cannot be directly observed. Behavioral psychologists consider the outcome of learning
to be behavioral change and emphasize the effects of external events on the individual.

First explanations of learning-

1. Contiguity-Aristotle pointed out that we remember things together when they are similar,
when they are different, and when they are contiguous. Whenever two or more sensations
occur together frequently enough, they will become associated. Contiguity is the
association of two events as a consequence of repetition.

2. Classical Conditioning-It is the association of automatic responses with new stimuli.

Pavlov identified three processes in classical conditioning:

a) Generalization-Respond in the same way to similar stimuli. (dog salivated at a high tone
and also at a lower one).

b) Discrimination-Respond differently to similar but not identical stimuli. (you can

differentiate them or recognize a certain difference)

c) Extinction-Gradual disappearance of a learned response. It is extinguished because if a

conditioned stimulus (tone) is presented several times but is not followed by the
unconditioned stimulus (food), the response (salivation) disappears.

3. Operant Conditioning-We learn to behave in certain ways as we operate (deliberate

actions) on the environment. This can be seen as antecedent (situation that occurs),
 behavior (action that is carried out) and the consequence or result of that action. The
consequences determine whether or not that person repeats the behavior.

Types of consequences: (that strengthen the behavior)

a) Reinforcement-reward. It is any consequence that strengthens the behavior that follows.

(they strengthen the associated behavior) It can be positive, which occurs when the
behavior produces a new stimulus. It can be negative when the consequence that
strengthens the behavior is the disappearance of a stimulus.

b) Punishment-It involves reducing or suppressing a behavior. It can be two ways.

1.Punishment by presentation-Occurs when the appearance of a stimulus that follows the

behavior suppresses or reduces the behavior. Ex: when teachers assign additional work.
The chances of a behavior occurring again are reduced by the suppression of a
pleasurable stimulus following the behavior.

2. Punishment for suppression-Involves the suppression of a stimulus. Ex: When a parent

removes privileges after his or her child has behaved inappropriately, the punishment for
suppression is being applied. Reduces the chances of a behavior occurring again.

When people are learning a new behavior, they do it sooner if they are reinforced each
time they give the correct response. (so they stay that way)

Methods to encourage behaviors-(important to analyze the exam cases)

a) Reinforce through the teacher's attention-Emphasize the positive aspects; That is, praise
them for their good behavior and ignore mistakes and inappropriate behavior. (this is
recommended by psychologists, but is not accepted by all teachers)

For the praise to be effective it must:

- be contingent on the behavior that is going to be reinforced

- clearly specify the behavior that is reinforced

- be credible

b) Premack's Principle-States that a preferred activity can function as a reinforcer for a less
preferred activity. “First do the assignment and then you can go to the park.” The activity
they like least should be done first, for it to be effective.

c) Modeling-Involves reinforcing progress instead of expecting perfection. When students

make a mistake, the teacher should have them correct it as soon as possible and practice
the correct response.

Alternatives to modify undesirable behavior-

1. Negative reinforcement-It is not considered a punishment, because the emphasis is on

strengthening specific behaviors. Ex: “When you put your things in order, we will go out
to recess.” Since the consequence involves suppressing or removing a stimulus,
reinforcement is negative. Here students have the opportunity to exercise control because
as soon as they present the appropriate behavior, the unpleasant situation ends.

2. Satiety-Let students continue the behavior until they get tired of doing it. This can be
very dangerous. This may be allowed if the undesirable behavior does not interfere with
the rest of the group.

4. Reprimands-Scolding a problematic student in private can be very effective. If you scold a

student who misbehaved loudly in front of the group, he continues to do so because he
got your attention.

5. Cost of response-Losing some privilege or benefit for having violated a rule. Ex: The first
time the teacher gives you a warning, the second time he can put a mark on the grade
record; The third time, he loses recess time for each mark accumulated.

6. Social Isolation-It is separating the student from the rest of the group for a short period of
time. “time out”

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura-Distinguishes (difference) between the acquisition of knowledge

(learning) and the observable execution of that knowledge (behavior). Ex: children may
have learned something but may do poorly on an exam due to factors associated with the
environment and personal factors (thinking and motivation), which influence the learning
process.

Observational Learning-You learn by observing and imitating other people. There are
two forms of observational learning:
a) Indirect reinforcement-When we see other people being rewarded or punished for some
action, we modify our behavior to obtain that reward or avoid punishment.

b) Imitation of the model's behavior - The imitator wants to resemble the admired model,
which may be real, fictitious or some stereotype. (an actor, comic book character, etc.)

4 important elements in observational learning:

1. Pay attention-Children imitate famous TV characters, etc.

2. Retention-To imitate a model you have to remember it. (sequence of steps and practice,
help us remember)

3. Production-Reproduce the behavior of the model (put it into practice)

4. Motivation and reinforcement-A new skill or behavior can be acquired through

observation, but we may not put it into practice until there is some motivation or
incentive to do so.

Observational Learning in Teaching:

a) Teaching new behaviors-Modeling is used to teach new subjects, etc., and if the models
are the same age as the students, it is more effective. (interaction between peers or
equals).

b) Promotion of already learned behaviors-Observing other people gives us an idea of what

we should do. Ex: in a restaurant, I see others eating and I can know what utensil to use
for the salad, etc.

c) Strengthening or weakening inhibitions-In a class where one student is popular and breaks
the rules and gets his way, the others will do the same. This is the ripple effect, in which
the behavior of a leader is imitated. (Emilio character in the movie “Dangerous Minds”)

d) Direction of attention-Ex: A previously ignored toy is used again when children see that a
peer has been playing with it enthusiastically.

e) Provoking emotion-Ex: A child who sees another fall from a swing may become afraid of
them.
 Vocabulary:

1. self-management-Helping students achieve control of their own learning.

2. Self-regulation-Help students learn to manage their lives, set their own goals, develop
study habits, take responsibility, etc.

Behaviorists vs Cognitivists:

Behaviorists-They consider that learning is a product of stimuli that come from the
environment. For them, people react passively to events in the environment. They carry
out animal studies in laboratories. They did not take individual differences into account.

Cognitivists-They consider learning as an active mental process that consists of

acquiring, remembering and using knowledge. They proved that we plan our responses,
use systems that help us remember, and organize material in different ways.

Vocabulary:

1.Metacognition-Knowledge about our thought processes. Awareness we have about how

our cognitive machinery works.

Memory Stores:

a) Sensory memory-Lasts from one to three seconds. Stimuli from the environment enter
through the senses (sensory/related to the senses).

-perception-meaning or interpretation that we attribute to sensory information

-attention-focus on a stimulus, we pay attention to something and select it

b) Short-term memory-Information is converted into sounds or images. Lasts 20 to 30

seconds. If there is interference, information may be lost.

c) Long-term memory-Permanent storage of knowledge.

.
 Why do some people learn faster than others?

1. Development-Metacognitive skills begin to develop around ages 5 and 7 and increase over
the years as the neurological system matures.

2. Biological differences or variations in learning experiences. (the ability to concentrate

varies)

3. Cultural differences

4. Cognitive and learning styles

Strategies to acquire new information:

1. Rote learning-Repeating information without understanding the meaning.

2. Mnemonic techniques-To remember; to improve our memory.

-loci-place method, relating concepts to specific places

-acronym-use the first letter of each word to remember PUCPR

-chain technique-Ex: the use of a rhyme

-keywords-associate new words or concepts with similar-sounding keywords.

Vocabulary:

meaningful learning-Present the material in a way that makes sense to children, organized
and associating terms known to them.

2.Understanding-Ability to acquire knowledge, skills and concepts and apply them

appropriately in new situations.

3.Problem Solving-Formulating new responses that go beyond the application of

previously learned rules to create a solution.

4.Creativity-Solve problems, design products and define new questions and alternatives.

 Incubation process-It is “taking it to sleep”; That is to say, the person thinks and
reflects before making a decision. (I get away from the problem for a while)
 Discovery Learning-Emphasizes that students work on their own to discover basic
principles. (Bruner)

Receptive learning - Postulates that learning is received and not discovered. (Ausubel)

Motivation-Internal state that activates, directs and maintains behavior. (what gives us
energy, etc.)

a) Internal motivation-It is derived from internal or intrinsic factors. When we are

intrinsically motivated we do not need rewards or punishments to do things.

b) External motivation-When we do something to obtain rewards, avoid punishments, etc.

Ex: little stars, congratulatory stamps, receiving a raise, etc.

Theorists and Motivation:

Behavioral Perspective-Skinner, key theorist. Explains motivation as a reward and

incentive. (reward is after the behavior; a note or a candy) (incentive is before the
behavior discourages it or not/ I do it or I don't do it)

Humanistic Perspective-Maslow, Rogers and Deci. They emphasize that people have the
innate need to self-actualize and self-determine. For them, motivation is intrinsic. They
believe that motivating students is fostering their internal resources.

Cognitive Perspective-They emphasize intrinsic motivation. They do not believe that

people respond to external events (punishment or reward). Our behavior is determined by
our thinking. We act because we want to seek information to solve problems.

Social Learning Perspective-Bandura. They emphasize intrinsic motivation. Motivation is

a product of the individual's expectations and the value of the goal to him. If I think I
have the opportunity to achieve something good, then the motivation is going to be
strong.

