Mechanical Properties of Metals

Those characteristics measured under certain conditions which reveal the reaction of a material to an applied force are called the mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of metals determine the range of usefulness of the metal and establish the service that can be expected. Mechanical properties are also used to help specify and identify metals. The most common properties considered are strength, hardness, ductility, and impact resistance. They are characteristics of a material in response to externally applied forces. eg; tensile strength, yield strength and elongation hardness.

The hardness of metals Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. The hardness of a metal is defined as the resistance of a metal to local penetration by harder substance. The hardness of metals is measured by forcing a hardened steel ball or diamond into the surface of the specimen, under a definite weight, in a hardness testing machine. The Brinell is one of the more popular types of machines for measuring hardness. It provides a Brinell hardness number (BHN), which is in kilograms per square millimeter based on the load applied to the hardened ball in kilograms and divided by the area of the impression left by the ball in square millimeters. There is several other hardness measuring systems. A popular machine is the Rockwell hardness tester, which utilizes a diamond that is forced into the surface of the specimen. Different loads are used to provide different scaled. Smaller loads are used for softer materials. Another method is by means of the Vickers hardness machine, which reads directly, as a diamond is pressed into the surface of the metal. Another way is the Shore scleroscope, which utilizes a small dropped weight which will bounce from the surface of the metal providing a hardness measure. Toughness: Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed without rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity. Table 1-2 shows the order of some of the more common materials for toughness as well as other properties. Corrosion resistance: Corrosion is a main problem in metals. The corrosion can take many forms but the oxide layer formation is common corrosion in metals. Some metals get tarnished by the corrosion or oxide formation. This layer of oxide protects the metal further. But some metals like iron has a tendency that the corrosion decreases the mechanical strength of iron. Corrosion can be decreased by making alloys of metals. Malleability/ductility: Metals are described as malleable (can be beaten into sheets) and ductile (can be pulled out into wires). This is because of the ability of the atoms to roll over each other into new positions without breaking the metallic bond. If a small stress is put onto the metal, the layers of atoms will start to roll over each other. If the stress is released again, they will fall back to their original positions. Under these circumstances, the metal is said to be elastic .If a larger stress is put on, the atoms roll over each other into a new position, and the metal is permanently changed. The ductility of a metal is the property that allows it to be stretched or otherwise changed in shape without breaking and to retain the changed shape after the load has been removed. The ductility of a metal can be determined from the tensile test. This is done by determining the percent of elongation. Gauge marks are made two inches apart across the point where fracture will occur. The increase in gauge length related to the original length times 100 is the percentage of elongation. This is done by making center punch marks two inches apart at the reduced section of the test coupon, testing the coupon, tightly holding the two pieces together and re-measuring the distance between the center punch marks. The
2008-mech-119 1

original two inches is subtracted from the measured length and the difference is divided by two and multiplied by 100 to obtain percentage of elongation. Impact Resistance Resistance of a metal to impacts is evaluated in terms of impact strength. A metal may possess satisfactory ductility under static loads but may fail under dynamic loads or impact. Impact strength is most often determined by the Charpy test. It is sometimes measured by the Izode test. Both types of tests use the same type of pendulum-testing machine. The Charpy test specimen is a beam supported at both ends and contains a notch in the center. The specimen is placed on supports and struck with a pendulum on the side opposite the notch. The accuracy and location of the notch is of extreme importance. There are several types of Charpy specimens; the V-notch type is the most popular. The impact strength of a metal is determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture. This is equal to the weight of the pendulum times the height at which the pendulum is released and the height to which the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. In standard metric practice, impact resistance is measured two ways. One in Joules based on energy absorbed and, two, in Joules per square centimeter of the area of the fractured surface or the cross-sectional area under the notch. In Anglo-Saxon terms the impact strength is the foot pounds of energy absorbed. Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads and is measured in foot-pounds of force. Strength Elastic Plastic and Brittleness: Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under load. The ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile strength is a measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when placed in a tension load. Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing stresses and is expressed by the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of cycles. Tensile strength, also called ultimate strength, is the maximum strength developed in a metal in a tension test. The tension test is a method for determining the behavior of a metal under an actual stretch loading. This test provides the elastic limit, elongation, yield point, yield strength, tensile strength, and the reduction in area. Tensile tests are normally taken at standardized room temperatures but may also be made at elevated temperatures. Some materials break suddenly when stress is applied onto them. They dont have elasticity and thus are called brittle materials. The brittle materials are the hardest. When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform. Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after the load is removed. Theoretically, the elastic limit of a material is the limit to which a material can be loaded and still recover its original shape after the load is removed. Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or rupturing. This property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying of metals, the combination of plasticity and strength is used to manufacture large structural members. For example, should a member of a bridge structure become overloaded, plasticity allows the overloaded member to flow allowing the distribution of the load to other parts of the bridge structure. Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that breaks or shatters before it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good examples of brittle material. Generally, brittle metals are high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength. As an example, you would not choose cast iron for fabricating support beams in a bridge.

