LV02 - Foundation Skills - Issue 1

kap all covers
6/9/03
9:48 am
Page 3
Student Workbook
LV02 Foundation Skills
LV02/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV02 FOUNDATION SKILLS
Contents
Page
Common Hand Tools: Air tools Air ratchet Air gun Air drill Hand spanners, wrenches and sockets Special sockets Torque wrenches Pliers and grips Files and filing Using the file Hacksaw Drills and drilling Screw cutting Taps Dies Thread sizes Special service tools Progress check 1 Measurement: Length Area Volume Exercise Pressure: What is pressure? 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 18 Pressure units Pressure in liquids Progress check 2 Measuring Equipment: Micrometer Using the micrometer Reading the micrometer Vernier calliper Dial gauge Feeler gauge Progress check 3 Principles of Electricity: What is electricity? The principles of electricity Positively charged body Conductors, semi-conductors and Insulators How is flow of electricity measured? Voltage Electrical resistance Ohms Law Transposing Ohms Law Watts Progress check 4 (Cont.) ..
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20 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 30 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
-1Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
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Electrical Measurement: Multimeters Unit multipliers Multimeter use Progress check 5 Types of circuit Series Parallel Series parallel Progress check 6 Electrical wiring diagrams Japanese manufacturers European manufacturers Locking and Securing Devices: Bolts and screws Nuts and washers Chemical thread locking Progress check 7 40 40 41 41 43 44 44 44 45 46 47 47 50 51 51 53 54 55
.. Inspection and Fault-finding Techniques: Diagnosis techniques Driver interrogation Gathering information Visual inspection Formulating your diagnostic strategy Progress check 8
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56 56 56 57 57 58 60
Common Hand Tools

Air tools A technicians hand tools are as important to him as surgical instruments are to a surgeon. Without a good selection and perhaps more importantly, a high level of skill with respect to use and application, a technician cannot do the job. Let us study a few of the more common hand tools that a technician is likely to require.
Air ratchet
This tool lends itself particularly well to the removal of screws used in large quantities to secure components, such as those found holding a sump. It is rare for such a tool to have any sort of torque regulation, so its use for refitting screws should be avoiding or carried out with a great deal of care final tightening should always be carried out with a torque wrench (studied later in this chapter). Air gun
This does a similar job to the air ratchet but is generally capable of generating far more torque. The torque output is normally adjustable through a knurled knob. Unlike the air ratchet, air guns are designed for use with two hands and are produced with inch, inch and even 1 inch drives. The latter is a pretty fearsome piece of kit and deserves some respect!
Air drill
This can be used to carry out typical drilling operations and is powered by air pressure like the other tools described here. One key benefit of all air tools is safety. From a safety aspect, they win hands down when compared to electrical power tools. The reason is clear when you consider that a vehicle technician often has to work in damp conditions. Hand spanners, wrenches and sockets
Spanners (or wrenches) are the technicians bread and butter tools. These tools facilitate the removal of the nuts and bolts that secure components to a vehicle to enable repair or access. There are many different types of spanners available, designed for a multitude of tasks but four of the most commonly used are shown above. Ring spanners provide more contact between the tool and the nut or bolt and their use is far less likely to result in damage or rounding off. Open-ended spanners should be used only when a ring spanner is not suitable.
Most types of spanners have cranked ends to help location with the flats of a nut or bolt, where access is tight and the nut or bolt can only be moved by a small amount each time.
Sockets are also designed for aiding the removal of nuts and bolts. Unlike a spanner, they cannot be used on their own but have to be used in conjunction with a secondary tool such as a ratchet or perhaps a knuckle bar or speed brace. The spanner priority should be observed when deciding which tool is best suited for the removal of a nut or bolt. Other factors permitting, the choice should be in the following order socket, ring spanner, open-ended, and finally an adjustable spanner if all else has failed! Sockets are available in varying sizes and shapes such as shallow, standard, deep, six point and twelve point. Strengthened sockets (impact sockets) must always be used with air tools. Standard sockets do not have sufficient strength and could shatter.
Special sockets
Standard hexagon head bolts are rarely found in areas where there is little room to spare and where large amounts of torque are required. It is more common to find multi-spline, Torx or Allen key female-headed bolts (discussed later in this workbook).
Torque wrenches
A torque wrench is designed to facilitate the accurate and consistent tightening of nuts and bolts. They can also be used for carrying out adjustments where a given amount of resistance to rotation is required on an assembly (pre-load). Each use requires a different type of torque wrench - a click type for tightening nuts and bolts and a torque meter for pre-load adjustment. The picture above shows a click type in use. It is bad practice to click the wrench several times when tightening a bolt. One click is sufficient. If more than one click is heard, the bolt could be over-tightened.
Pliers and grips
Pliers can be used for a variety of tasks and there are many different types available. Combination pliers are the most common and can be used to carry out any number of operations where increased grip and leverage are required. Generally speaking, side cutters can do a large number of jobs adequately, but if there is a specific task in mind, it is wise to consider a specialist tool for the job (i.e. electrical pliers for wire cutting and crimping connectors). Electrical pliers provide a limited degree of protection to the user from an electric shock thanks to the use of insulation on the handles. Lockwire pliers are used for the application of lockwire. This material is used to secure nuts and bolts found on machinery subject to a great deal of vibration - the wire prevents them shaking loose. It is commonly found on military vehicles and aircraft. -6Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Files and filing
The file is a form of hand operated milling tool. It can be used for shaping metal objects and dressing rough edges. The body and heel are all cutting faces, whilst the tang is provided for the fitting of a handle. All cutting portions are hardened and tempered, whereas the tang is usually left in a softened condition.
Using the file