Goals-What an individual strives to achieve. These can be:

1. Learning goal-I do my work regardless of the grade or evaluation that my classmates have.
2. Performance goal-When the student focuses on how he or she will be evaluated. Compete
with others, etc.

Teacher expectations also influence children's learning. This is called the Pygmalion
effect because the student's progress will depend on the expectations that the teacher has
of him. Little can be demanded of a student, because not much is expected of him.

Characteristics of the classrooms and the Discipline in them:

a) The rooms are multidimensional-Different people who must share under certain conditions.

b) There is simultaneity-Everything happens at the same time; teacher attending to many

things.

c) Immediacy-The pace of life in the classroom is fast.

d) Events are unpredictable-Something sudden can happen with a child.

e) Classes are public-The teacher's actions are seen and judged by everyone.

f) Classrooms have history-What has been happening during the previous days affects life in
the classroom.

Important:

Establish appropriate academic and behavioral standards for students. Give clear
instructions. Anticipate problems and avoid them before they start.

Educational Philosophy

Philosophy means, “love of wisdom.” "It is the rational and objective study of the
being of man, of the universe and of the relationship between these two entities."
 (Riestra, 1992) Philosophy arises from man's natural need to ask the why of things.
Philosophy is a science because it has a set of knowledge, it uses reason as a means to
seek answers and the methodology it uses is objective, orderly and systematic.

Functions of philosophy:

1. speculative-Examine carefully what exists, observe, contemplate and meditate on beings,

on what is.

2. analytical and critical-Reflect on each of the elements or parts. (decompose something to

understand it).

3. prescriptive and normative-Reaches conclusions, offers recommendations about what is

ideal, gives norms about what should be, about what we understand to be correct or not,
etc.

Branches of philosophy:

a) Metaphysics-Study of the being of man and the universe. Analysis of the ultimate nature
of reality. “being”-ultimate reality.

b) Epistemology-Theory of knowledge. Study if it is possible to know, how we know, how

we can reach the truth, etc.

c) Axiology-It is the study of value. (relative or absolute, objective or subjective values)

d) Ethics-Study of the basic criteria on which we base ourselves to make judgments about
what is right or wrong, fair or unfair.

e) Aesthetics-Theory of beauty. Study the criteria on which we base ourselves to judge the
beautiful and the ugly.

f) Logic-Studies the rules of exact thinking.

Thales of Miletus-Originator of philosophy; Greece year 585.

Philosophy can be considered the “mother of all sciences”, it uses a scientific and
less subjective approach than that used by primitive peoples, which was essentially
mythological. Philosophy is based on reason, unlike theology which is based on faith and
 tradition. Philosophy interprets and delivers the data discovered by other sciences.
Science studies facts; Philosophy judges and values them.

Possibility of knowing. Can you know or not? :

1. Agnostics-They considered that it is not possible to know. (They contradict themselves

when they say this, because when they say that it is not possible to know, they indicate
that they know something.)

2. Skeptics-They doubt whether it is possible to know or not.

3. The dogmatic-absolutists-They affirm that it can be known because there is an absolute,

sacred and immutable truth independent of man.

4. Relativistic scientists-They affirm that it is possible to know but insist that knowledge is
relative to time and space. For them the truth is relative.

Nature of Educational Philosophy:

Educational philosophy is the set of philosophical principles that serve as a

foundation when making educational decisions. It is a science that studies the
fundamental principles of a certain philosophical position and applies them to education.
It gives meaning or direction to education.

Nature of Education:

Education means to guide, to lead, to educate, to draw from the inside out. It comes
from the Latin “educ-ere”. Process of development of the individual, in which the
different faculties of men are developed. Formal education is that which is carried out in
a school or educational institution in a planned, structured and systematic manner.
Informal education is that provided by the family, the church, the community, etc., in an
incidental, spontaneous and unplanned manner.

Most important philosophical positions (general aspects):

Idealism:

Reality is mental in nature; It is an extension of consciousness. Reality is

subjective; it does not exist independently of the subject. It is pluralistic: it has a mental
element and another material element.

Plato-His concept of reality is dualistic. Reality is reduced to: a substance of a mental

nature (the ideas that are infinite, eternal and immutable) and a substance of a material
nature (the material objects, which are a reflection of the ideas).

Object of knowledge-(What we should know) ideas.

Way of knowing-Reason (the only instrument to transcend the world and reach true
knowledge.

Nature of man-A finite being with infinite potentialities; an essentially spiritual being.

Ideal man or model that we should aspire to form: the philosopher, who loves wisdom;
Seek truth and contemplate ideas.

Saint Augustine-His concept of reality is dualistic:

spiritual world (ideas and God) and corporeal or material world.

It has a teleological vision of reality (everything has a purpose, a function).

Object of knowledge-Ideas and God are inseparable.

Way of knowing-The reason and grace of God. (There are ideas that we cannot know due
to our limited reason; we need God to reveal or manifest those supernatural ideas to us)

Model man-He who transcends the carnal and sinful; the one who seeks God who is the
Supreme Truth and the Supreme Good, that is, the virtuous.

Pedagogical Implications:

Plato-
End of education-To actualize or realize the spiritual potential inherent in the child's
nature; develop your spiritual qualities; lead him to the maximum development of his
reason and to achieve ideas.

Curriculum-Physical culture (gymnastics), mathematics and dialectics.

Teacher-Guide the child to transcend from the sensible to the ideal, absolute, infinite.
You must seek the truth and love the beautiful.

Child development process-It is subjective, internal, active, personal

Dialectical Method: questions that help activate the child's mind; that lead you to
remember the innate ideas that you forgot.

Discipline-Should help develop self-discipline.

San Agustin-

End of education-Actualize the divine in the child.

Curriculum-Liberal arts, mathematics (to develop reason) and Holy Scriptures (to
develop faith).

Kant-End of education: Formation of moral character and will. The ultimate goal of
education should be the search for moral perfection. The child must recognize what his
duty is and act conscientiously.

Realism:

Reality is objective. Matter exists independently of mind. The real precedes all
human experience. Man can know the objects that exist outside of him using his reason.
Consider that the universe, reality is dualistic; It consists of a mental or spiritual element
and another physical or material element.

Aristotle:
Concept of reality-There are different ways of being or existing:

substance (exists independently)

accident (depends on the substance to exist, is inherent to the substance)

It has a teleological vision of the universe: everything is potentially, in process or in act.

Everything has a final, rational, logical purpose, a specific function. The universe is
constantly evolving from power to act.

Nature of man-It is the union of the body and the soul forming an indissoluble unit. The
body has potential life; the soul actualizes that potentiality. Man is a rational being;
Therefore, you must actualize that rational potential to the maximum.

Model man-The virtuoso who dedicates himself to the contemplative sciences; he loves
wisdom (he is a philosopher) but also, he practices goodness in real life situations (he is
prudent). Seek the truth and practice good.

Theory of knowledge-Knowing is discovering the essence of things. The mind is a “blank

slate” (it is blank). All knowledge begins through sensible experience; It begins through
the senses.

Pedagogical implications:

Aristotle:

End of education-The happiness of man. Education must seek the formation of a prudent
and virtuous man who is happy. (Happy is that he develops his potential to the maximum)
Education must create good habits in the individual so that he can develop.

Curriculum-Must be liberal; It should not include manual arts (which are typical of the
slave).

St Thomas:

Educate=Acquire knowledge and form character; update the potentialities of intelligence

and soul.

End of education-Man's pursuit of happiness. This happiness is achieved through the

union of the soul with God, transcending the material to the spiritual and eternal.

Role of the teacher-Provide experiences for the development of the individual's

capabilities; encourage the student to reason.
Scholastic-Method (present topic or theme; present objections; present arguments against
the objections; conclusion; refute the objections presented previously and give solutions.

Broudy:

Concept of reality-There is a natural order in the universe and as a consequence, there is a

way of living characteristic of human beings.

End of education-Provide experiences necessary for man to achieve his own rational self-
determination and “self-sufficiency.” It must contribute to achieving a good or dignified
life on an individual and collective level. The dignified life is one that seeks to integrate
and realize the self. The child is born with the capacity to live that life but education
develops that potential.

Model man-The virtuous man who seeks his happiness through the proper use of his
reason.

Role of the teacher-Develop in the child correct habits of how to think, know, prefer and
choose so that man can integrate his own self. The human being must be trained, not an
exclusively productive man.

Resume-Must include:

-knowledge of a universal nature (social and natural sciences, psychology, philosophy,

critical thinking, religion, etc.)

-skills (observation habits, study habits, linguistic skills, use of scientific methods, group
work techniques)

-attitudes (development of satisfaction with their studies, opportunities to think freely,

decision making, etc.)

Pragmatism:
 Reject the idea that reality is static; considers that one's concept of what is real
depends on the person's experience. They have a relativistic view of the truth. They are
skeptical. They consider that man is the measure of all things. They affirm that
knowledge is the result of experience. Everything has to be verified empirically; They
emphasize the search for data through the scientific method.

Nature of reality-The universe is in continuous movement; therefore, existence is

uncertain. Reality is relative.

