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1. Introduction to Computers
Questions whose answers are revised (Question numbers are as per 25 edition materials) Q.No.1. Write about different generations of computers (Or) Historical Development of computers. The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development process. First Generation Computers: (1946 to 1959) These computers used vacuum tubes for data processing and storage. They had a memory size of 20 bytes and speed of 5 mbps. They produced lot of heat. These computers were unreliable and could not work fast with lot of data. They use punched card for data storage. Language used was Machine level language. The programmes were machine dependent. Those computers used to consume lot of power. Processors speed used to be measured in milliseconds.

Second Generation Computers: (1959 to 1965) These computers employed transistors and other similar devices. They were much smaller in size than first generation computers. They got memory size of 32 bytes and speed of 10 mbps. They were reliable compared to first generation computers. They produced less heat compared to first generation computers. They used punch cards for data storage. They consumed less energy compared to first generation computers. Language used was Assembly language. Processor speed started to be measured in micro seconds.

Third Generation Computers: (1965 to 1970) They were much more powerful and smaller in size than second generation computers. They used integrated circuits (I.C.) to store data which consisted of many transistors. The hardware cost and maintenance cost was much lower than second generation of computers. They were generally used for business and scientific purposes. They used storage disk for data storage e.g. magnetic disks, tapes. Third generation computers were more reliable compared to other previous generations. Mainframes, Mini computers were also one of the developments in third generation computers.

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Ph: 0863 22 42 355 Processors speed started to be measured in nanoseconds. The operating systems were introduced in this period.

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In this generation, high level programming languages were used. For e.g. FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL and BASIC.

Fourth Generation Computers: (From 1970) One of the major inventions was the Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSI). This technology helped to reduce cost and increase speed. These generation of computers were much smaller and cheaper than third generation of computers. They used large primary and secondary storage for storing programs and data. They used to consume less power, generate less heat and took less space than third generation computers. These computers use micro processors to process data. A micro processor is single chip which performs computer operations. They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. They used high level programming languages known as object oriented languages to develop software modules faster than earlier procedure oriented languages. The GUI features of the computer made these systems user friendly. The concept of resource sharing had been introduced using LAN, WAN and MAN in this generation. Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are: Instruction Set: The set of instructions that a microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz). The clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute.

Fifth Generation Computers: Introducing Artificial Intelligence to computers is the major development in this generation. Artificial Intelligence is a software that tries to imitate human characters such as reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing etc. At first all these applications seemed to be very simple. When programmers started working, they realised the difficulty. Artificial intelligence includes: Playing Games: Programming computers to play games such as chess, checkers, etc. on their own. Expert Systems: Programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations. (For example, some Expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms) Natural Language: Programming computers to understand natural human languages. Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains. Robotics: Programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli.

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Q.No.9. Define the term Computer? State its advantages & disadvantages. (RTP) Computer: The term computer is used to represent a calculating machine. It is an electronic data processing device capable of receiving input, storing instructions for solving problems and generating output with high speed and accuracy. Computers consist of switches, wires, motors, transistors and integrated circuits, etc. These components are wired together into a network called computing system or simply computer. Advantages of Computer System (Or) Characteristics of Computers: 1. Speed: The computer is a very high speed electronic device. Computers can handle complex tasks in seconds. The computer generates signals during the operation process. Therefore the speed of computer is usually measured in Mega hertz (MHz) or Giga hertz (GHz). Computer operations are measured in milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds and picoseconds. Computers can perform more than 2500 MIPS. They can handle very complex tasks in just seconds.