Flat triangle Round
Flat
Square
Before using the file, ensure that the handle is secure by striking it lightly on a hard surface. Apply the file to the work surface holding the handle with the master hand. Guide the tool with the other. Move the file tangentially to the work surface whilst applying light, even pressure. The ability to file a surface flat will only develop with a great deal of practice! Work surface lines can be eliminated by rubbing chalk on the teeth of the file. Regular use of chalk reduces the cutting depth and also reduces the likelihood of pinning (this is where swarf adheres to the file and scratches the work surface). It is also worth noting that a flat file is a rare thing indeed, you should also turn the file regularly during use. -7Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Hacksaw
A technicians role often requires the use of a hand cutting saw, such as a metal hacksaw. It is commonly used to cut off rods, bolts and studs. The replaceable blades are commonly made of alloy steel. This gives excellent cutting properties but also provides a large amount of strength should the blade be accidentally twisted. For most operations, a blade with 24 teeth per inch is ideal (this specification is still quoted in imperial measurement only). It is important when replacing a blade to ensure that the cutting teeth face forward. This ensures that the removal of metal occurs on the forward (and most powerful) stroke. An arrow on the blade is a fitting aid. Whenever cutting material mounted in a vice, ensure that the orientation between the work piece, the vice and the saw is such that a slip cannot cause the vice or work piece to be punched with the hand.
Drills and drilling
Drills are used to form holes in a variety of operations such as number-plate fitting, mud flap fitting and sheared bolt removal. There are many different types of drill, but the most commonly used example is the twist drill The flutes formed by the twist of the drill aid swarf clearance. Most good quality twist drills are made from high speed steel (HSS) and have excellent wear properties. Drilling, as an operation in engineering terms, is an exact science. However, as most drilling operations will be carried out by a technician using a hand drill (either pneumatic or electric), it should be noted that if an 8mm twist drill is used, the hole that results will often exceed this because of unavoidable movement during the drilling. So, pick a small drill and work your way up! Always use a centre punch prior to drilling, to aid location of the twist drill centre - and to prevent drift.
Screw cutting Occasionally, a technician is called upon to create, or perhaps improve, a screw thread. There are two types of screwing tools. Those designed for making internal threads are known as screwing taps, while those for making external threads on cylindrical parts are known as screwing dies. Taps
Keep the tap straight
Will result in a drunken thread
Taps are designed for cleaning out or forming threads internally. The tap consists of a threaded and fluted member, with a square end for mounting in a tap wrench. The taper tap has the last five or six threads ground away to ease passage of the tap into the drilled or prepared hole. This tap should be screwed in as far as it will go to form the bulk of the thread. The second cut tap is then used to bring the thread out to the correct finished dimensions. In general, a plug tap is used for finishing a thread in a blind hole. When cutting a new thread, it is important that the hole is drilled to the correct diameter to receive this cut thread. The required hole diameter is known as the tapping size. Ensure selection of a suitable drill bit to form a hole with the correct tapping size. Tapping hole tables are available. These indicate the twist drill required for any size of thread and the most popular of these is marketed under the Zeus brand. When cutting the thread, apply a little cutting lubricant to the tap. For cutting threads in steel, normal engine oil is fine. Use paraffin for aluminium alloys. Ensure that the tap is perpendicular to the work surface (and remains this way) otherwise a drunken thread will result. Screw the tap in two or three revolutions followed by one full backwards revolution this backwards revolution detaches any cut swarf and clears the flutes. Without a periodic reverse action, the thread will be very rough. - 10 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Dies
Dies are designed to cut external threads. The cylindrical material that is to receive the thread should be finished to an appropriate diameter (as with taps) in order to receive the appropriate die. Again, size tables should be consulted. With round split dies, a certain amount of adjustment is possible on the formed thread size, using the three screws provided on the diestock. These enable the split die diameter to be altered slightly. The same technique should be employed in the use of the die as that used with a tap (two to three rotations forward and then one back). The appropriate cutting lubricant should also be used. Thread sizes
Metric thread sizes are available in either fine or coarse variants. The geometry of these threads are shown above. It is the pitch that varies between metric fine and metric coarse. Fine has a pitch of 1.25mm and coarse a pitch of 1.5mm (dimension P above). - 11 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Special service tools
There are many types of special service tools. What distinguishes them from general hand tools is their task specific design. Tools such as gear pullers, ball joint splitters and press tools would be classified as special service tools.
- 12 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Progress check 1
Answer the following questions: 1. What is the correct name for this tool?
2.
Put the following four tools in the correct order of preferred use: open jaw spanner socket adjustable spanner ring spanner.
3.
What is the correct name for a tool that is designed to cut internal threads?
4.
What is the difference between a high impact socket and a normal socket?
5.
After you have used a torque wrench how should the wrench be stored?
Measurement
Length
1 metre
1 hu ndr ed th
1 cm
1 te nth
1 mm
1 hu
ndr edt h
0.01mm
th en 1t
0.001mm
1 hundreth of millimetre
1 thousanth Of millimetre
The S.I (Systme Internationale) unit of length is the metre. This unit of length is too large for the majority of automotive applications, so the metre is divided into smaller parts: One metre is divided into 100 equal parts called a centimetre. Each centimetre is divided into 10 equal parts called a millimetre. Each millimetre is divided into 100 equal parts and each is referred to decimally: 0.01mm (1 hundredth of a millimetre). Each 0.01mm can be split down further into 10 equal parts and therefore each is expressed: 0.001mm (1 thousandth of a millimetre).
Area
Height
Width
The area of a simple shape, such as a square or rectangle, is calculated by multiplying its width (or length) by its height. For example, if the square above has a width of 10cm and a height of 10cm, its area will be: 10cm x 10cm = 100cm (100 square centimetres) The calculation for the area of a circle is a little more involved. It is achieved using the formula:
The symbol in this formula is known as Pi. It represents the relationship between the diameter and circumference of a circle. The circumference is always 3.142 times larger than the diameter, so Pi is a constant value (3.142). This is always the case regardless of the size of the circle, because if you change the diameter of the circle the circumference changes by a proportionate amount. The letter r in this formula represents the radius of the circle. This is the distance from its centre to its circumference (outer edge). The 2 in this formula indicates that we have to square the radius this simply means multiply it by itself e.g. 2 squared would be: 2 x 2 = 4.
Let us assume that this circle has a radius of 10cm. The area is calculated in the following way: The formula is: Therefore: 3.142 x 10 x 10 = 314.2cm This means that 314.2 square centimetres would fit exactly inside the circle.
Volume
Length
Think of volume as a three-dimensional surface area (area being two dimensional). If we want to calculate the volume of a regular shape, we must first calculate the area of one end and then multiply this value by the length of the shape. Above is a picture of a cylinder. If it is assumed that one end has a radius of 10cm, the surface area of one end will be: 3.142 x 10 x 10 = 314.2cm If it is now assumed that its length is 10cm, the volume of the cylinder will be: 314.2cm x 10 = 3142cm
Exercise
Let us use what has just been learnt in a vehicle specific application. The diagram above shows a reciprocating piston engine. Let us assume that the diameter of the bore is 9 cm (assume a perfect circle) and that the stroke of the piston is 10cm. Calculate the volume through which the piston will sweep (the swept volume): Your answer: (Include all working out)
Pressure
What is pressure?
Large force
sm all force
Very large surface area

