OF NAMES

Of Names
JOHN STUART MILL

.\presses certain qualities, and u'her

caie

those Persons, we assen d possess those qualities. But Joftn is t-rr of t"ittg truly affirmed of one singie least in the same sense. For. thougi many persons who bear that name' lt iened upon lhem to indicate an1 quoi

it of

rhing which belongs to them in ctrl :annot be said to be affirmed of tI sense atall, consequently not in the :

.'The king who succeeded $llliar queror" is also an individual nam rng of the words. Even "the kine'

there cannot be more than one Perst tr '.t can be truly affirmed is implied

I. NAMES ARE NAMES OF THINGS, NOT OF OUR IDEAS 'A name," says Hobbes, "is a word taken at pleasure to serve for a mark which may raise in our mind a thought like to some thought we had before, and which, being pronounced to others, may be to them a sign of what thought the speaker had before in his mind." This simple definition of a name as a word (or set of words) serving the double purpose of a mark to recall to ourselves the likeness of a former thought and a sign to make it known to others appears unexceptionable. Names, indeed, do much more than this, but whatever else they do grows out of and is the result of this, as will appear in its proper place. . . .
III.
GENERAL AND SINGULAR NAMES

other objects, as when I say, "this stone": "this" and "stone" being, each of them, names that may be used of many other objects besides the particular one meant, though the only object of which they can both be used at the given moment, consistently with their signification, may be the one of which I wish to speak. Were this the sole purpose for which names that are common to more things than one could be employed, if they only served, by mutually limiting each other, to afford a designation for

occasion or the context defines the tl rr hom it is to be understood' ma

iegarded as an individual name' ' ' It is necessary to distinguish genr I (rn .ecti ve names. A general name i: be predicated of each individual of r collective name cannot be Predic: :eparatelY, but onlY of all taken iot

such individual objects as have no names of their own, they could only be ranked among contrivances for economising the use of language. But it is evident that this is not their sole function. It is by their means that we are enabled to assert general propositions, to afflrm or deny any predicate of an indefinite number of things at once. The distinction, therefore, between general names and individual or singular names is fundamental, and may be considered as the first
grand division of names. A general name is, familiarly defined, a name which is capable of being truly affirmed, in the same sense, of each of an indeflnite number of things. An individual or singular name is a name which is only capable of being truly affirmed, in the same sense. of one thing. Thts, man is capable of being truly affirmed of John, George, Mary, and other persons without assignable limit, and it is aff,rmed of all of them in the same sense. for the word "man"

.eventY-sixth regiment of foot in ermy." which is a collective name' lral but an individual name, for thol rredicated of a multitude of indir.ti :aken jointlY, it cannot be Predica .everallY. We maY saY, "Jones is a Thompson is a soldier, and Smith but we cannot say, "Jones is the : iegiment, and ThomPson is the : :egiment, and Smith is the sevent nent." We can onlY saY, "Jones' an' rnd Smith. and Brown. and so li

nting all the soldiers) are the

:egiment."

All

names are names of something, real or imaginary, but all things have not names appropriated to them individually. For some individual objects we require and, consequently, have separate distinguishing names; there is a name for every person and for every remarkable place. Other objects of which we have not occasion to speak so frequently we do not designate by names of their own; but when the necessity arises for naming them, we do so by putting together several words, each of which, by itself, might be and is used for an indefinite number of
From System ofLogic, Book l, Chapter z, Section
5.