2. Accuracy: Computer is also very accurate device. It gives accurate results provided that the correct input data and set of instructions are given to the computer. It means that output is totally dependent on the given instructions and input data. If input data is wrong then the resulting output will be wrong. In computer terminology it is known as garbage-in and garbage-out. 3. Reliability: The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate. The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any problem and produces consistent (reliable) results. 4. Storage: A computer has internal storage (memory) as well as external or secondary storage. In secondary storage, a large amount of data and programs (set of instructions) can be stored for future use. The stored data and programs are available at any time for processing. 5. Automation: A computer can automatically perform operations without human interference. It automatically controls different devices attached to the computer. 6. Versatility: Modern computers can perform different kinds of tasks one by one or simultaneously. It is the most important feature of a computer. 7. Communications: Today computer is mostly used to exchange messages or data through computer networks all over the world. For example the information can be received or send through the internet with the help of computer. 8. Diligence: A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It does not get tired while working after hours of work. It performs the operations with the same accuracy as well as speed as the first one. 9. No Feelings: Computer is an electronic machine. It has no feelings. It detects objects on the basis of instructions given to it. On the other hand, computer cant make judgments on its own. Its judgments are totally based on instructions given. 10. Consistency: People often have difficulty to repeat same instructions again and again. For example, a lecturer feels difficult to repeat the same lecture again and again. Computers can repeat actions consistently (again and again) without loosing its concentration.
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11. Precision: Computers are not only fast and consistent but they also perform operations very accurately and precisely. For example, in manual calculations and rounding fractional values (The value with decimal point can change the actual result). Limitations of computer system: 1. Programmed by human beings: Though computer is programmed to work efficiently and accurately, it is programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer is nothing. 2. No Intelligence: Although computers are faster, more diligent, accurate and versatile than human beings, it cannot replace human beings. Its performance depends on instructions given to it. 3. No decision making power: Computer cant make any decisions nor can it render any help to solve a problem on its own. 4. Emotionless: Computers are emotionless. They do not have emotions as human beings. Q.No.12. Write about various features of CPU. Clock Speed: (M08-1M, June 09 1M) Clock speed is the speed at which processor can execute instructions. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz) - which indicates millions of cycles per second. Therefore, a 450 MHz processor can perform 450 Million instructions per second. Higher the clock speed, faster the processor, better the system performance. Cache Memory: (M03, N04, M06, M07, N08-1M, RTP) RAM is slower and CPU works at a very high speed. Therefore, CPU should slow down to the speed of RAM which reduces the processing speed. To minimise this, Cache memory is provided between RAM and CPU. Processors incorporate their own internal cache memory. The cache acts as temporary memory and boosts processing power significantly. The cache that comes with the processor is called Level One (L1) cache. This cache runs at the processors clock speeds, and therefore it is very fast. The L1 cache is divided into 2 sections - one for data, the other for instructions. Generally, more the L1 cache, faster the processor. Additionally, PCs also include a much slower secondary or Level Two (L2) cache. This cache resides on the motherboard and delivers slower performance when compared to L1 cache. Level 3 cache memory called L3 Cache or Level 3 Cache is located on the motherboard. Level 3 cache is now the name for the extra cache built into motherboards between the microprocessor and the main memory. L3 cache is specialised memory that works hand-in-hand with L1 and L2 cache to improve computers performance. On-board cache is faster, more efficient and less expensive than placing separate cache on the motherboard.

Architecture: The CPUs architecture determines the manner in which it processes data. New CPUs employ multi-staged pipelines for transmitting data. To ensure proper data flow through these lines, the CPU includes a kind of prediction and error correction mechanism.
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There are two main types of slots for connecting to the motherboard - Socket 7 and Slot 1. Socket 7 is a 321-pin socket used for Pentium class CPUs like - Pentium MMX, K5, K6 - ranging from 75 MHz to 200 MHz processors. However, Pentium II/III CPUs use Slot 1 for connecting to the motherboard. Slot 1 CPUs fit onto the motherboard as a daughter card, which allows faster communication.