Tiny surface area
To the engineer, pressure is a term used to define how much force is exerted against a specific area. The combination of force acting over a surface area creates pressure. A thorough understanding of the concept of pressure will aid understanding of any number of vehicle systems. The diagram above shows a battle tank and a soldier, both on boggy ground. The soldier will weigh, on average, about 90 kilograms and the battle tank about 60 tonnes (60,000 kg). So logic would suggest that of the two, the tank is the most likely to sink. However, as the tanks large mass (the force) is spread out over such a large surface area (its tracks), the ground pressure generated is actually far less than that created by the soldier. The soldiers relatively small body mass (the force) is concentrated over a very small surface area the soles of the boots. The soldier sinks, the tank doesnt. Why does a drawing pin go into a wall but not the thumb? The force present is equal there is as much push on the thumb as there is on the wall, but the pressure on the wall is very high as the pushing force is concentrated over a tiny surface area the point of the pin. The large head on the drawing pin spreads the pushing force over a relatively large surface area in contact with the thumb, so the pressure exerted on the thumb is very small. The relationship between pressure, force and area can be expressed mathematically as follows:
This formula means that to calculate pressure, force is divided by area. It is essential that vehicle technicians understand this formula. Remember it! - 18 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
A worked example. Referring to the previous diagram, the surface pressure produced by the tank and the soldier can be calculated: The soldier: Weight = 90 kg Surface area of boots = 0.01 m
Pressure = 90kg divided by 0.01m = 9000 kg/m surface pressure The tank: Weight = 60,000 kg Surface area of tracks = 9m
Pressure = 60,000kg divided by 9m = 6666.66 kg/m surface pressure
Pressure units The unit of pressure that most people are familiar with is probably P.S.I. This is an abbreviation for pounds per square inch, so is most certainly an imperial unit. Most people will know that on average, a light vehicle tyre will be inflated to 30 p.s.i but what is that in Bar? Or how about Pascals? The S.I unit of force is the Newton and the S.I unit of distance is the metre. Pressure, therefore, should be expressed in N/m. To help you identify with this unit a little better, there are roughly 10 Newtons in each kilogram (9.81 to be exact). So, N/m of pressure is roughly a tenth of a kilogram acting over a surface area of 1 square metre not a huge amount. 1 N/m is referred to as 1 Pascal 1000 N/m is therefore 1 kPa (kilo Pascal or 10,000 Pascals) 1,000,000 N/m is therefore 1MPa (Mega Pascal or 1,000,0000 Pascals) 0.1 MPa is 1 Bar (100 kPa) 1 Bar is 15 p.s.i 15 p.s.i is 100 kPa So, on average, a light vehicle tyre will be inflated to 200 kPa or 2 Bar! (This is only an example to aid the understanding of pressure units. Please refer to the exact tyre pressure specification for each vehicle.)
Pressure in liquids
Gases are highly compressible. You can squeeze a large volume of gas into a small space by pressurising it. The outward push on the container created by this pressure is entirely uniform e.g. the pressurised gas pushes the container walls equally, everywhere. If this were not the case, the tyres on a car would be a rather odd shape! Fluids cannot be compressed (they actually can, but in the majority of vehicle applications it is by a negligible amount). Like a gas, the pressure that is created in the fluid pushes uniformly on its container and at 90 degrees to the container. The breaking bottle is likely to start breaking at the containers weakest point due to this even pressure exertion. Due to this property and the incompressibility of fluids, confined fluids when pressurised act as a mechanical link and are capable of transferring piston movement at one end of a car into piston movement at the other end (i.e. a hydraulic braking system). Hydraulics is the study of pressure in fluids.
Progress check 2
Answer the following questions: 1. How many millimetres are there in a metre?
2.
How many p.s.i is 20 kPa?
3.
What is the study of pressure in liquids referred to as?
4.
What is the volume of the regular shape pictured below?
80mm 100mm 10cm
5.
What is the unit of force?
Measuring Equipment
Now that you have a good understanding of the units of measurement, we will study measuring equipment. An ability to use measuring equipment accurately is essential in work such as engine overhaul. Measuring equipment will always fall into one of two groups those capable of direct measurement and those that are capable only of giving a comparative value (one dimension compared to another).
Micrometer
The micrometer is a tool capable of direct measurement, to within an accuracy of 0.01mm (a micro-metre or one hundredth of a millimetre). There are many different types available such as external, internal, combination and depth micrometers.
0.5mm 1 turn
The principle of the micrometer can be seen in the above diagram. If we have a fixed nut (i.e. it cannot rotate) and we have a bolt screwed into it with a thread pitch of 0.5mm, each full revolution that the bolt completes will see it 0.5mm further to the left or to the right, dependent upon the direction of rotation. The position of the moving face of the bolt when compared to that of a fixed face (the anvil) then becomes a measured dimension. - 23 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Using the micrometer
It is vital that a micrometer is zeroed before use. This is a straightforward operation to ensure that when the spindle is screwed into full contact with the face of the anvil (using the ratchet stopper to prevent over tightening) the zero line on the thimble lines up perfectly with the datum line on the outer sleeve. The ratchet stopper should always be used when practicable especially when carrying out a series of comparative measurements where consistency of application is important. Any zero errors can be rectified by rotating the outer sleeve with a C spanner.
Interchangeable anvils
A combination micrometer can be configured as a 0 to 25mm, 25 to 50mm, 50 to75mm, 75 to 100mm, 100 to 125mm or a 125 to 150mm micrometer. This is achieved using interchangeable anvils with different lengths. Fitting the second longest anvil in the kit ensures that the gap between the measuring faces - when the micrometer is zeroed - is already 25mm, so the measuring range would be 25 to 50mm. Zeroing such a micrometer involves the use of distance pieces and any zero error in excess of about 0.03mm should be corrected initially through the adjustment of the collars at the anvil end of the frame. Fine adjustment can then be carried out in the normal way with a C spanner. This prevents excessive adjustment from being carried out on the outer sleeve, which would result in the datum line on the sleeve being on the wrong side of the micrometer.
Reading the micrometer
The thread pitch of the micrometer is 0.5mm. Therefore, each full rotation of the thimble increases the distance between the measuring faces by 0.5mm. The thimble is itself marked off with 50 equi-spaced graduations, so each single graduation is the equivalent of 0.01mm. The micrometer pictured in Figure A shows a movement of one graduation and the gap between the measuring faces is therefore 0.01mm. The micrometer in Figure B shows a reading of 0.49mm. The first graduation above the horizontal datum line is visible (0.5mm) but the graduation on the thimble reads 49. Therefore the micrometer is just short of the 0.5mm point to the tune of one graduation 0.49mm. Figure C shows a reading of 3.56mm. It can be seen that three whole graduations below the datum line are visible these represent whole millimetres and one graduation is visible above the datum 0.5mm. Therefore, the coarse reading is 3.5mm. However it can be seen that the thimble reading is 0.06mm so this has to be added to the coarse reading: 3mm + (above the line) 0.5mm + (below the line) 0.06mm (on the thimble) Reading 3.56mm.
Vernier calliper
A vernier calliper is capable of measurement to within 0.02mm. It can be seen from this that it should be a second choice to that of the micrometer. Reading such a calliper is also, to a large degree, a matter of personal interpretation. This is another factor that contributes to its inaccuracy. The major advantage of this tool is its adaptability. It can be used for measuring outside diameters, inside diameters and depths, all from a single scale.
It can be seen from that the zero line on the vernier scale lines up perfectly with the zero line on the main scale. At this point, the jaws are touching. While this is a way of checking the zero of the calliper, there is no method for adjusting it. Each graduation on the vernier scale is worth 0.02mm. The general principle of using this calliper is to read off whole millimetres, by counting off on the main scale using the zero mark on the vernier as the datum. If the zero mark does not align perfectly with a whole millimetre mark, then find a pair of graduations on the main and vernier scale that do. Read off the difference from there. - 26 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Dial gauge
A dial gauge or dial test indicator (DTI) is only capable of direct measurement in a few situations - mostly, they provide the user with comparative values. They can, however, be used in conjunction with other measurement equipment - such as a micrometer - to arrive at a direct measurement value. A dial gauge is a device that turns lateral movement (straight) into the rotary sweep of a needle on a dial face, using a clockwork mechanism. Through knowledge of the internal gearing, the manufacturer of the instrument can mark off the dial with graduations. These represent a given amount of movement of the plunger. Most dial gauges measure to within an accuracy of 0.01mm, but some can measure down to 0.001mm (one thousandth of a millimetre). It should be noted that like all high accuracy measuring equipment, the dial gauge is a delicate instrument and should be handled with care. The dial above measures down to 0.01mm. The bezel is marked off with one hundred graduations. Therefore, each full sweep of the needle represents 1mm plunger movement. It can be seen that from the zero point, the numbering is up to a maximum of 50 (0.5mm) in the clockwise and the anticlockwise direction. This is because the dial gauge is capable of giving a measurement reading for both directions of plunger movement (in and out). If the needle had adopted the position represented by the red line, by moving from the zero point in a clockwise direction, then plunger movement would have been 0.6mm (plunger in). However, if the needle had adopted that position by moving in an anti-clockwise direction, the plunger would have moved only 0.4mm (plunger out).
Feeler gauges
Feeler gauges are designed to measure the size of a gap or clearance. They come as a set, and each blade has a different thickness. The size of a gap can be ascertained by offering up the feeler gauges, (or even a combination of blades), until they fit the gap with the correct amount of resistance. The biggest problem with the accuracy of this tool is getting a feel for how much resistance represents the correctly selected blade or combination of blades. A very good way to get familiar with this procedure is to set a micrometer to the thickness of a blade and to place that blade between the measuring faces of the micrometer. Move the blade backwards and forwards, until there is a clear understanding of how much pull is required.
Progress check 3
Answer the following questions: 1. What is part A called?
2.
What dimension does the micrometer display?
3.
What does DTI stand for?
Principles of Electricity
What is electricity?
What is electricity?
Hydrogen atom + Electron
Electricity - current
Hydrogen atom
+ Strong bond
Nucleus - protons and neutrons
External pressure Copper atom
Copper atom
When a given material is deconstructed, it can be seen that it consists of atoms. An atom has a nucleus that is made up of neutrons and protons. As the name would suggest, neutrons have a neutral charge and therefore play little part in the behaviour of electricity, so they will be disregarded. Protons have a positive charge that is often abbreviated to +VE. Surrounding the nucleus is a number of electrons that have a negative charge (-VE). These electrons rotate around the nucleus in orbits and are kept in their orbits through their attraction to the positive charge of the nucleus (dissimilar charges attract). Different materials have different numbers of electrons in orbit and the atoms are arranged in different ways in relation to each other. It is this that gives different materials their individual properties such as texture, density etc. The greater the number of electrons a material has in its orbits, the further away from the nucleus the electrons in the outer orbits will be. The attractive force between the nucleus and these outer electrons will be relatively weak. If an external force (such as a battery) is applied to a material constructed in this way, it will be relatively easy to make these outer electrons break free from the nucleus and move freely within the material. This movement of electrons within a material is electricity.
The principles of electricity