Nature of man-They reject the dualistic concept of man. They think that the material or
corporeal should not be separated from the spiritual or mental. His concept of man is
monistic. Man is constantly interrelating with his universe. Every experience is a product
of this double process.

What man achieves will depend on his experiences and the opportunities he has to
develop his potential.

Theory of knowledge-Ideas are neither sacred nor immutable. They are instruments to
help us solve problems and generate alternatives. The scientific method, based on
observation, experimentation, search and analysis of data, is the basis of knowledge. The
truth is relative; It depends on the experiences we have had of reality.

Theory of democracy-This is not just a system of government; It is a lifestyle that is

characterized by tolerance, pluralism, open-mindedness, teamwork, etc.

Theory about moral order-There is no objective moral order in the universe. Values, what
is considered right or wrong depends on the previous experiences of the human being.
Man's behavior is not governed by absolute and immutable criteria. The goodness or
badness of human actions depends on the circumstances and consequences of those
actions.

Pedagogical implications:

Education-Maintains social continuity and is a means to transmit culture. Its purpose is to

provide opportunities for the individual to continue their growth.
End of education-That individuals develop to the maximum their capacity to live in
society, so that they grow personally and improve society.

The child is not a passive being to whom knowledge is transmitted. Education must be
adapted to the child's stages of development and interests. Education must be done in and
through the environment, presenting or exposing the child to specific situations.

Methodological process:

-Creation of an environmental situation that arouses doubt and interest.

-Classify the problem based on the child's previous experiences.

-Formulation of hypotheses and activities that generate data.

-Motivation must be intrinsic. (The child who is involved or interested in solving

problems is not undisciplined.)

-Evaluation-It is based on the student's ability to solve their problems and increase their
experiences.

Existentialism:

He is interested in the existence of man; not the search for its essence. Look for a
philosophy closer to life. It rebels against philosophical, political and social systems that
see man as an object.

Exponents:

Kierkegaard-“Father of the philosophy of existence”

Heidegger-“Maximum exponent of Existentialism”

Sartre-“The best known of the existentialists”

Nature of man-The existence of man precedes his essence. Man exists, develops and then
defines himself. He fulfills himself through his actions and decisions. Man is what he
makes of himself. It is a nothing in the process of being something, but without ever
achieving it. Man is free and therefore responsible for what he does. His absolute
freedom and responsibility causes him anxiety. Man is an Existent in the midst of other
existents.

Concept of reality-Man is the one who gives meaning to the world. There are three
classes or levels of world:
a) The impersonal world-The world of things that surround us, the meaningless world of the
anonymous.

b) My world-The world of each person that emerges from the interrelation of man with the
world around him. It is a world with meaning, with meaning for me.

c) The world of the self with others-The world of communication, of human interrelations.
Includes the order of symbolism.

Empathy is essential to relate to others. (my world and someone else's world)

Concept of truth-Truth is subjective and cannot be communicated openly and directly. It

can be verified by transcending our own world and significantly penetrating that of
others.

Concept of values-Man creates his own values. Man defines his individual life for
himself. Cultural or moral values should not be imposed. Man himself must choose those
values by which he is going to be governed, live and even die.

Existentialism is a call to authenticity, to commitment. Man must accept his own

freedom and the consequences of his decisions. Man must take responsibility for his own
existence.

Heidegger: Maximum exponent (most important ideas)

1. Man finds himself thrown into the world without knowing where he comes from.

2. To exist is to move outside oneself, to transcend the world.

3. Man is a being for death. It is a being in continuous evolution that knows it is going to die.
The authentic being lives conscious of death.

4. Nothing has an absolute value; nothing is intrinsically valuable. Only man gives value to
things.

5. Authenticity is not in the way chosen to give meaning to existence but in the resolution to
do so, in the effort to escape massification.

6. There are two levels of existence of “being in the world”:

to. Inauthentic existence-Does not worry about transcending, is just like everyone else. He
worries about the artificial. He worries about what others say and not what his conscience
says.

b. Authentic existence-Discovers himself as a being with possibilities. He fights not to fall

into mediocrity and to be himself.
Pedagogical implications:

Concept of education-Process by which man becomes an authentic being, an interpreter

of his own existence. It should help you to be free and responsible for your own life. It is
the process by which man knows and chooses himself.

Concept of teacher-Must be a model of authenticity. You must respect the child's freedom
and help him take responsibility for selecting his own values. It is not a mere transmitter
of knowledge.

Curriculum-Must emphasize the growth of the child's affective capacity. The arts and
humanities are very important. (they reveal to man his suffering, love, hate, etc.) All
disciplines must help to better understand human existence.

Theory of knowledge-Truth is subjective and relative. What is true for one person is not
necessarily true for another. Everyone perceives the teaching and learning experience
differently. That is why education must encourage creativity.

Discipline-Should not restrict the student's creativity. The child must be encouraged to
transcend, to be himself, to be different, etc. (transcend = leave a mark on the world by
living in a meaningful and authentic way).

Methodology-Emphasizes the introspective method that leads the student to analyze and
self-evaluate. Individuality, dialogue between teacher and student, openness to the world
and others should be promoted. Who am I? How have I lived? etc.

Evaluation-Child's ability to create ideas and commit.

Progressivism:
 Apply pragmatism to education. It has been the most influential theory in
America. He insists that education:

a) Education is always in the process of development.

b) Education must be active; It must be related to the interests of the child and take into
account the needs of the students.

c) Education is life itself; You must train to solve problems.

d) A democratic environment should be encouraged in school.

e) The curriculum must be focused on experiences.

Essentialism:

Promotes a return to essentials. It reigned from the Renaissance to Progressivism.

It advocates the transmission of previous cultural practices and beliefs. He believes that
we must return to the past to regain stability. Promotes directed discipline, structure,
traditional methods. Believes that there is an impeccable order in the universe and that
truth and values do not change. He sees the teacher as an active agent and the child as a
passive or receptive agent. Promotes a curriculum focused on knowledge, skills and
attitudes.

Perennialism:

Believes that principles are absolute, that truth is universal; that education should
be adapted only to the truth, not to the student or to the circumstances. Considers that
basic subjects should be taught and that the curriculum should be general education. Sees
education as preparation for future life. He opposes Progressivism more tenaciously than
the essentialists. See reality as teleological; the truth as absolute and immutable. He
considers that the most important thing in education is learning to reason. Promotes
learning based on instructions rather than discovery. His ideas are derived from Plato,
Aristotle and Saint Thomas.

Reconstructionism:
 He believes that society needs constant change or reconstruction and that the
purpose of education should be to encourage social reform and help rebuild society. It is a
social philosophy; Its maximum exponents are: Counts and Brameld.

Promotes and emphasizes pragmatic ideas (It is the successor of pragmatism). It

promotes the scientific method, problem solving, naturalism and humanism, emphasized
by Pragmatism. It differs from this in the interpretation of how the pragmatic method
should be used:

a) Pragmatism says that education is a tool to help people adapt to society rather than change
it.

b) Reconstructionism seeks immediate and continuous change; believes that existing

structures must be fundamentally changed because they prevent society from improving.

Emphasizes futurism (orienting students toward the future). You want to build an ideal
world; free from evils.

Purpose of education-It is to create a world civilization or culture where fraternity,

democracy, justice, and peace reign.

Method-Encourages active participation in students as citizens, which helps them become

critical, analytical, democratic people with the ability to make decisions.

Curriculum-It must be centripetal (that unites or attracts people in the community) and
centrifugal (that leaves or extends from the school to the community). Emphasizes
multicultural studies to understand different cultures, studies of present and future social
problems, languages, history and literature of different countries, activities outside the
classroom, adult education, the study of minorities, women , of blacks, Indians, etc., to
promote understanding among all; encourages reading newspapers and magazines.
Promotes pluralism, humanism, fraternity, peace, solidarity, etc.

Some ideas from reconstructionist educators and sociologists:

Alvin Toffler-Promotes futuristic studies; explains that the future will be characterized by
greater individuality, the service economy, work at home, etc.

Paul George-Says that in education the practices of marketing and commerce should be
imitated. Use technological means to educate, listen to people more and provide
education from birth to death.

Ivan Illich-Says that education should be carried out not only in schools; You must
educate yourself at work, home, companies, etc. “deschool education”

Paulo Freire-Author of Pedagogy of the Oppressed

Neil Postman-Considers that education should cultivate people who are critical of the
media.

Psychologists and Anthropologists in the 20th century:

Victor Frankl-“logotherapy” (personalistic therapy that helps man discover the meaning
of his life). It says that man suffers from a feeling of emptiness (existential emptiness). It
emphasizes the importance of discovering the meaning of life if man wants to self-
realize.

Jesús Arellano-We can objectify ourselves, if sometimes we do not remember to think,

love, etc. One can fall into an “antiser”, become a prostitute, become alienated, etc.
(according to Heidegger “the oblivion of being”)

Carl Rogers-Meaningful learning must lead to behavior change. It should lead him to be
more creative, to be himself, to live fully, etc.

The man:

Aristotle and Plato-The most typical activity of man.

Aristotle-Man is a “political animal”, a “rational animal”.

Rousseau-Man is good by nature; society corrupts him.

Kierkegaard-The human condition is characterized by anxiety.

Ortega y Gasset-Man is united to his circumstances.