Density: A CPU is made up of millions of small transistors. New CPUs are being developed with a distance of 0.35 micron, delivering faster performance. MMX: (June 09 1M) MMX stands for Multimedia Extensions - a set of instructions built in to the CPU. These instructions are specifically meant for improving the performance of multimedia or graphic applications. Cooling CPU: While processing, CPU generates lot of heat. If the CPU is not cooled properly, it may lead to different types of errors including system crashes. Therefore, CPU is covered by a heat sink and a small cooling fan to dissipate the heat generated by the processor. Q.No.15. Write about different types of storage devices. (For academic interest only) Storage Devices: CPU cant store data and instructions to operate the computer just like the human brain, Computers also need some blocks of space to store programs and data. This space is called memory or storage. Types of storage: Various forms of storage have been invented. Till now there is no universal storage medium. 1. Primary storage: Primary storage is directly connected to the central processing unit of the computer Memory must be present for the CPU to function properly. Primary storage typically consists of 3 kinds of storage: a. Processor registers: These are internal to the CPU. Registers contain information that is necessary for ALU to carry out the current instruction. Technically they are the fastest of all forms of computer storage. It operates as an electronic flipflops. b. Main memory: It contains some programs and data that are currently being run. The arithmetic and logic unit can quickly transfer information between processor register and main memory. It is also known as "memory addresses". c. Cache memory: it is a special type of internal memory used by central processing units to increase their performance or "throughput". Some of the information in the main memory is duplicated in the cache memory, which is slightly slower but of much greater capacity than the processor registers, and faster but much smaller than main memory. 2. Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage and robotic storage: Secondary storage requires the computer to use its input/output channels to access the information, and is used for permanent storage of information. Secondary storage is also known as "mass storage". Generally the capacity of Secondary or mass storage is much greater than primary memory (main memory). But it is very much slow when compared to primary memory.

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In modern computers, hard disks are usually used for mass storage. Rotating optical storage devices (such as CD and DVD drives) are still slower than hard disks.

a. Tertiary storage: It is a system where a robotic arm will "mount" (connect) or "dismount" (disconnect) off-line mass storage devices according to the demand of computer operating system. Tertiary storage is used in the areas of enterprise storage and scientific computing on large computer systems and business computer networks. b. Off-line storage: It is a system where the storage medium can be easily removed from the storage device. Off-line storage is used for data transfer and archival purposes. In modern computers, floppy discs, optical discs and flash memory devices including "USB drives" are commonly used for off-line mass storage purposes. "Hot-pluggable" USB hard disks are also available. Off-line storage devices used in the past include magnetic tapes, removable Winchester disks/drums. c. Robotic storage: It is a new type of storage method used for backups, and for high capacity archives in imaging, medical, and video industries. Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. 3. Network storage: Network storage is any type of computer storage that involves accessing information over a computer network. Network storage allows to centralize the information management in an organization. It helps to reduce the duplication of information. Network storage includes: a. Direct Attached Storage (DAS): It refers to a network storage system on which data is saved to the server computer's internal hard drive. The network workstations access the server to connect to the storage. b. Network Attached Storage (M06, N08-5M): NAS is a type of network storage system that saves data onto another computer system attached to a group of computers through a network or onto a special server attached to the network. c. Storage Area Network (SAN): It is an architecture to attach remote computer data storage devices (such as disk arrays, tape libraries and optical juke boxes) to servers so that the devices appear as locally attached to the operating system. d. Network Attached Storage: It is a secondary or tertiary storage attached to a computer which another computer can access over a Local Area Network or a private wide area network or in the case of online file storage over the Internet. Q.No.17. Write about Semi Conductor memories or Integrated circuits (N98-1M, M00-5M) This type of storage devices are based on the principles of storage chips. An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or a microchip, is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors and transistors are fabricated. Faster and more expensive bipolar semi conductor chips are often used in ALU and high speed buffer storage sections of CPU. The ICs can be scaled according to the capacity of the chip used in storing the data in a computer. SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip.

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MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip. LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip. VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip. ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chip.

Slower and less expensive chips that employ metal-oxide semi-conductor (MOS) technology are used in main memory section. These are again divided into - permanent (Non Volatile) and non permanent (Volatile). Non volatile chips can retain the data permanently i.e. they hold data even when the computer is switched off. (E.g. ROM BIOS) On the other hand Volatile chips loose their contents when the computers power is switched off i.e. these chips provide volatile storage. RAM is the best example for this type of memory.