Static electricity
Dynamic electricity
Electricity is always classified as one of two types static electricity (electricity that does not move) or dynamic electricity (electricity that does move). The human race has had knowledge of electricity for hundreds of years. In the early days it was discovered that a piece of amber would attract small hairs if rubbed with a piece of cloth. Glass, when rubbed, has the same effect. This effect is known as charging. The surfaces of the materials become filled with electricity. The action of rubbing the glass rod with the cloth has the effect of upsetting the balance of electrons in the atomic structure of the two materials. Some of the electrons in the outer orbits of the atoms in the makeup of the glass move across to the outer orbits of the atoms in the make-up of the cloth. The cloth therefore has an excess of electrons that lends to it a negative charge. The glass rod has fewer electrons (an excess of protons) and therefore has a positive charge. This electricity will remain static unless the materials are connected with a conductor, upon which it will flow the excess electrons move back to the glass rod. When the electrons are flowing, the electricity has become dynamic. This is electric current flowing electricity.
Positively charged body
This diagram shows a positively charged body on the left. This body is moved towards the body on the right that is insulated from the ground. The positive charge of the body on the left attracts the electrons in the body on the right. That results in too few electrons on the right hand side of this body, lending to it a positive charge. This action is known as electrostatic induction.
If we were to ground this charged body by touching it and providing a connection to the earths surface, electrons will flow from the earth to the charged body to balance the charged material by providing the electrons that are required.
Conductors, semi-conductors and insulators It has been seen that different materials have differing numbers of electrons in orbit within an atom. Materials with a large number of orbits will allow electricity to flow readily (due to the weak attraction) and are known as conductors. Materials with relatively few orbits will resist electrical current flow (due to the strong attraction) and are therefore known as insulators, or sometimes, resistors. Materials that dont seem to be able to make up their mind are known as semi-conductors. Some examples of conductors, insulators and semi-conductors are as follows: Conductors: - copper - silver Semi-conductors: - silicon - germanium. Insulators (resistors) - bakelite - rubber.
How is the flow of electricity measured? A flow of electrons is referred to as current. The unit of current is the ampere, commonly abbreviated to the amp. If 625,000,000,000,000,000 electrons flow past a given point in a conductor in one second, this is 1 amp of current flow. 625,000,000,000,000,000 electrons is quantified using the unit Coulomb, so 1 amp of electrical current flow could also be referred to as 1 coulomb per second. 1 amp can also be described in the following way: 1 amp is the amount of current flowing in a conductor when the conductor has a resistance of 1 ohm and 1 volt of electrical pressure has been applied to that conductor.
Voltage
Electricity - voltage
Voltage is electrical pressure and creates current flow
Low High
High pressure
Water
+ ve - ve
Low pressure
A difference in pressure between two points will create flow in the direction of the lower pressure
A difference in pressure between two points in a liquid will create flow in the direction of the lower pressure. Electrical current behaves in a similar way. If we create a difference in electrical pressure between two points in a conductor, current will flow in the direction of the lower electrical pressure. Voltage is electrical pressure and it generates current flow. A battery is a device that is capable of creating a difference in electrical pressure. 1 volt is said to be the amount of electrical pressure applied to a circuit, if 1 amp of current flows when that circuit has a resistance of 1 ohm. In the circuit, the battery has created a difference in electrical pressure in the circuit (a circuit is a combination of electrical components and wires which provide the current with a route to take). The area of highest electrical pressure is at the positive post of the battery and the area of lowest electrical pressure is at the negative post. Current flows from the positive post to the negative post, generating heat in the lamp filament as it does so. This type of current flow is known as conventional current. In reality, current actually flows from the negative post to the positive! This is because the positive post has a positive charge and the electrons at the negative post are attracted to this and flow to it through the circuit. This is known as electron flow. This was not discovered until some time after the electrical rules were devised, and as it makes no significant difference to the operation of an electrical circuit (current is flowing, it doesnt matter which way it flows, work can still be done) it is effectively ignored in vehicle applications.
Electrical resistance
Electricity - resistance
Resistance reduces current flow Resistance is measured in ohms ()
Resistance
Resistor
Less current flow means: Less work done and therefore the bulb is dimly illuminated
Water
The higher the resistance, the less current that will flow
If a flowing fluid experiences a resistance to flow, less fluid will flow. Electrical current flow is similar; if the flowing electrical current experiences a resistance, less electrical current will flow. As has been seen, electrical resistance is created by the atomic structure of the material concerned rather than by a physical restriction. The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. This is symbolised by (Greek letter Omega). The ohm can be described as follows: A material is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if 1 amp of current flows in that material when 1 volt of electrical pressure is applied. Because resistance in a circuit reduces current flow, that current can do less work. Bright lamps will be dim; electric motors will be slow etc.
Ohms Law
Ohms law
Ohms law states that:
The current flowing in a circuit is in direct proportion to the Voltage applied, and inversely proportionate to the resistance
This can be expressed mathematically in the following way:
I = Current - V = Voltage - R = Resistance
So far we have learnt about current, voltage and resistance. The following are true: 1 amp is said to be the current that flows when 1 volt is applied to a circuit that has a resistance of 1 ohm volt is said to be the amount of electrical pressure applied when 1 amp of current flows in a circuit that has a resistance of 1 ohm 1 ohm is said to be the amount of resistance that a circuit possesses if 1 amp of current flows when 1 volt of electrical pressure is applied.
It can be seen from this that there is most definitely a relationship between current, voltage and resistance. Ohms Law sums up this relationship. Ohms Law states that the current flowing in a circuit is in proportion to the voltage applied and inversely proportionate to the resistance. In other words, the greater the voltage the more current that will flow, the greater the resistance, the less current that will flow. This all seems fairly logical! Ohms Law can also be stated mathematically as can be seen in the diagram above. 1 is always used to symbolise current. Strictly speaking A should not be used unless we are stating a current flow figure, such as 12A. Lets apply Ohms Law to the above definitions of 1A and check that it works. If 1V is applied to a circuit that has a resistance of 1, in theory, 1A of current should flow: Current equals volts divided by resistance, which can be written as I=V/R. The voltage is 1V and the resistance is 1 . Therefore, I=1V/1 and one divided by one is one, so 1A of current will be flowing! - 36 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Transposing Ohms Law
Ohms law triangle
V I R
So long as we know at least two values, a third unknown value can be calculated. Example:

if the voltage and resistance are known, the current can be calculated. if the resistance and the current are known, voltage can be calculated. if voltage and current are known, resistance can be calculated.
Before this can be done it is necessary to transpose the formula (which simply means swap around) to position what needs to be calculated to the left of the equals sign. The easiest way to do this is to use the Ohms Law triangle shown above. Simply cover up the value that must be calculated, and then see how the remaining two values are positioned. If they are written one over the other, divide; if they are written side-by-side, multiply.
Watts
Electrical power
Electrical power is measured in Watts
W A= V
I
W V
When an electrical current flow in an electrical circuit, energy is created. The electrical energy is typically converted into one of three main types: thermal energy - heat is created when electrical current flow through a resistor / heating element radiant energy - light is created when electrical current flows through a light bulb mechanical energy - movement is created when electrical current flows through an electrical motor.
The above examples represent the conversion of electrical energy into electrical power. If voltage is applied to a circuit and current also flows through the circuit, power is created. Electrical power is measured in Watts. Therefore a relationship exists between voltage, current flow and power. 1 Watt is the amount of power that is consumed when 1 volt is applied to a circuit with a current flow of 1 amp. So long as at least two values are known, a third unknown value can be calculated. The easiest way to do this is to use the Ohms Law triangle shown above. if voltage and current is known, power can be calculated if voltage and power is known, current can be calculated if power and current are known, voltage can be calculated
Note. 1 Horsepower is approximately equal to 746 Watts 1 Kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 Horsepower.
Progress check 4
Answer the following questions: 1. Which unit is used to describe electrical pressure?
2.
If the resistance of a circuit is increased for a given applied voltage, what will happen to the amount of current that will flow?
3.
If a circuit has a resistance of 12 ohms and 2 amps of current is flowing, what is the voltage applied?
4.
Complete the Ohms Law triangle below
V I ?
W ? V
Electrical Measurement
Multimeters
Selector
Hold / AUTORANGE
10A port 300mA port
volts, ohms And diodes Common
A multi-meter is capable of measuring a number of electrical units / values. The selector allows the choice of value the meter is to measure, such as Volts DC. The ports at the bottom of the meter allow for differing connections of the multi-meters leads when necessary (the red lead only has to be moved when measuring current flow normally).
~ V __ ---A
__ ---V _ 30
~ A
Multi-meters normally have a button that enables the technician to choose the maximum value to be measured (the range of the meter). The above diagram shows the electrical values that this multi-meter can typically read. Starting form bottom left: amps AC amps DC volts AC volts DC 300mV DC maximum ohms diode tester.
Unit multipliers One amp is equal to one thousand milliamps, which is written as 1A = 000mA One amp is equal to one million micro amps, written as 1A = 1,000,000 A One thousand amps is equal to one Kilo amp, written as 1,000A = 1KA One million amps is equal to one Mega amp, written as 1,000,000A = 1MA All other electrical units use the same multipliers such as 1mV, 1MW. Multimeter use Voltmeter
12 v 12 v
0v
12 v
A voltmeter displays the difference in voltage between where you put the red probe and where you put the black probe
0v
A voltmeter (a multimeter with volts selected) must always be fitted in parallel with the circuit. This means that the circuit is not broken to accommodate the meter, the meter is fitted across the circuit.
Ohmmeter
14.4
Remember: Always switch the