Heidegger-Man is a being created to die; It's absurd.

Sartre-Man is condemned to be free.

Nietzsche-The superman is characterized by the will to power.

Important works and phrases:

Plato - The Republic , Dialogues and The Laws

Aristotle- Metaphysics

Saint Augustine - Confessions

Saint Thomas - The Theological Summa

Kant- Critique of Pure Reason , Critique of Practical Reason

Iván Illich- Unschooling education

Descartes- The discourse of method

Heidegger - Being and Time

Sartre- Nausea , The Wall , The Flies

Rousseau - The social contract

Socrates-“I only know that I know nothing”

Descartes – “I think, therefore I am”

Ortega y Gasset-“I am me and my circumstances”

Heidegger-“Man is a being created for death”

Pedagogical innovators of the 20th century:

María Montessori-She believes that the child must be seen as a child, not as a miniature
adult. The child has an absorbing mind. The child must develop from the inside out
spontaneously and naturally.

End of education-Helping the individual to make his own path in life. Education must
seek the mental and spiritual health of the child; develop your mind and your soul.

Teacher-Passive agent who directs the child.

Method-It is physical and sensory but also experimental, because she thinks that
muscular movement and the development of the senses contribute to the formation of
intelligence.

Freedom-It is important so that the child can act and develop fully.

Discipline-Must be active, leading to self-discipline. It is important to provide periods of

silence for the child to concentrate and develop his or her inner life.

Materials-Delicate and complex, intended to cultivate the activity of the senses. They
must be self-correcting, allowing the child to educate himself.

Atmosphere-Cheerful, cozy. It must adapt to the size and needs of the child.

Play-It is important to help awaken the senses, develop love for work, etc.

Sensitive periods-Take advantage of these periods in which children have favorable

abilities to develop intellectually. During these periods children are more interested in
doing exercises.

ACE Neill-The boy is good, sensible and realistic. Only with freedom can it grow in its
natural way. Neither punishment nor reward “cures”, only love.

End of education-Reject all adult direction, all social influence.

Teacher-You must give the child freedom. Do not force him to study, do not punish him
physically. You should not give him prizes. You should not teach him moral or religious
norms. You should not force the child to do anything until he is convinced to do it.

Method-There must be an atmosphere of love. The school must counteract the bad
influence of society that is anti-vital. Reject all ideology. There should be no orders.

Autonomy-The child has the right to live freely without any outside authority. The ideal
is self-regulation.
Rewards and punishments-Neill is against them. Although he denies it, at his school
“Summerhill” there were punishments (fines).

Freedom-The child has the freedom to attend classes or not.

Play-It is natural for the child. Work and obligations are what is unnatural.

Curriculum-Art and craft more important than academics. Books are so important. Neill
tolerates reading and writing because they are necessary for progress.

Sylvia Ashton Warner-She believes that the child has two visions: one internal, which
springs from his being, and another external. The mind of the 5-year-old child is like a
volcano with two orifices: one of destructiveness and the other of creativity.

End of education-Awakening in the child his own resources. When educating there must
be a movement from the inside out; A bridge must be established between the child's
interior and the exterior. It should encourage uniqueness (unique/different from others).

Teacher-You must listen to the child to know what his interests are and be able to help
him develop them.

Method-Creative or organic teaching: Key vocabulary, the child chooses the words they
are interested in learning. Organic writing, children write small autobiographies. They
read the chosen words to each other (interpersonal communication). “Golden section”-
Contact with nature. Here the study of numbers is integrated with nature, etc. It is
important to encourage creativity to turn off destructiveness. Use of plasticine, paint, etc.
Art and dance are important.

Discipline-He gave importance to silence. There are two kinds of order: the conscious
and the unconscious that is achieved through creativity. There is an order that springs
from within. Everything the child says is considered valuable. This is how each person's
line of thought is cultivated.

María del Pilar Gil Rodríguez, Doctor of Philosophy. Some ideas -What is the person?
He is a borderline, supernaturalized and conflictive being. Man must achieve a “well-
being”, which is the maximum concern of personalist pedagogy. Man must be trained in
all dimensions (physical, social, spiritual, etc.). It is a singular and intimate being,
different from others. Intimacy requires a process of internalization, of finding oneself.
He is a lonely being, he needs solitude to be able to make others participate in that inner
wealth. Education must be personalized. Man is a free being, owner of his actions and
 responsible for them before himself, before others and before God. It is a being in the
world, open to the world, which is why communication with others is important. He is a
transcendent being; a being for God. You must educate yourself for love. The core of
personalistic pedagogy is the teacher-student interpersonal relationship.

Educational Sociology

Important Ideas:

1. Education is the process through which society transmits to its new members the patterns
of behavior that serve as a guide in their daily actions.

2. Education is synonymous with socialization.

3. The functions of education are: assimilation of tradition, development of new social

patterns and the creative or constructive role of education.

4. Between school and education there is a relationship in terms of its objectives, curriculum
and methods. The school will reveal its culture through these.

5. There are formal educational agencies: the school, the church, libraries and museums.

6. There are informal educational agencies: the family, the community, play groups, agencies
that provide for the use of free time and those for passive interaction.

7. The teacher has to know the importance of knowing the cultural environment where he
teaches, the cultural style of the school, knowledge of cultural differences, the motivation
to learn and the development of the personality of the students.

8. Culture influences the educational process.

9. The culture of the school affects everything that happens in it.

10. The main manifestations of social change are: population trends, interdependence of
peoples and nations, science and technology, work, leisure, means of transportation,
family, knowledge and organizations.

11. The school has to adjust to social changes.

12. The curriculum is affected by social changes.

13. The school alone cannot produce changes or stop them.

14. Within change, stability must be promoted.

15. There are some phenomena of social change in Puerto Rico in the economic and political
aspects: economy, politics, population, housing, health and work.

16. The teacher has to adjust to social changes.

17. The forces that have helped these changes are: transculturation process, economic
transformation, population movements and the development of education.

18. Population growth affects health and education services.

19. There is a population movement towards metropolitan areas. The effects are seen in
values and lifestyles.

20. There are forces of social control of education in Puerto Rico: formal and informal. For
example: laws, public opinion, etc.

21. Human personality is not innate. It is a social product, it is acquired through social
interaction.

22. There are some factors that influence the development of personality: biological
inheritance, the physical environment, the sociocultural environment and particular
personal experiences.

23. Those four factors are important, none of them is the most important. It is the
interaction of these factors that produces a certain type of human nature.

24. Personal experiences can limit or impede the potentialities of heredity, environment
and culture. (educator's challenge: offer the best opportunities and the best environment
for the student's training)

25. Socialization is the process through which the child acquires the culture of society
and becomes a social being.

26. Socialization is a continuous process: from birth to death. That is why it affects the
child, the adolescent, the adult and the elderly.

27. Socialization is a process of adjustments, it is not possible without social interaction.

28. Human beings develop their concept of self in interaction with other people.
Although the self is something individual, it is a social product. The self is a reflection of
the social situations in which it participates. (importance of the environment that
surrounds the child)
29. The school is a socializing agency. Peer groups (of the same age) affect human
development significantly.

30. The child is born in a social group and through this and other groups he becomes a
human being.

31. The interaction of two or more people united by common purposes gives rise to the
formation of a social group.

32. Groups perform various functions for the individual and society. They are the trainers
of personality, the controls for human behavior and a mode of education for its members.

33. Characteristics of the social group: the type of relationship established between its
members, the sense of belonging, loyalty and ethnocentrism, which is the preference that
individuals feel towards their group.

34. Groups are classified by the degree of intimacy. Thus they are classified into primary,
secondary and tertiary.

35. The primary group is a unit of intimate association and cooperation. For example:
family, playgroup and close friends.

36. The secondary group is distinguished from the primary group by the degree of contact
between its members and by its formal organization. It is a larger and more formal group
than the first. For example: social club, a political or religious group. The secondary
group reflects the cultural life of the community.

37. Tertiary groups are casual, transitory and short-lived.

38. The family is the main social institution and the group that exerts the greatest
influence on the development of human beings.

39. Functions of the family in society: reproduction, upbringing and socialization,

education, economy, social control, protection, recreation, religion, affection, family
status, intimacy, security and emotional protection.

40. The child joins other groups, starts in play groups and then joins other groups.

41. Activity groups are voluntary groups, recreational in nature. They are formal and
informal.

42. Formal activity groups have some form of adult supervision. For example: The
Listening Girls.

43. Informal activity groups have no supervision. For example: playgroups, gangs, etc.
44. We must recognize the influence that their activity group exerts on students. That is
why the school must provide other student groups or organizations that help them
constructively channel their energies to divert them from antisocial and negative
activities.

45. The school is a social world composed of interacting personalities.

46. The community cooperates with the school in the educational function and in the
development of the child's personality.

Some laws that govern the Department of Education:

Law 68-Organic Law or Educational Reform Law of August 28, 1990.

It stipulates everything that a fourth-year student must master in order to be academically

qualified to continue university studies or practice a trade.

Law 18-Community Schools Law of June 16, 1993.

It grants administrative autonomy to schools. It also provides that in order to comply with
teacher autonomy, standards are used. This is in accordance with the provisions of the
America Act 2000 (United States).