Q.No.18. Define the term RAM. Write about various kinds of it? (N94, M01) Meaning: The memory system constructed with metal oxide semi conductor storage elements that can be changed is called Random Access Memory. It is used to hold intermediary data in the computer. The contents of this memory chips are temporary and can be easily changed. It is the workspace for the computers processor.

Why is it called so? It is called random access memory because access time in RAM is independent of the address of the data. One can reach into the memory at random and insert or remove numbers in any location at anytime. Types of RAM: [Difference between Static Vs Dynamic RAM -1M] 1. Dynamic RAM: It is the most common type of main memory. It is dynamic because each memory cell quickly loses its charge. So it must be refreshed for hundreds of times each second. Todays dynamic RAM is coming with built in refresh circuits. This saves lot of processing power. Types of DRAMs: Fast Page Mode (FPM) - It is an early form of DRAM that was once very common because it was slightly faster than DRAM. Extended Data Out (EDO) DRAM is slightly faster than FPM. EDO offers a slight performance boost over FPM DRAM by cutting a few steps when addressing memory. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) can synchronize itself with the clock that controls the CPU. RAMBUS DRAM (RDRAM) is very fast, but the system must be slightly redesigned to use it. Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) is a newer form of SDRAM that can theoretically improve memory clock speed to 200 megahertz (MHz) or more.

2. Static RAM: Static RAM (SRAM) is like DRAM but it is faster, larger and more expensive. It is static because it is not required to refresh the contents of RAM continuously. Because of its speed, SRAM is mainly used in special area of memory called cache memory. SRAM can be of 3 types:
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a. Asynchronous RAM: It is an older type of SRAM used in many PCs for L2 cache. It is asynchronous, meaning that it works independently of the system clock. b. Synchronous RAM: This type of SRAM is synchronous, meaning it is synchronized with the system clock. While this speeds it up, it makes it rather expensive at the same time. c. Pipeline Burst SRAM: This is commonly used SRAM that requests pipelined data processing method, meaning larger packets of data is resent to the memory at once, and acted on very quickly. Questions newly added Q.No.1. Historical Development of computers. The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies - Automated calculation and Programmability. An example of early mechanical calculating device is Abacus. The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. With abacus, a person can work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The first mechanical digital calculating machine was built in 1642 by the French Scientist, Philosopher, Blaise Pascal. In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz invented a computer that was built in 1694. It could add and multiply, after making some changes. In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave patterns automatically. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualise and design a fully programmable mechanical computer. In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium. After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled with punched cards. In 1944, IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called the Mark I was developed at Harvard University by Howard H. ENIAC (pronounced /nik/), short for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, was the first general-purpose, electronic computer built in 1946 by J.Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. Modern type computer began with John von Neumann's development of software written in binary code.

Q.No.2. Explain the concept of Video RAM? It is used to accelerate the display of graphics on the screen. It does this by using two ports, one connected to the CPU and the other to the screen. Data flows in one port and out form the other, very smoothly. A variation of this is Window RAM (WRAM) that supports memory.

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2. Input & Output Devices

Questions whose answers are revised (Question numbers are as per 25 edition materials) - nil Newly added Questions Q.No.1. Write about MIDI Devices? MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a system designed to transmit information between electronic musical instruments. For example a MIDI musical keyboard can be attached to a computer. This allows a performer to play music that is captured by the computer system as a sequence of notes with the associated timing (instead of recording digitized sound waves).

Q.No.2. Write about a digital camera? A digital camera is a device that takes digital images and saves them to memory. The user then connects the camera to the computer where images are uploaded and saved. Webcam is other type of camera that is known as video capture device. It is generally connected to a computer or computer network using an USB port. Webcams help people to take images from the computer and communicate visually with other users on the Internet.