circuit OFF first Always disconnect the component from the remainder of the circuit
0.00
Close switch
An ohmmeter (a multi-meter with ohms selected) is always fitted across the component or wire that you want to test. Current must not be flowing in the part of the circuit being tested, as this will seriously effect the reading (an ohmmeter measures circuit resistance by applying a known voltage to a circuit from a battery inside its case and measuring the resultant current flow). From these two values it can calculate the resistance using Ohms Law in the same way shown previously). If current is flowing in the circuit from a different source (i.e. the vehicle battery) this will seriously effect its calculation. Ammeter
Remember: always fit an ammeter in series with the circuit
Never connect an ammeter across a resistance; a good ammeter has zero internal resistance
An ammeter (a multimeter with amps selected) must be fitted in series with the circuit whose current you want to measure. This means that the circuit must be broken and the ammeter must be put into the circuit. A good ammeter has an extremely small internal resistance so it is important that you take care not to short a circuit out by putting the ammeter across the only resistance in a circuit (provide the current with an easier path to take through the meter). This will at best blow a fuse in the meter, and at worst set it alight! - 42 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Progress check 5
Answer the following questions: 1. What do the following symbols mean? __ ---V
2.
How many mV in a volt?
3.
How is a voltmeter fitted to a circuit?
4.
When using an ohmmeter what precautions should you take before testing the circuit?
5.
Draw a series circuit containing 3 bulbs, a battery, and a switch.
Types of circuit The way in which components are connected in a circuit dictates the properties of the circuit (and the performance of the component). The ability to recognise different types of circuit is important. Series
This is any circuit where the components in the circuit (in this instance resistors) are wired one after the other in the same wire. Coronation Street is a series one episode after the other! Parallel
This is any circuit that has separate branches from a single power supply. The branches pictured in a wiring diagram appear to run in parallel with each other. The circuits derive their name from this.
Series parallel
As the name (and the diagram) suggest, this circuit is a combination of the two previously discussed circuits series and parallel.
Progress check 6
Answer the following question: 1. What type of circuit is pictured ?
Electrical wiring diagrams Japanese manufacturers
Horn
Short Pin
(Junction Block Connector)
Battery
Resistor
Circuit Breaker
Lamp
M4 Relay
Analogue Meter
Distributor IIA
Double Throw Switch Cigarette Lighter
Diode
Tapped Resistor
Zener Diode
Ground
- 47 -
Splice Joint
Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved
LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Ignition Switch
Speaker
Switch ON
Twin Filament Bulb Wiper Park Switch
Motor
Fuse
Digital Fuel Gauge
LED
Thermistor
Switch OFF
Transistor PNP
Double Throw Relay
Solenoid
Splice Joint
On the diagram below, three components have been labelled A, B and C.
Identify each one correctly and record the answers below: A. B. C.
European manufacturers Identify the symbols. Write the name alongside each one.
Locking and Securing Devices