Law 149-Organic Law (repeals laws # 68 and 18)

Improves the provisions of both laws.

Some points about social sciences and natural sciences:

Human knowledge can be organized into two large fields: the arts and the sciences.
Arts-Experiences, emotions, beliefs and ideas, of an aesthetic nature that appeal to the
senses and that evoke emotional and intellectual responses in human beings. It's
subjective.

Science-They are an organized body of knowledge that has been arrived at through
research or experimentation. (discards unproven ideas or beliefs) It is objective.

Sciences can be social or natural:

Social-politics, psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology and history.

Natural-physical and biological

Physics=chemistry, physics and mathematics

Biological=botany and zoology

Educational System in Puerto Rico:

6-3-3=Education in the public system

8-4=Education in the private system

Public education:

Preschool Education-before formal education

K-12 (Kindergarten to fourth grade)

First to Sixth-Elementary Education (K-3 primary education)

 (4-6 general education)

Seventh to Twelfth-Secondary Education (7-9 intermediate)

(top 10-12)

Private education:

Preschool education

K-12

Kindergarten to Eighth-Elementary

Ninth to Twelfth-Upper

Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation:

Terms:

Measurement-It is the process by which numerical value is assigned to data or

observations.
Assessment-Process that includes the collection and organization of data or multi-
contextual information related to what students can do with the acquired knowledge.

Evaluation-It is the process of interpreting quantitative and qualitative data in relation to

already established criteria to make a judgment and make instructional decisions.
Through this process, the extent to which objectives are being or have been achieved is
determined. It is a broader process than measurement and assessment. Both measurement
and assessment provide the information that serves as the basis for the evaluation.

Assessment Techniques:

Dialectical Note Conceptual Maps

REI Targeted List

Comic Strip Rubric

Graphic Organizer Checklists

Reflective Journal Oral Reports

Open Questions Essay

Portfolio Interviews

Test Scales

Composition Quiz

Examples-

Dialectical Note-Dialogue with the text where the student analyzes and responds to the
text.

Example: Write down comments, agreements, disagreements and questions. Write

answers to your questions.
Focused List-The student writes down a list of the most important terms or points that he
remembers about a particular topic.

Comic Strip-Gives the student the opportunity to participate in class in a creative and
imaginative way. The teacher can identify students' weaknesses and strengths in the
development of skills, concepts and vocabulary.

Graphic Organizer-It is a way to represent how information is related. Strengthens the

skills of comparing, contrasting, sequencing, classifying, and the relationship between
parts and a whole.

Reflective Journal-Allows the student to reflect and write about concepts, feelings and
attitudes experienced when carrying out a task. Ex: What did you expect from today's
class? What could I do to feel better?

Concept Map-Diagram where the student graphically organizes the breadth of a concept.

Rubric-Numeric scale that describes the criteria for judging the quality of the student's
related task.

Open Questions-Requires the student to produce the answer.

Immediate Written Reaction-The student responds in written and brief form to a stimulus
presented by the teacher. Ex: Something new I learned today is..., I want to know more
about....

Portfolio-The student organizes and presents his or her work. In this way, the student's
progress in the course is evidenced.

Types of Evaluation:
 Diagnostic Evaluation-We judge in advance what will happen during the educational
event or after it. It is carried out with the purpose of deciding the placement of each
student or determining individual aptitude levels, to identify those who have already
achieved or mastered the necessary learning, etc.

Formative Evaluation-It is what we do during the teaching-learning process with the

purpose of determining failures, errors and improving the process.

Summative Evaluation (Cumulative) - Used at the end of the course to give grades, grade
promotion, etc.

Preparation of a test:

Three steps-

1. Planning and writing

2. Test administration

3. Correction of the test and tabulation of the results

First step-Understand the purposes of the test, that is, what you want to measure and why.

Second step-It consists of three elements to consider: the examiner, the place and the time

Third step-Correction and tabulation of results.

Item Analysis:

Three to four alternatives should be written at the elementary level and four to five
alternatives at secondary level.
 Difficulty index-Indicates how difficult that item is compared to the rest of the items on
the test. (expressed as a percentage)

Discrimination index-It tells us to what degree the success in answering that item is
related to the success obtained in the test. (expressed as a decimal)

Mathematical techniques:

Arithmetic mean-All scores are added and the total is divided by the number of students
who took the test. The first step is to sort all the scores in descending order (from the
highest to the lowest). Ex: 99, 87, 84, 79, 65 (notes) 414/5=82.8 average

Median-It is the point that divides the total number of cases in a frequency distribution
into two equal parts, it is 50% in a distribution. Ex: 555 3 555 (3 is the median) – when it
is even, it is divided into two parts and the middle value is selected. When it is odd, the
two scores are added and divided by two. Ex: 88, 85, 83, 80, 78, 76 (83+80=163/2=81.5

Mode-It is the score that is repeated the most. Ex: 5555,66666, 777 (6 is the mode)

Methodology:

Planning:

1. Mental planning-The first thing I'm going to do

a) Content-What I am going to teach (Standards of Excellence/Circular Letters)

b) Strategies-What I am going to use

c) Objectives-What I want them to learn (purpose)

d) Activities-“Teaching Techniques”

2. Written planning

a) Format

b) Reference material

3. ECA Strategy

4. Execution

Standards:

Pattern that serves as a guide for achieving total quality education. They allow or
promote integration between different academic and technological subjects.

Content standard-Describes the knowledge, skills and competencies that the student must
know and develop.

Performance Standard-Concrete examples of what the student is able to do to

demonstrate content mastery. (to show that you know)

Assessment standard-Strategies to use to evaluate how knowledge is acquired and skills

developed.
Components:

Strategy-Combination of four elements: method+technique+means+group organization.

In summary, the strategy is the action plan of how I am going to conduct my class; What
things am I going to make the students learn.

Method-Form or way of doing something. Orderly way of proceeding to reach an end.

Technique-Instrument or particular medium that I am going to use to develop my class.

(Depends on the teacher)

Means-Materials, resources and equipment.

Group organization-It depends on how you place the group to work.

Strategies:

Expository method-Give explanations, provide information.

Inquisitive method-Allows the student to engage in a search, asking questions or

investigating.

Demonstrative method- Demonstrations of the acquired knowledge are made.

(action+inquire)

Action method-Do meaningful tasks for the student.

-It is advisable to use more than one method.

 Planning:

Objectives-Guide that guides the action of educating and allows the effectiveness of the
teaching-learning process to be verified.

Formulating goals allows you to:

1. Select the content you are going to teach.

2. It allows you to choose the most appropriate methods, techniques and procedures.

3. Allows you to select and prepare the necessary educational resources.

4. You can identify the criteria to evaluate your students' performance.

The teaching-learning process requires the teacher to formulate objectives, which specify:

1. concepts

2. skills

3. values and attitudes

Questions I can use to write my objectives:

a) Is my primary purpose to teach facts, provide information, and guide the class toward
mastery of the meaning of the material? Knowledge objective

b) Is my purpose to deepen my students' appreciation of a certain area? Develop positive

attitudes towards this or that thing? Value target

c) Is my purpose for students to initiate, develop or maintain skills? Skill Target

 Important: For each objective, I must have an activity. (in order to fulfill my purpose)

RCT Strategy

Exploration-Check how much the student knows about the concept to be studied.

Conceptualize-Develop or strengthen concepts, skills, values or attitudes.

Apply-Transfer what has been learned to a new situation.

ECA-General plan of teaching activities, through which concepts, skills, values or

attitudes are developed or strengthened.

Class:

Start-

1. Prepare the environment for class

2. Reflect

3. Review

4. Motivate

Development-

1. Exploration

2. Conceptualization

3. Application

Closing-
 1.Finish class

2. Recap

4. Point out or ask what is most important, what was learned and what is most significant.

History:

The ages of history:

Ancient Age-Prehistory, Egypt, Greece and Rome

Middle Ages-Year 406, end of the Roman Empire, time of feudal lords

Modern Age-Begins with voyages of exploration. (Discoveries) 1492-late 15th century

Contemporary Age- The American Revolution until World War II 1939-1945

-Some place the Contemporary to the present day (20th-21st century), but others talk
about the Computer Age-After the Second World War, until 2000. (20th and 21st
centuries).

Prehistory:

All time before writing or documentation. (generalized definition)

Paleolithic Period-Old Stone Age. Homo sapiens began to use stone instruments for their
own defense and to obtain food.

Neolithic Period-The “human being” stops being a gatherer and hunter to dedicate
himself to agriculture. He stops being nomadic and becomes sedentary (staying living in
the same place).
Period of Metals-They begin to use metals to make their instruments. They used bronze
and copper for this purpose.

Evolutionary order of man:

Afarensis

Africanus

Robust

Boisei

Homo Habilis

Homo Erectus

Homo Sapiens-archaic, Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon

History -Written documentation. It begins in the year 4,000 BC; every civilization is
forged on that date. (according to some authors) Its objective is to describe the events of
the past, applying its teaching in the present and making projections for the future.

Egypt:

It is located in northern Africa. Its Nile River (the longest in the world) flows into the
Mediterranean Sea. The history of Egypt is divided into three periods: archaic, Empire
and decadence. During the archaic period, King Menes united Upper Egypt with Lower
Egypt and established the capital at Tinis (hence the name of the Tinite dynasty). With
Menes the first dynasty of pharaohs began, the name that the monarchs of Egypt would
adopt.