Q.No.3. Write about Multifunctional Printers (MFT)? Multifunction peripheral is a single device that serves several functions, in addition to printing. Typically, multifunction printers can act as a printer, a scanner, a fax machine and a photo copier. It provides centralized document management / distribution / production in a large-office setting. These devices are becoming popular option for SOHO users (Small Office / Home Office). Now a days, Multifunction printers are available from almost all printer manufacturers. Naturally, the cost, usability, robustness, throughput, output quality, etc. vary. However, they all do the same functions; Print, Scan, Fax, and Photocopy. In the commercial / enterprise area, most MFPs use Laser Printer technology. In personal, SOHO environments, Inkjet Printer technology is used.

Q.No.4. Write about speakers? (Including Sound Card) Generally speakers and their associated technology are key output systems. Today, when one buys a multimedia PC, one gets a machine that includes a CD-ROM drive, a high quality video controller, speakers and a sound card. Speakers are usually smaller and they contain their own small amplifiers. The more complicated part of the sound output system is in the sound card. The sound card translates digital sounds into the electric current that is sent to the speakers. Sound is defined as air pressure varying over time.

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To digitize sound, the waves are converted to an electric current measured thousands of times per second and recorded as a number. When the sound is played back, the sound card reverses this process, translating the series of numbers into electric current that is sent to the speakers. The magnet moves back and fourth with the changing current, creating vibrations.

3. Software
Questions whose answers are revised (Question numbers are as per 25th edition materials) Q.No.3. What is meant by System Software? Write about different types of system software? System software is a computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide and maintain a platform for running application software. System software helps us to use the operating system and computer system. The purpose of system software is to insulate the application programmer as much as possible from the details of the computer. It includes the following: Programming languages. Operating systems. Device Drivers. Utility programs. Language translators.

System software is essential for the development of applications software. System Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Without system software, application software cant run. Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge of computer technology. Computer manufactures build and supply system software with the computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used system softwares.

Q.No.4. What are Programming Languages? Write about different programming languages available? Programming Languages: A programming language is used to communicate with computer through a program. For each specific task a program must be written so that computer can interpret it. A program is developed to direct processing steps of the computer. Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it understands) and a special syntax for organizing program instructions. Every instruction must follow some specific rules that form a language.

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Programming languages are a part of software or programming aids provided by the manufacturer. A programming language is a language used in writing programs, to direct processing steps to be carried out by a computer. The programming languages can be hierarchically divided as follows. Machine / 1st Generation Languages Compiler based/3rd Generation Languages Assembly / 2nd Generation Languages Fourth Generation Language Fifth Generation Languages

Q.No.14. Write about different operating systems available in the market? MS / PC-DOS: As IBM was about to finalise the PC, it started to negotiate with other computer companies to get a suitable OS for the product. In 1980, IBM and Microsoft started negotiations for the production of a suitable PC OS. Microsoft purchased 86 DOS from Seattle Computer Products. 86 DOS was totally modified and upgraded and a new 16 bit OS called PC-DOS was released. In 1981, IBM introduced its PC with PC-DOS as its operating system. Microsoft released an almost identical version of this OS under the name of MS-DOS.

OS/2: In 1987 IBM and Microsoft announced a new PC OS called OS/2 (Operating System Two). Unfortunately, the original OS/2 was not very successful because it was unable to support many existing PC applications. So users faced compatibility problems. Microsoft left OS/2 to IBM and chose to concentrate on MS-DOS and Windows.

MS Windows: Microsoft windows is one of the most popular operating system, its success is often attributed because of Graphical User Interface (GUI) feature. In this system we click on icons with mouse button rather than writing the command as in MS-DOS.

Different Flavors of Windows Operating System

Window 95: Windows 95, a 32 bit OS was released in August 1995. Windows 95 was designed to have certain critical features over and above what was already supplied by Windows 3.1. These include: A 32-bit architecture which provides for multitasking environment. One click access i.e. the user need not double click the mouse to activate an application. The user can employ long file names. Plug and play technology - enables users to connect various peripheral devices with minimum effort.
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Ph: 0863 22 42 355 Windows 95 is also network ready. In addition Windows 95 is backward compatible. Windows NT: (M04-5M) Windows New Technology (NT) is a critical OS for network.