Bolts and screws
Screw Hex screw
Bolt
Coach bolt Countersunk screw
Self tapping
There are many different types of locking device available, some of which are pictured here. They are all designed with one primary task in mind holding components together either permanently or temporarily. A common misconception is that a screw has a sharp point and is designed to cut its own thread. This is incorrect in engineering terms. A screw is almost identical to a bolt with the exception that it is threaded all the way to the bottom of the head and is seldom used in conjunction with a nut (it screws into threaded components). A bolt has a thread ess shank. Only self-tapping screws (cut their own thread) have sharp points!
Hexagon head bolts and screws are used far less frequently now than they were only a few years ago. Multi-spline types and Torx types occur where a securing device needs to be accommodated in a tight space (with hexagon head devices, space needs to be left around the head to accommodate a socket for the fitting and removal). Tight spaces are now commonplace on light vehicles as manufacturers strive to save every gram of weight and exploit every centimetre of cabin space. When ordering a bolt (standard design) from the parts department, expect to provide the following information if the device you want is not specific to task (such as a main bearing cap bolt): overall length diameter thread pitch strength rating.
A typical specification could be: 75mm long, M8 coarse thread, strength rating 8. This is a bolt that is 75mm in length from its threaded end to the underneath of the head, has an 8 mm thread diameter and a thread pitch of 1.5mm with a strength rating that would see it safe up to a torque of 60Nm.
Nuts and washers

Nylock nut
Nut
Flanged nut
Castellated nut
Wing nut
Shear nut
Nuts are also available in several different types. When ordering, ensure the request is for a nut that has the same thread as the bolt to which it is to be fitted this means both thread diameter and thread pitch. Is it metric fine (1.25mm pitch) or metric coarse (1.5mm pitch)? The flanged nut is designed to spread the compression load a little onto the component surface. The Nylock nut (trade name) is designed to grip the bolt thread by means of friction generated by the bolts thread. It cuts through the nylon collar at the top of the nut. It should be noted that these nuts should never be re-used. Castellated nuts are designed for use in conjunction with split pins and wing nuts are used where regular and easy removal is required (seldom used on modern vehicles). Shear nuts are often the choice where security is an issue, with vehicle immobiliser equipment, for example.
Flat washer
Penny washer
Spring washer
Washers are used to spread load and often to reduce the possibility of a bolt shaking loose as result of vibration. Tab washers are made of a soft material (aluminium alloy) and are bent upward, to fit snugly against the flat of a screw head to prevent rotation and loosening of the screw through vibration.
Chemical thread locking
There are now many different types of chemical compounds available. These can do anything from locking a thread to prevent loosening as a result of vibration, to sealing joints and even temporarily sealing radiators, tyres or cylinder blocks! Always read the instructions thoroughly before use. If unsure of the health and safety risks, always refer to the COSHH data sheet for that specific product.
Progress check 7
Answer the following questions:
1.
What type of nut is this?
2.
What is this locking device called?
3.
What is a tab washer for?
4.
When can a split pin be reused?
Inspection and Fault-Finding Techniques