The Empire is subdivided into three stages:

1. Old Empire-It begins with the third dynasty of pharaohs, called Memphite; because the
capital was established in Memphis. In this period the construction of pyramids began.
2. Middle Empire-The capital was established in Thebes. The Hyksos of Syria dominated
Egypt for 200 years.

3. New Kingdom-Defeat of the Hyksos. Several pharaohs stand out: Amenophis IV,
Tutankhamun (his tomb was discovered in 1922, by Howard Carter) and Ramses II,
among others.

Decline-Fights between the dynasties (powerful families) of Upper and Lower Egypt. In
the year 333, Alexander the Great annexed Egypt (incorporation into the Hellenic world)
and established the capital in the new city of Alexandria. When Alexander dies, General
Ptolemy begins a new dynasty of pharaohs that will culminate with Cleopatra VII (lover
of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony) and last queen of Egypt.

Egyptian society: (hierarchy/in order of importance)

Pharaoh-absolute monarch

Nobles-Government Positions

Priests-They had great culture and knowledge in the sciences. They belonged to courts.

Military

scribes

Artisans, farmers, slaves, etc.

Economy-Agriculture, commercial exchange (based on barter). From the papyrus plant

they made a kind of paper, quite resistant.

Religion-They were essentially polytheistic, although there were periods in which the cult
was established in a single god. They worshiped animals, considered sacred (totenism).

Art-The pyramids of Cheops, Khafre and Mycerinus stand out in this area. Hieroglyphic
“writing” (means sacred engravings), engraved in stone.
Science-They excelled in the study of astronomy.

Mesopotamia:

It includes the region between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Several peoples
settled here: Sumerians (who used cuneiform/wedge-shaped writing), the Akkadians
(their king was Hammurabi, who became famous for the code of laws, which bears his
name), the Amorites who established their capital in Babylon; the Hittites who were great
warriors; the Assyrians who conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine and Persia; the Chaldeans
whose king Nebuchadnezzar stood out for giving great splendor to Babylon. The Persians
(Persia, is what is known today as Iran), from the Near East, tried to conquer Greece. The
Medes also settled in this region. The Phoenicians who inhabited this region were
dominated by Alexander the Great.

Classical World-Greece and Rome:

Greece -The Greeks are owed the idea of democracy (their greatest legacy), the meaning
and value of the homeland, the city, respect for the human person, ideas about personal
and political freedom, of man as a reason or measure of things, the conception of the
world as a “cosmic” order, etc. In ancient times it was known as Helas, hence the word
Hellenes to refer to the Greeks. The Greeks as we know them today are the product of the
fusion of several ethnic groups. Among these were the Cretans or Minoans (from Crete,
the island they inhabited) and Minos, who was a famous king.

Crete -It was the center of one of the oldest civilizations. The capital was Knossos. From
here is derived the famous legend of the Minotaur (mythology), who was half man and
half bull; This creature devoured young people in punishment for the murder of Minos's
son, Androgen. The Minoan people encouraged trade with neighboring regions; They
spread across the Aegean Sea. The palace of Knossos is famous for its majesty. They
stood out for their political organization and cultural manifestations. They were
characterized by their individualism and love of a pleasant and pleasant life. They
bequeathed to the Greeks navigation skills and a love of sports games.
Achaean-Mycenaean civilization:

The Achaeans were nomads and warriors who came into contact with the Minoans and
assimilated their customs. They were also known as the Mycenaeans and came to
dominate the people who lived in “Greece”. Their art was more sober than that of the
Minoans. The Mycenaeans took linear writing from the Minoans and it became known as
linear writing b.

The Mycenaeans were a feudal type society, they had a lord who gathered servants
around him.

Other Hellenic peoples-The Aeolians and Ionians were peoples of Indo-European origin,
who settled in Greece. The Aeolians settled in Thebes and the Ionians in Attica. The
Dorians were a new Hellenic people, who stood out in the use of iron weapons (unknown
to the Achaeans). They settled in the Peloponnese, establishing their capital in Sparta.
This was a dark period of great invasions. All these tragedies and wars gave rise to the
epic poems of the blind poet Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Minoan
alphabet disappeared and the one created by the Phoenicians was adopted.

-The beginning of the Olympic games is located in the year 776 BC

Over time, several united tribes gave rise to a people, first gathered in rural
villages and then in urban ones. These would give rise to the polis, Greek city states,
which were the center of social, political, religious and artistic life. Greece was made up
of autonomous cities and an Empire was formed under Alexander the Great in the 3rd
century BC

The Greek colonies were the foundations made by the Greeks in the Mediterranean Sea
and the Black Sea. Greek influence reached what is now Italy, Spain, Egypt and France.
The development of commerce brought the use of currency.

Government:

At first there was a form of government known as oligarchy or government of the

nobles, that is, the kings were relegated. In many cities there were struggles for power
and gave way to tyrants, under the form of government known as tyranny. These were
absolute leaders who brought great benefits to their people. Government evolved and
democracy or government by elected officials emerged. Of all the city states the most
famous were Sparta and Athens.

Wars:

The Persian Wars are those that occurred between Greece and Persia. In the end
Greece achieved its independence from foreign rule. Democracy prevailed in other
places. From these wars Pericles emerged who became ruler of Athens and due to his
good way of governing, the 5th century is known as the century of Pericles.

Peloponnesian Wars-Between Sparta and Athens for dominance of Greece. Sparta

managed to dominate, but when it weakened, the city of Thebes took political control.
But there was no peace, because power later passed into the hands of Macedonia. This
region was first ruled by Philip II and then by his son Alexander the Great. He managed
to dominate Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Iran (Persia).
Alexander distinguished himself by wanting to unite the West with the East, that is, by
his efforts to spread Greek culture.

Hellenistic period (Hellenism):

Period that follows the conquests of Alexander the Great and extends to the
expansion of the Roman world. Here you can see the influence of Greek culture in the
ancient world, while it takes certain elements from the East. With Hellenism there was a
change in Egypt, Persia, Syria and Mesopotamia, which adopted Greek culture. Some
features:

1. Democracy lost influence and authoritarian forms of government were adopted.

2. The polis disappeared and other strong cities emerged (Alexandria, etc.).

3. Greek arts spread to many places. (Cleopatra studied Greek)

4. Great advances in mathematics and science.

In mathematics they excelled:

a) Euclid-work Elements of Geometry

b) Hipparchus-He stood out in astronomy

In geography:

a) Eratosthenes of Cyrene-Calculated circumference of the Earth

b) Claudius Ptolemy-Wrote a treatise on geography. He was an astronomer.

In astronomy:

a) Aristarchus of Samos-He defended heliocentrism (sun center of the Universe)

b) Hipparchus-Calculated distance between the Earth and the Moon. He invented

the astrolabe.

In physics:

a) Archimedes-Established the principle of specific weight.

In medicine:

a) Galen-Physician (hence doctors are called doctors)

In history:

a) Herodotus-“Father of history”

Rome -It was the capital of a great empire. The period that includes the influence
of their civilization is known as “Romanization”. It came to dominate the countries
of the Mediterranean Sea, which is why the Romans called it “Mare Nostrum”.
Rome was the capital from the 2nd century BC until the 5th century after Christ.
The first settlers of Rome were the Italotes, relatives of the Hellenes. The Etruscans
also penetrated Rome. The Greeks founded cities in that region (what is now Italy)
and it became known as Magna Graecia. The founding of the city of Rome is owed
to the Latins. From here came the legend of Romulus and Remus.

Government:

Rome had several political organizations. The first was the monarchy, then they
moved to the republic. Under this form of government the Senate was very powerful and
the consuls needed its approval to execute their policies.
Wars:

The Romans managed to defeat the Etruscans. They also fought against several Greek
colonies, which they finally defeated (defeat of Pyrrhus). The Punic Wars was the fight
against Carthage, the first of which was won by Rome. On a second occasion they battled
(second Punic War), with advances for Carthage but finally won by Rome. The third
battle was fatal for Carthage. In the Second Punic War, Rome managed to conquer
Greece. Rome also conquered Spain.

Civil Wars-Wars between generals who support the different political groups of the
Republic. Some fought to improve the living conditions of the plebs, to the detriment of
the members of the Senate (their interests).

First Triumvirate:

Julius Caesar, Crassus and Pompey (union of three to govern)-was to bypass the Senate.

-Julius Caesar stood out a lot and that is why he was murdered by Brutus in the Senate.

Second Triumvirate:

Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus

Lepidus retired and the rivalry remained between M. Antony and Octavio. Antony and
Cleopatra were defeated by Octavian.
Rome became governed by Emperors: Tiberius, Caligula, Trajan, etc.

The greatest legacy of the Romans is their system of law, which we inherited via Spain; It
is Roman Civil Law, which applies in Puerto Rico. (along with the Common Law of the
United States/Anglo-Saxon). Also worth highlighting is its military organization,
engineering (public buildings), administration (first Tusculum municipality) and its
artists.