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It is a 32 bit OS. It is very much preferred for Intels more powerful Pentium range of processors. Important features include: A stable multitasking environment, Enhanced security features, Increased memory support, Network utilities, Windows NT is more expensive than other Windows OSs and & require lot of processing power.

Windows 2000: An operating systems produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, business desktops, laptops, and servers released on 17 February 2000. It was the successor to Windows NT 4.0

Windows XP: It is an operating system produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, and media centers. It was first released in August 2001, and is currently one of the most popular versions of Windows. The name "XP" is short for "eXPerience." Windows XP has new features to the Windows line, including: Faster start-up, More user-friendly interface Fast user switching ClearType font rendering mechanism Remote Desktop functionality

Windows Vista: In 2007 Microsoft released Windows Vista. Windows Vista contains many changes and new features, including an updated graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Aero, a redesigned search function, multimedia tools including Windows DVD Maker and redesigned networking, audio, print, and display sub-systems. Vista aims to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network. It is available in different editions.

Windows 7.0: It is the latest release of Microsoft Windows, a series of operating systems produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, notebooks, tablet PCs and media center PCs. Mac OS: It is a graphical user interface-based operating system developed by Apple Inc. Early versions of the Mac OS were compatible only with Motorola 68000-based Macintosh computers.
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Unix is an operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Labs. The UNIX environment and the clientserver program model were essential elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers. UNIX is a open system".

Linux OS: Linux is the generic name for a UNIX-like operating system that can be used on a wide range of devices from supercomputers to wristwatches. The Linux kernel is released under an open source license, so anyone can read and modify its code. It has been modified to run on a large variety of electronic devices. Newly added Questions Q.No.1. Write about fifth Generation Languages? A fifth-generation programming language (abbreviated 5GL) is a programming language based around solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer. Most constraint-based and logic programming languages and some declarative languages are fifth-generation languages. Fifth-generation languages are designed to make the computer solve a given problem without the programmer. This way, the programmer only needs to worry about what problems need to be solved and what conditions need to be met, without worrying about how to implement a routine or algorithm to solve them. Fifth-generation languages are used mainly in Artificial intelligence research, fuzzy logic and neural networks. Prolog, OPS5, and Mercury are the best known fifth-generation languages.

Q.No.2. what is meant by Multithreading? Generally an application is implemented as a separate process with several threads of control. In some situations a single application may be required to perform several similar tasks. It is efficient to have one process that contains multiple threads to serve the same purpose. To get the advantages like responsiveness, resource sharing economy and utilization of multiprocessor architectures, multithreading concept can be used. Multithreading allows a process to keep running even if some threads within the process are stalled, working on a lengthy task, or awaiting user interaction, thus improve the performance of processing the task.

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Ph: 0863 22 42 355 Q.No.3. what is meant by Time sharing system?

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Time sharing is a methodology created to satisfy the processing needs of multiprogramming and batch operating system. In time sharing systems, the execution time is divided into small slots called "time slice". Each process is processed for a time slice and then the other process is taken for processing by the processor. This process goes on till all the jobs are processed. The process of shifting a microprocessor from processing of one job to the other is so rapid that the user can't even notice it. Each user feels like the processor is dedicatedly processing his job only. The main objective of the time sharing systems is to reduce the response time. Time sharing systems are more complex than multiprogramming operating systems.

Q.No.4. Write about Device Drivers? Device drivers are small files that act as an interface between hardware in a computer system and the operating system (OS). Hardware requires device drivers so that the OS can see the devices and handle them effectively and efficiently. A driver typically communicates with the device through the computer bus or communication subsystem to which the hardware connects. Common components that require drivers include keyboards, mice, controllers, graphics cards, audio hardware, Ethernet hardware, wireless cards, ports, card readers, card slots, CD/DVD drives, etc.