Physical properties of metal

Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point, boiling point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others. The melting and boiling points: Metals tend to have high melting and boiling points because of the strength of the metallic bond. The strength of the bond varies from metal to metal and depends on the number of electrons which each atom de-localises into the sea of electrons, and on the packing. Group 1 metals like sodium and potassium have relatively low melting and boiling points mainly because each atom only has one electron to contribute to the bond - but there are other problems as well. Group 1 elements are also inefficiently packed (8co-ordinated), so that they aren't forming as many bonds as most metals. They have relatively large atoms (meaning that the nuclei are some distance from the de-localised electrons) which also weakens the bond. Electrical conductivity Metals conduct electricity. The de-localised electrons are free to move throughout the structure in 3-dimensions. They can cross grain boundaries. Even though the pattern may be disrupted at the boundary, as long as atoms are touching each other, the metallic bond is still present.Liquid metals also conduct electricity, showing that although the metal atoms may be free to move, the delocalisation remains in force until the metal boils. Thermal conductivity Metals are good conductors of heat. Heat energy is picked up by the electrons as additional kinetic energy (it makes them move faster). The energy is transferred throughout the rest of the metal by the moving electrons.
2008-mech-119 2

Optic Properties: The metals have zero refractive index and have good reflectivity. Light can not pass through then and is reflected back due to the lustrous surface of the metals. The properties, whether physical or mechanical, are greatly affected by the structure of the crystal of the metals. The crystals of the metals usually grow in grains. Grains are small macro arrangements of metallic crystals that are usually a type of cubic crystals. Fine grained metals (metals with high grains) tend to exhibit good mechanical strength.

Zinc
Zinc is a metallic chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a first-row transition metal of the group 12 of the periodic table. Although zinc has been used in the copper-zinc alloy brass since Roman times, and the metal was produced in large scale in India around 1200 AD, the pure metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. Industrial-scale production in Europe had not started until the late 18th century. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of steel is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries and alloys, such as brass. Sphalerite, a zinc sulfide, is the most important zinc ore. Zinc production includes roasting, leaching and, at the end, pyrometallurgic winning or electrowinning. Zinc is an essential mineral, necessary for sustaining all life. Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as the alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of higher concentrations of zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency. A variety of zinc compounds find use industrially, such as zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory. Roughly one quarter of all zinc output is consumed in the form of zinc compounds. Applications: The most important application of zinc and the largest use of the metal is as an anti-corrosion agent. Galvanization, which is the coating of iron or steel as protection against corrosion, is the most familiar form of using zinc in this way. In 2006 in the United States, 56% or 773,000 tones of the zinc metal was used for galvanization, while worldwide 47% was used for this purpose. Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away. A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate (Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2) forms as the zinc corrodes. This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away. The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car bodies. Zinc also acts as a sacrificial anode in cathodic protection. Cathodically protecting buried pipelines requires a solid piece of zinc to be connected by a conductor to the steel pipe. Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline. Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion. A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays un-attacked. Other similar uses include a plug of zinc attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship. With a electrochemical potential of -0.7628 volts, zinc makes a good material for the negative terminus or anode in batteries. Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and sheets of zinc metal form the cases for and act as anodes in zinc-carbon batteries. An important alloy of zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass. Brass is generally more ductile and strong than copper and has superior corrosion resistance. These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, instruments, and water valves. Properties: Zinc, also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter, is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish. Most of the common compounds of zinc are white (colorless when liquid).