Literature-

Virgil - The Aeneid (poet)

Horace-poet

Titus Livy-historian

Cicero-great orator

Middle Ages:

It begins with the end of the Roman Empire and ends (approximately) with the
taking of Constantinople. It is usually divided into the High Middle Ages and the Late
Middle Ages. This period is characterized by being theocentric, meaning that everything
was centered on the figure of God. During this time political power was in the hands of
feudal lords (feudalism). This was the age of chivalry. There was a struggle between
Mohammedanism and Christianity, which was largely expressed in the Crusades. Art saw
all that religious spirit reflected. They give way to monastic (religious) orders. Also with
the invention of the printing press, much progress was made in education. Universities
begin to emerge at this time. Society was divided into: aristocracy, clergy and peasants.
During MS The cities will grow and guilds (groups of artisans, etc.) will emerge. Gothic
art is typical of this era.

Literature-Dante, The Divine Comedy

 Renaissance:

Transition between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age. It was characterized by
a change in people's mentality and values. God stopped being the center of art. Art
became secularized and will be characterized by being more expressive and with more
human figures. The Renaissance has its origin in Italy. The fief (feudal system) lost
importance. There was a flowering of the arts, there was a return to the classics (Greek
and Roman literati), already forgotten in the Middle Ages.

Great artists of the Renaissance:

a) Raphael-He stood out for his “Madonnas” (paintings of the Virgin)

b) Boticelli-The Annunciation

c) Leonardo Da Vinci-La Gioconda (Monalisa), The Last Supper

d) Michelangelo-Sistine Chapel (frescoes), David (sculpture)

e) Machiavelli-literature The Prince

f) Shakespeare-literature Hamlet

Modern age:

The decline of medieval institutions and the crisis of the 14th century gave way to
the Modern Age, which was characterized by great scientific advances and exploration
trips to other lands (in search of trade routes). The Middle Ages lasted 10 centuries. The
crisis of the 14th century was known as the death or black plague due to all the damage
that occurred at that time (many believed that it was a punishment from God, since many
crops were damaged, the economy was affected, etc.).

Exploration trips:

The two European countries that began the exploration trips were Spain and
Portugal. In Portugal, King Henry the Navigator founded a navigation school. The
purpose of these trips was to look for an alternative route to the East, to expand trade and
search for raw materials in other markets (Asia). This had to be done because the Turks
took Constantinople and blocked the route that Europeans used to reach the Indies. What
products were you looking for? Spices, fabrics, silk, etc.

Spain-The Genoese sailor Critóbal Columbus stands out, who in the service of Spain
(Catholic Monarchs), made four voyages. He arrived in the new lands in 1492, to what is
now The Bahamas (San Salvador or Watling) and what he believed was India (Indians),
which is why he called the inhabitants of these islands Indians. In 1493 (November 19)
he arrived in Boriquén (Puerto Rico) which was called San Juan by the Spanish. Some
historians point out that the first to arrive in America were the Vikings, coming from
Scandinavia.

Other discoverers-

Alonso de Ojeda-Together with Américo Vespucio and Juan de la Cosa, he arrived in the
Guyanas and Venezuela. In honor of Vespucci, the new lands were named “America”.

Vicente Yánez Pinzón-Discovered the northern part of Brazil. The Portuguese Pedro
Alvarez Cabral did the same two months later on behalf of Portugal.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa-Took, in the name of Spain, the South Sea, today the Pacific
Ocean.

Hernando de Magellan-He is responsible for the Strait of Magellan in southern South

America.

-By the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal resolved their dispute over the new
lands.

As a result of the voyages of exploration, trade began to flourish in European

countries. For example, some cities began to mint coins and now an economy based on
capitalism would develop. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of
production and distribution are in private hands (not in the hands of the government); free
enterprise is also promoted. A system contrary to capitalism is mercantilism, which is
based on the intervention of the State in economic affairs, to have greater control of them.
This is based on the accumulation of wealth based on precious metals (gold and silver).
In other words, there was a commercial revolution, which gave way to the bourgeoisie
(people who took power due to their economic and social growth).

Protestant Reformation:

The protagonist of this religious movement is Martin Luther, a Catholic priest who
pointed out some flaws in the Catholic Church. According to him, the church was very
corrupt and that principles not contained in the Bible were being applied. For him, only
faith was enough to save himself. Two other religious people who continued with this
reform movement were Calvin and Zwingli. Calvin believed in predestination, meaning
that only those chosen by God would be saved. Zwingli followed a doctrine similar to
Calvin (predestination). Another event that caused division in the Catholic Church was
Henry VIII's desire to divorce his wife Anne Boleyn. The Pope refused to grant it. Henry
decided to separate England from the Catholic Church and appointed himself head of the
Anglican Church. The Catholic Church began a movement to counter the Protestant
Reformation, this plan became known as the Counter-Reformation. Religious orders
played an important role in this fight between Catholics and Protestants.

Absolutism:

With the decline of the Middle Ages, European kings acquired more and more
powers. They came to have absolute control of the government, which was known as
absolutism. Louis XIV of France and Philip II of Spain were absolutist rulers. Under
these governments the people suffered great needs, while the nobility lived the high life.
Under Philip II, Spain was the main overseas power, this distinction would later precede
it at the hands of England. Louis

Baroque:

This is an artistic, spiritual and literary movement that emerged as a reaction

against the classic, characterized by excessive ornamentation and abundant decoration. It
breaks with the balance and classical harmony (typical of the Renaissance). This
movement began in Spain and was not as widespread in Europe. The Catholic Church
used this movement to carry its message against Protestantism. This was characterized by
naturalism (desire to imitate nature) and by presenting psychological emotions.

Science and philosophy:

Nicholas Copernicus-Defender of the heliocentric theory (sun center of the world) and
rejected the geocentric theory (Earth center of the Universe).

Galileo Galilei-Dedicated astronomer. He defended the heliocentric theory, but was

forced to rectify it by the tribunal (Inquisition) of the Catholic Church. His famous phrase
is: “But it moves” (referring to the Earth).

Isaac Newton-Creator of higher or advanced mathematics. He defined the laws of motion.

René Descartes-With him rationalism is reaffirmed. His methodology was based on the
search for reason and truth in the sciences. (Discourse on the method)

Francis Bacon-He is considered the father of empiricism (through experience, the truth is
reached).

Illustration:

Intellectual movement, which aimed to disseminate knowledge that until then had
remained in “darkness.” (Illustrate=give light)

The Enlightenment and encyclopedism:

The enlightened were defenders of the use of reason to reach the truth and therefore
happiness. These were opposed to absolutism which was based on the premise that kings
had divine authority to govern. The ideas of the Enlightenment spread quite quickly,
through pamphlets, magazines and the encyclopedia.

Some characters of the time: “illustrated”

1. Montesquieu-Critic of society, he came to defend the system of government based on the
balance of powers (Executive, Legislative and Judicial).

2. Voltaire-Attacked the French monarchy. He was a strong defender of individual freedom.

3. Rousseau-He defended his thesis that man is good by nature.

Deism-Doctrine that rejected any official institution or church, as well as external cults
and the priesthood. Many enlightened people were deists.

Encyclopedism-18th century The encyclopedia document in which all the knowledge,

fruit of the Enlightenment, was captured.

Physiocrats-economists defenders of laissez faire or economic liberalism, which

promoted freedom of enterprise and non-intervention of the State in the economy.

-Many absolutist monarchs adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment and became
“enlightened despots.” Ex: Catherine the Great of Russia.

Contemporary age:

North American Revolution:

England had some colonies in America and they decided to seek their freedom and
declared their independence in 1776 (July 4). The English were defeated with the help of
France in 1781. In 1783 England recognized the independence of the colonies. In 1787
the Constitution of the new nation was approved and in 1789 George Washington became
president of the federal government.

French Revolution:
 1787-1799 With this historical event, most absolutist monarchies disappear. The
nobility did not want to lose their privileges, the bourgeoisie sought political power and
the people suffered heavy taxes; This was the situation of what was known as the
“Ancient Regime.” The American Revolution accelerated the movement in France.

Process of the Revolution:

The revolution began at the hands of aristocrats who did not want to pay taxes.
Then it passed to the States General (Assembly of the people/of all sectors), then the
revolution broke out at the hands of the moderates (bourgeois) who sought a change in
the political, economic and social systems. France is going to transition to constitutional
monarchy. They then went through two political periods (Constituent Assembly 1789-
1791 and Legislative Assembly 1791-1792). There was a lot of instability and the
monarchy was abolished and gave way to the republic. Then the revolution will pass into
the hands of the exalted ones who were characterized by their violence (period of terror).
The last stage of the revolution passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie and from there
what was known as the Directory was formed. From here came Napoleon Bonaparte, an
enlightened despot who sought reforms and had himself named Emperor for life of
France. Napoleon had great victories as leader of France, but he wanted more power and
was finally defeated in 1815 (Waterloo).

Nationalism- Unification of the German states (Germany) and the Italian states (Italy)

Industrial Revolution- Technological in nature, it meant the change from manual to

mechanized work. Ex: steam engine Many of the ideas of the Enlightenment are put into
practice. Workers fight for their rights (unionism).

Imperialism- Tendency of some powerful states to dominate others. For example, France
and England divided up Africa in the 19th century. The United States is interested in the
Caribbean and Central America.