4. Data Storage, Retrieval & DBMS

Questions whose answers are revised (Question numbers are as per 25th edition materials) Q.No.1. Write about different coding schemes. BCD: BCD stands for binary Coded Decimal system. This is a 6 bit code i.e. each character is expressed in terms of a 4 bit code. Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Binary Equivalents 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001

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ASCII: ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This code is extensively used in small computers, peripherals, instruments and communication devices. It is a seven-bit code. Microcomputers using 8-bit word length use 7 bits to represent the basic code. The 8th bit is used for parity or it may be permanently 1 or 0. With 7 bits, up to 128 characters can be coded. A letter, digit or special symbol is called a character. It includes upper and lower case alphabets, numbers, punctuation marks, special and control characters. ASCII-8: A newer version of ASCII is ASCII-8 code, which is an 8-bit code. With 8 bits, the code capacity is extended to 256 characters. EBCDIC: EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is a standard character code for large computers. It is a 8-bit code without parity and 9th bit can be used as parity bit. Using 8 bits 256 characters can be coded.

Unicode: Unicode is a worldwide character code standard. In this code system, 16-bits (2 bytes) are used to represent a single character or symbol. Using this code system, 65,536 different characters can be represented inside the computer. The first 256 codes in Unicode are identical to the 256 codes used by ASCII system. Unicode system is supported by the popular operating systems such as Windows 2000 and OS/2 and also supported by some applications. Q.No.16. Write about different types of database users? a. Naive users: They are not aware of the presence of the database system supporting the usage. b. Online users: They communicate with database either directly through online terminal or indirectly through user interface or application programs. Usually they acquire atleast some skill and experience to communicate with the database.

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c. Application programmers: They are responsible for developing application programs and user interfaces. d. Data Base Administrator: He can execute centralized control and is responsible for maintaining the database. He is the most familiar person with the database. Q.No.28. Write about SQL? Explain its utility in DBMS. (N04 5M) (M06, M08 1M, RTP)

a. A query language is a set of commands to create, update and access data from a database allowing users to raise adhoc queries / questions interactively without the help of programmers. b. Structured Query Language (SQL) is a computer programming language used to manipulate information in relational database management systems (RDBMS). c. It is widely used by many database software systems, including MySQL, SQL Server, Postgre SQL and the Oracle Database. d. The SQL language is usually considered to have three parts: DML or data manipulation language: DML consist of SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE statements. DDL or data definition language: DDL is made up of CREATE and ALTER statements. DCL or data control language: DCL consists of GRANT and REVOKE statements.

The SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including: Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and queries. Expressions which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and rows of data. Predicates which specify conditions that can be evaluated to Boolean (true/false/unknown) truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and queries, or to change program flow. Queries which retrieve data based on specific criteria. Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may control transactions, program flow, connections, sessions or diagnostics. SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement terminator. Though not required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQL grammar. Insignificant whitespace is generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it easier to format SQL code for readability.

Queries: The most common operation in SQL is the query, which is performed with the declarative SELECT statement. SELECT retrieves data from one or more tables, or expressions. Queries allow the user to describe desired data, leaving the database management system (DBMS) responsible for planning, optimizing, and performing the physical operations necessary to produce that result as it chooses. A query includes a list of columns to be included in the final result immediately following the SELECT keyword.

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An asterisk ("*") can also be used to specify that the query should return all columns of the queried tables.