Mechanical Properties
Ultimate Tensile Strength = 116,000 PSI Yield Strength =113,000 PSI Elongation at Break = 2% Thermal expansion (25 C) = 30.2mm1K1 Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 C) = 3850 m/s Young's modulus = 108 GPa Shear modulus = 43 GPa Bulk modulus = 70 GPa Poisson ratio = 0.25 Mohs hardness = 2.5 Mineral hardness = 2.5 Brinell hardness = 412 MNm-2
2008-mech-119

Physical properties
Density = 7.14 gms/cu cm Melting Point = 419.53 C Boiling Point = 907 C Heat of fusion = 7.32 kJ/mol Heat of vaporization = 123.6 kJ/mol Specific heat capacity = 25.407 Jmol1K1 Electrical Resistivity (25 C) = 59.0 n ohm-cm Thermal Conductivity (25 C) = 30.2W/m-K Liquid density at m.p. = 6.57 gcm3 Structure = Hexagonal Pauling electronegativity = 1.65 Reflectivity = 61 % Super conduction temperature = 0.85 K
3

Vickers hardness

= 628 MNm-2

Reflectivity Refractivity

=80 % =1.02%

The ratio of lateral contraction to axial tensile strain is called the Poissons Ratio.

Vanadium (V)
Vanadium is the chemical element with the symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a soft, silvery grey, ductile transition metal. The formation of an oxide layer stabilizes the metal against oxidation. Andrs Manuel del Ro discovered vanadium in 1801 by analyzing the mineral vanadinite, and named it erythronium. Four years later, however, he was convinced by other scientists that erythronium was identical to chromium. The element was rediscovered in 1831 by Nils Gabriel Sefstrm, who named it vanadium after the Norse goddess of beauty, Vanadis (Freyja). Both names were attributed to the wide range of colors found in vanadium compounds. The element occurs naturally in about 65 different minerals and in fossil fuel deposits. It is produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag; other countries produce it either from the flue dust of heavy oil, or as a byproduct of uranium mining. It is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys such as high speed tool steels. The compound vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid. Vanadium is found in many organisms, and is used by some life forms as an active center of enzymes. Applications: Vanadium metal is important in a number of areas. Its structural strength and neutron cross-section properties make it useful in nuclear applications. The metal is used for producing rust-resistant springs and steels used for making tools. About 80% of the vanadium now produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. Vanadium foil is also used as a bonding agent in binding titanium to steel and is being developed for usage in storage batteries. Approximately 85% of vanadium produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. The considerable increase of strength in steel containing small amounts of vanadium was discovered in the beginning of 20th century and from that time vanadium steel was used for applications in axles, bicycle frames, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components. Vanadium forms stable nitrides and carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of the steel. There are two groups of vanadium containing steel alloy groups. Vanadium high-carbon steel alloys containing 0.15 to 0.25 percent vanadium and high speed tool steels (HSS) with a vanadium content ranges from 1 % to 5 %. For high speed tool steels, hardness above HRC 60 can be achieved. HSS steel is used in surgical instruments and tools. Vanadium stabilizes the beta form of titanium and increases the strength and temperature stability of titanium. Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys it is used in jet engines and high-speed airframes. One of the common alloys is Ti 6Al 4V a titanium alloy with 6% aluminium and 4% of vanadium. Also used as a catalyst in contact process. Properties: Vanadium is a soft, ductile, silver-grey whitish metal. It has good resistance to corrosion and it is stable against alkalis, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. It is oxidized in air at about 933 K (660 C), although an oxide layer forms even at room temperature.

Mechanical Properties
Ultimate Tensile Strength = 116,000 PSI Yield Strength =113,000 PSI Elongation at Break = 2% Thermal expansion (25 C) = 8.4 mm1K1 Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 C) = 4560 m/s Young's modulus = 128 GPa Shear modulus = 47 GPa Bulk modulus = 160 GPa Poisson ratio = 0.37 Mohs hardness = 6.7 Mineral hardness = 7.0 Brinell hardness = 628 MNm-2 Vickers hardness = 628 MNm-2

Physical properties
Density = 0.221 lbs/cu in Melting Point = 1735 C Boiling Point = 3680 C Heat of fusion = 21.5 kJ/mol Heat of vaporization = 459 kJ/mol Specific heat capacity = 24.89 Jmol1K1 Electrical Resistivity (25 C) = 24.8 Microhm-cm Thermal Conductivity (25 C) = 31 W/m-K Liquid density at m.p. = 5.5 gcm3 Structure = Body centered cubic Pauling electronegativity = 1.63 Super Conduction Temperature = 5.40 K Reflectivity = 61 %

2008-mech-119