Twentieth century:
First World War-1914-1919 Result: Germany was defeated and had to pay millionaire
compensation. ( Treaty of Versailles)

World War II-1939-1945

Germany-Adolf Hitler (Axis countries) vs United States-FD Roosevelt (Allied countries)

Italy-Mussolini USSR-Josef Stalin

Japan-Hirohito England-Winston Churchill

Result-Defeat of Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy.

Cold War- Competition between capitalist countries (EU) and communist countries
(USSR). It lasted from 1945 to 1991.

Puerto Rico:

Discovered on November 19, 1493.

1508-Beginning of Spanish government on the Island.

Base of the economy-agriculture (first sugar and then coffee)-slavery

1870-Formation of the first political parties.

1897-1898 Autonomous government on the Island. (Autonomous Charter)

1898-Spanish-American War. The United States invades Puerto Rico. (gov. Military
1898-1900)

1900-Foraker Act, the establishment of a civil government.

1917-Jones Act, American citizenship.

1946-First Puerto Rican governor-Jesús T. Piñero (named by Truman)

 1948-First elected governor-Luis Muñoz Marín (16 years in the governorship)

1952-Commonwealth

USA:

Thirteen colonies become independent in 1783

1789-Federal Government: George Washington, President

1823-Monroe Doctrine-Foreign countries cannot intervene in America. (America for

Americans).

1846-War with Mexico.

1860-Abraham Lincoln-President

1861-1865 Civil War (anti-slavery North against the slave-owning South) –North, winner

1865 onwards-Reconstruction of the American Union.

1898-Spanish-American War-EU takes over the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico.

1914-World War I. EU intervenes in favor of the Allies

1929, 1930, 1931, 1932-Years of the Great Depression

1939-1945-World War II. Atomic bombs are dropped on Japan (1945)

1950-1953 War in Korea

1963-Kennedy assassination

1973-Withdrawal from Vietnam

1974-Nixon resignation

1990-1991-Gulf War
Spanish:

Accentuation rules:

Acute-Ending in n or s . Accent on the last syllable.

Ex: called, song, you will be

Plain-Ending in a consonant other than n or s . Accent on the penultimate syllable.

Ex: Pérez, tree

Esdrújulas-All. Accent on the penultimate syllable.

Ex: tenths, trees

Oversdrújulas-All. Accent before the penultimate syllable.

Ex: buy it for me

Words of doubtful writing:

They are written in two words:

Often

Despite

Sometimes

First of all

Through

In the middle

right away

Of course

Above all

They are written in a single word:

About

Apart

Barely

Coast Guard

In addition

Congratulations
 Sciences:

Physical sciences-

Force-Interaction between two bodies, tends to accelerate an object.

Work-W is the product of the force on an object and the distance the object travels.

Power-Tells us how fast a job is done.

Energy-Ability to do work. Two types:

1. kinetics-everything that is in motion

2. potential-energy at rest

Forms of energy:
 1. Mechanical-produced by motors

2. Chemistry-by bond breaks

3. Radiant - emits light (sun)

4. Electrical-electron flow

5. Nuclear-breakdown of nuclei

6. Thermal-produces heat

Energy sources:

1. oil

2. mineral coal

3. hydroelectric power

4. nuclear energy

Alternative Energy Sources:

1. Solar Energy

2. Wind energy

Heat- It is measured in joules or calories. Energy that flows from one object to another as
a result of the random movement of the objects' molecules. The transfer of energy is
always from a hot object to a cold one. There are three ways to transfer heat: conduction
(contact of two bodies), convection (through a medium/air or water) and radiation
(electromagnetic waves).
Matter -Everything that has mass and occupies space. Solid, liquid and gas. Metal or
non-metal. Pure substances and mixtures.

Climate -Changes that occur in atmospheric conditions.

Cloud formation process:

Convection-air heats up and rises; collect the droplets

Mountains-serve as ramps to air masses

Meeting of masses with different density.

Precipitation- Water returns to the surface in liquid or solid form

Coalescence-union of water droplets

Growth of ice crystals (snow/hail)

Producers of Time-

Movement of air masses

Formation of cold fronts

High and low pressure associated with air masses and fronts

Air Masses - Large bodies of air that remain over a geographic area long enough to
acquire the temperature and humidity of that region. They are classified depending on the
temperature and humidity where they originate.
 Types of Air Masses:

1. Polar maritime

2. Tropical maritime

3. Polar continental

4. Tropical continental

Air Fronts- The boundary between air masses with different temperatures is known as a
front.

Types of fronts:

1. Cold front

2. Hot forehead

3. Stationary front

Minor Storms:

1. Waves

2. Tropical wave

3. Tropical depression

4. Tropical storm

Major Storms:

1. Lightning storms

2. Tornadoes

3. Hurricanes
 Climate zones:

1. Polar climate

2. Temperate climate

3. Tropical climate

The universe-

Stars-balls of gases that are constantly burning.

Planets-land mass, reflects sunlight

Sun-star with its own light, dense ball of gases

Stars:

Main sequential

red giant

White dwarf

Not going

Black Hole (Black Hole)\

Neutron star

Press

Biology:
 Fossils teach us that before humans inhabited the Earth, plants, fish, insects, birds,
reptiles, mammals and other forms of life could be found on the planet. The evolution of
the human body is the result of organic changes over the course of millions of years.

Cell- Smallest part that has a life of its own.

Cell structure-

1. Outer membrane

2. Cytoplasm

3. Nuclear Membrane

4. Nucleus: Inside it-Chromatin and Nucleolus

Mitosis:

Interface

Prophase 1, 2, 3

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase 1,2

Product-Daughter cells

Floors:

They vary in their structure and way of reproduction. Common organs (in most); stem,
leaves and root.
Animal Kingdom:

Two large groups: vertebrates and invertebrates. Invertebrates: they do not have a
backbone or internal skeleton, like worms, sponges, octopuses and insects. Vertebrates
have a backbone and internal skeleton such as: fish, birds and humans.

Body:

Bones-Sturdy pieces that form the framework of the body.

Cartilage-Soft parts

Function-Protect soft parts of the body.

Nervous system-

Spinal nervous system-Functions of movement, will, etc.

Syst. Autonomous nervous system - Regulates functions independent of any will

(involuntary movements).

Circulatory system-

It has the purpose of carrying blood to all parts of the body. The heart is an important
organ in this function.

Respiratory system-

Carry oxygen that the body needs for the combustion of nutrients.
 Digestion - Process of transforming food into substances that can be assimilated by the
body.

Excretion- It is responsible for the expulsion of waste from the body.

(Kidneys)

Endocrine system-

It is related to the functions of the endocrine glands.

Pituitary-Growth

Thyroid-Development of the reproductive system and increased metabolism

Parathyroid-Regulates calcium concentration in the blood

Pancreas-Secretes insulin

Adrenal glands-secretes cortisol, stress hormone, the medulla produces adrenaline

Sexual glands-Gonads (male testes/female ovaries)

Vocabulary:

1. Anatomy-Study of the human body

2. Biology-Study of life

3. Botany-Study of plants

4. Ecology-Study of the relationship between the environment and living beings

5. Zoology-Study of animals

6. Taxonomy-Studies the classification of organisms

7. Anaerobic-Does not require oxygen

8. Artery-Veins that carry blood

9. Carbon dioxide-CO2 Colorless, odorless gas found in the atmosphere.

10. Chlorophyll-Green substance that makes it easier for them to produce food with sunlight

11. Fertilization-Union of sexual gametes, to produce a new being

Math:

Order of operations:

1. Multiplication and Division-first (from left to right)

2. Addition and Subtraction-from left to right.

-Brackets and parentheses first.

LCM=Minimum Common Multiple

6 and 8 (Example)

6 8

6 8 LCM=24
12 16

18 24

24

30

Fractions:

Numerator

Denominator

Proper fraction-3/4, 3/7

Improper fraction-4/3, 7/5

To change to mixed: Ex: 9/4= 9 between 4 = 21/4

Equivalent Fractions- 3/5 and 27/24 Because I can divide and multiply by 9 in both.

3/5 (9) 27/45 (cross product must be equal)

Operations with Fractions:

Sum-Must have the same denominator

Subtraction-Same

Multiplication-Does not have to have the same denominator

Division-Does not have to have the same denominator

Minimum Common Denominator =

Ex: 5/6+3/8= 20/24+9/24= 1 5/24

24 times 6=4 times 5 is equal to 20 (numerator)

24 times 8=3 times 3 equals 9 (numerator)

DCM= 6 and 8 (24)

When I look up the fraction of a number:

½ of 40=20

1/5 of 40= 1/5 times 40=8

Division of Fractions:

-Change to multiplication:

3/5 divided by 4/7= 3/5 x 7/4=21/20

Decimals:
Multiplication-I'm going to roll the point to the left.

Division-I'm going to roll the point to the right

Percent:

8% of 40= .08 x 40

= 3.2

7% of 400= .07x 400

=28

What percent is 80 of 40?

80/40=2 (200 %)

Geometry:

Perimeter of rectangle-length+width x 2

Square=multiply measurement 4 times =Ex: 5.5 x 4

Polygon-Sum of all sides

Circumference=3.14 x diameter (circle- 3.14 x the square of its radius