Diagnosis techniques
Dont rush in! Charging into a fault diagnosis procedure is seldom productive. Working too quickly and without logical thought can lead to missing the simple, obvious faults that would have been identified through a more logical, structured approach. With complex systems, a well-structured, logical approach is required. This approach should be adhered to throughout diagnosis (simple or difficult) and in most cases the same approach can be used time and again.
Driver interrogation
The driver of the vehicle probably knows more about the vehicles history than anyone else and will normally have first hand knowledge of the fault. If a vehicle develops a fault, simple or complex, the driver will have sensed more of the symptoms than the technician can during workshop diagnosis. It is important to ask drivers the right kind of questions. The drivers comments can prove valuable, especially with intermittent faults, which are often difficult to locate. Asking the correct questions can produce answers that can usually save time by preventing unnecessary diagnostic routines. Customers are normally willing to supply the information, so why not allow them to provide the information required to ease fault diagnosis? - 56 Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1
Gathering information
TPS MAP
VOLTS
ECM
EARTH
INJ IGN
IDLE
Build the puzzle until one of the pieces is missing or doesn't fit
By gathering information about the problematic system, a logical diagnostic sequence can be determined to help identify the fault. The area to be investigated can be reduced by carefully checking and testing strategic parts of the circuit. Visual inspection
It may seem that a large amount of data and information is required before fault diagnosis can begin, but by consulting a circuit diagram, certain sections of the circuit can be eliminated. The large amount of information that seemed necessary at the start may not be required in the end. Refer back to the information and the diagnostic sequence throughout the test routine. It might be necessary to follow a different route if the components are too difficult to access or the findings are not as first thought. Always be prepared to change or rethink the strategy. Remember, charging into diagnosis is not always a good idea. Sometimes it works, but more often than not what may be a simple procedure is made more difficult by missing the more obvious faults. A more logical and structured approach will pay dividends.
Formulating your diagnostic strategy
Many technicians get lost in an attempt to diagnose complex electronic systems. If there is insufficient information and the technician has a limited knowledge, guesswork has been known to take over. Technicians often condemn a component that they do not fully understand, or by looking at the quantity of the suspect component that the parts department sells. This means that the parts person is diagnosing the fault! This is a potentially expensive (and embarrassing) strategy to adopt, as many parts departments will not allow the workshop to return parts once purchased. If the new part ordered is not required (the guess was incorrect) the price of the part has to be absorbed by one of the parties - the workshop or customer. When the price of the part is low (i.e. 10.00), the amount can usually be absorbed as vehicle diagnostics time. However, when the price of the part is high (i.e. 200.00), it is a different story. The customer will not absorb the cost. The cost must be absorbed by the workshop, reducing profit. If this happens on several occasions, confidence is lost and electrical/electronic diagnosis is then often contracted to other third party businesses - expensive! The reduction of such work in a workshop will quickly lead to de-skilling of the technical staff. Technicians need to undergo regular training throughout their workshop life to allow them to service and repair modern motor vehicles. When formulating a diagnostic strategy, prioritise. Checking the obvious first. When the electrical circuit being tested has an ECM, there is often a tendency to over complicate matters. Many workshops do not have equipment capable of testing complex electronic components (i.e. ECM or similar). Therefore, they tend to think that the remainder of the circuit is also complex.
There may be an electronic component at the centre of the circuit, but the remainder usually consists of general electrical items that can be tested with an ordinary multi-meter (bulbs, switches etc). It should be noted that although modern electrical circuits are often fitted with electronic control modules, the testing of such circuits still requires similar skills to those required when testing simple electrical circuits. Getting bogged down thinking things are complex, can cause frustration if the fault isnt initially obvious. Record results as tests are carried out. By recording the test results at each stage (correct or incorrect), the diagnostic plan can be reviewed at any time. If for any reason diagnosis is interrupted, it is easier to return later and recall the results instantly. A record of the test results will also assist if another person is asked to continue, without having to repeat the checks. Diagnostic information is often difficult to access in the independent repair market and this type of information can be very valuable. If information and data is collated every time a repair is carried out - whether it is information from repair manuals, information printed off test equipment or data gathered during test procedures it can be used to construct an effective diagnostic library. Few people are blessed with a photographic memory! It may take a little time to set up in the first instance, but over a short period the library will grow into a very large, in depth point of reference. Some of the information obtained from test equipment data printout lists is not available from technical information suppliers and therefore a serviceable vehicle is a unique source of valuable data. If the information is good or even bad (an idea is to highlight the bad data) the data can be used as a comparison against vehicles to be repaired in the future. A simple PC is capable of providing an effective database utility at very little cost. The information can then be catalogued into various categories and quickly referenced. This approach is virtually guaranteed to increase productivity and profitability over time.
Progress check 8
Answer the following questions: 1. Identify four different methods of diagnostic inspection (The first method has been given). A. Visual B.____________? C.____________? D.____________?
2.
What does aural mean?
3.
What does the term guarantee refer to?

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LV02 Foundation Skills

MODULE LV02 FOUNDATION SKILLS

Common Hand Tools

Pliers and grips

Files and filing

Using the file

Drills and drilling

Will result in a drunken thread

Special service tools

Very large surface area

Pressure = 60,000kg divided by 9m = 6666.66 kg/m surface pressure

How many p.s.i is 20 kPa?

What is the study of pressure in liquids referred to as?

What is the volume of the regular shape pictured below?

80mm 100mm 10cm

What is the unit of force?

Using the micrometer

Reading the micrometer

What dimension does the micrometer display?

What does DTI stand for?

Nucleus - protons and neutrons

External pressure Copper atom

The principles of electricity

Positively charged body

This can be expressed mathematically in the following way:

I = Current - V = Voltage - R = Resistance

Transposing Ohms Law

Ohms law triangle

Complete the Ohms Law triangle below

10A port 300mA port

volts, ohms And diodes Common

Remember: Always switch the

Remember: always fit an ammeter in series with the circuit

How many mV in a volt?

How is a voltmeter fitted to a circuit?

Draw a series circuit containing 3 bulbs, a battery, and a switch.

Electrical wiring diagrams Japanese manufacturers

(Junction Block Connector)

Double Throw Switch Cigarette Lighter

Copyright Automotive Skills Limited 2003 All Rights Reserved

LV02: Foundation Skills Issue 1

Twin Filament Bulb Wiper Park Switch

Digital Fuel Gauge

Double Throw Relay

On the diagram below, three components have been labelled A, B and C.

Identify each one correctly and record the answers below: A. B. C.

Locking and Securing Devices

Coach bolt Countersunk screw

Nuts and washers

Chemical thread locking

What type of nut is this?

What is this locking device called?

What is a tab washer for?

When can a split pin be reused?

Inspection and Fault-Finding Techniques

Formulating your diagnostic strategy

What does aural mean?

What does the term guarantee refer to?

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