SELECT is the most complex statement in SQL, with optional keywords and clauses that include: The FROM clause which indicates the table(s) from which data is to be retrieved. The FROM clause can include optional JOIN sub clauses to specify the rules for joining tables. The WHERE clause includes a comparison predicate, which restricts the rows returned by the query. The WHERE clause eliminates all rows from the result set for which the comparison predicate does not evaluate to True. The GROUP BY clause is used to project rows having common values into a smaller set of rows. GROUP BY is often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation functions or to eliminate duplicate rows from a result set. The WHERE clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause. The HAVING clause includes a predicate used to filter rows resulting from the GROUP BY clause. Because it acts on the results of the GROUP BY clause, aggregation functions can be used in the HAVING clause predicate. The ORDER BY clause identifies which columns are used to sort the resulting data, and in which direction they should be sorted (options are ascending or descending). Without an ORDER BY clause, the order of rows returned by an SQL query is undefined. Some query languages have been designed in such a way that the command used is as close to Standard English text as possible. Query languages in a user-friendly way allow users to retrieve data from database. Newly added Questions Q.No.1. What is data independence and explain different types of it? Data Independence: It is an ability of a database to modify a schema definition at one level without affecting the schema in the next higher level. The architecture allows data independence. Data independence occurs because when the schema is changed at one level, the schema at next level remains unchanged and only the mapping between the two levels is changed.

Two types of Data Independence are: Physical Data Independence: To change in the internal schema, it does not need to be changed in conceptual schema. Changes in internal schema may be needed because of changes in physical structure - by upgrading storage structure, to improve the performance of the system. Logical Data Independence: To change in the conceptual schema, it does not need to do change in external schema. We may change conceptual schema to expand the database by adding, deleting, updating the records in the database.

Q.No.2. Write about Entity- Relational Model or Database? (M07 5M) An E-R model is a specialized graphic that illustrates the interrelationship between entities in a database. It is an abstract and conceptual representation of data.

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Entity-relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema of a system. The entity is defined as a distinguishable object that exists in isolation and is described by a set of attributes. An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as a customer transaction or order. A computer, an employee, a song, a department, a city are examples of E/R Model. A relationship is the association among several entities. For example, a works relationship between an employee and a department, a contain relationship between an order and Item, a performance relationship between an artist and a song, and many more. Entities and relationships can both have attributes. An attribute is a data element that describes an entity. For example: an employee entity might have a Social Security Number , Employee Name, Gross salary as an attribute of employee and department relationship. The set of all entities or relationships of the same type is called the entity set or relationship set. The degree of relationship indicates the link between the two entities for a specified occurrence of each. The degree of relationship is also called "Cardinality". Cardinality specifies how many instances of an entity relate to one instance of another entity. Consider an example of E-R diagram.

Q.No.3. Explain various parts of DBMS? Both the database and DBMS software is called Database System. A database system has four major parts: Data, Hardware, Software Users,

Data: An important component of the system, most organizations generate, store and process large amount of data.

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The data acts as a bridge between machine parts i.e. hardware and software and the users, who access it directly or through some application programs. The data stored in the system is partitioned onto one or more databases. A database, then, is a repository for stored data. In general, it is both integrated and shared.

Hardware: The hardware consists of secondary storage devices such as magnetic disks (hard disk, zip disk, floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes, etc. on which data is stored together with I/O devices (mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory, etc. which are used for storing and retrieving the data in a fast and efficient manner. In other words, hardware consists of secondary storage volumes, disks, drums, etc. on which the database resides, together with associated devices, control units, channels and so on.

Software: The software part of a DBMS acts as a bridge between user and the database. In other words, software interacts with users, application programs and database and file system of a particular storage media (hard disk, magnetic tapes etc.) to insert, update, delete and retrieve data. For performing operations such as insertion, deletion and updation, query languages like SQL or application software like Visual Basic can be used.

Users: The broad classes of users are: a. Application Programmers and System Analysts: System analysts determine the requirements of end users; especially naive and parametric end users, and develop specifications for canned transactions that meet these requirements. Application programmers implement these specifications as programs, and than they test, debug, document, and maintain these canned transactions. b. End Users: These are the people who require access to the database for querying updating and generating reports. The database exists primarily for /their use. c. Database Administrator (DBA): DBA is responsible for authorization access to the database, for coordinating and monitoring its use, and for acquiring the needed software and hardware resources. d. Database Designers: These are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database for choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this data.

The End

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