"The seventY-sixth regiment" i: "a rame, but not a general one: and a general na both a collective s'ith respect to all individual regir .rf which seParatelY it can be afn tive with respect to the indir-idu shom anY regiment is comPosed' IV. CONCRETE AND ABSTRA( The second general division of
concrete and abstract. A concre name which stands for a thing: ar

266

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268 that they are things having the color. The reverse is the case with the word whiteness,' what we affirm to be whiteness is not snow but the color of snow. Whiteness, therefore, is the name of

NAM ES AN D DEMONSTRATIVES

OF NAMES

the color exclusively, white is a name

of all

things whatever having the color, a name, not of the quality whiteness, but of every white object. It is true, this name was given to all those various objects on account of the quality, and we may therefore say, without impropriety, that the

quality forms part of its signification; but a name can only be said to stand for, or to be a name of, the things of which it can be predicated. We shall presently see that all names
which can be said to have any signification, all names by applying which to an individual we give any information respecting that individual, may be said to imply an attribute of some sorl, but they are not names of the attribute; it has its
own proper abstract name.

class which includes Socrates, Howard, the Man of Ross, and an undefinable number of other individuals, past, present, and to come. These individuals, collectively and severally. can alone be said with propriety to be denoted by the word; of them alone can it properly be said to be a name. But it is a name applied to all of them in consequence of an attribute which they are supposed to possess in common, the attribute which has received the name of virtue. It is applied to all beings that are considered to
possess this attribute, and to none which are not so considered.

they denote is denominated name from, the attribute w1

Snow and other objects recei because they possess the

called whiteness; Peter,

humanity. The attribute,

Ji

receive the name man becaur attributes which are consid

o

therefore, be said to denomin to give them a common namr It has been seen that all

names are connotative. Ere though the names only of

All

concrete general names are connotative.

Peter,

The word man, for example, denotes

Jane, John, and an indefinite number of other individuals of whom, taken as a class, it is the name. But it is applied to them because they possess, and to signify that they possess, cerlain attributes. These seem to be corporeity, animal

some instances, be justly cor tative; for attributes themselr' utes ascribed to them, and a ri

life, rationality, and a certain external form

V. CONNOTATIVE AND
NON-CONNOTATIVE This leads to the consideration of a third great division of names, into connotative and nonconnotative, the latter sometimes, but improperly, called absolute. This is one of the most important distinctions which we shall have
occasion to point out and one of those which go deepest into the nature of language.

attributes may connote an attributes. Of this descriptio such a word asfault, equival ful quality. This word is a many attributes and connot

A non-connotative term is one which signifies a subject only, or an attribute only. A connotative term is one which denotes a subject and implies an attribute. By a subject is here meant anything which possesses attributes. Thus John, or London, or England are names which signify a subject only. Whiteness, length, virtue, signify an attribute only. None of these names, there-

which, for distinction, we call the human. Every existing thing which possessed all these attributes would be called a man; and anything which possessed none ofthem, or only one, or two, or even three of them without the fourth, would not be so called. For example, if in the interior of Africa there were to be discovered a race of animals possessing reason equal to that of human beings but with the form of an elephant, they would not be called men. Swift's Houyhnhnms would not be so called. Or if such newlydiscovered beings possessed the form of man without any vestige of reason, it is probable that some other name than that of man would be found for them. How it happens that there can be any doubt about the matter will appear here-

attribute of those various atl example, we say that slown fault, we do not mean that tf the actual change of place o1 a bad thing, but that the prol of the borse, from which it the quality ofbeing a slow m able peculiarity. In regard to those concretl
not general but individual, a
made.

Proper names are not

denote the individuals who

after. The word man, therefore, signifles all

these attributes and all subjects which possess these attributes. But it can be predicated only of the subjects. What we call men are the subjects, the individual Stiles and Nokes, not the qualities by which their humanity is constituted. The name, therefore, is said to signify the subjects directly, the attributes indirectly; it denotes the subjects, and implies, or involves, or indicates,

but they do not indicate or ir as belonging to those indi, name a child by the name Pi name Caesar, these names
used to enable those

individu

fore, are connotative. Bfiwhite, long, virtuous, are connotative. The word white denotes all white things, as snow, paper, the foam of the sea, etc., and implies, or in the language of the schoolmen, connotes, the attribute whiteness. The word white is not predicated of the attribute, but of the subjects, snow, etc.; but when we predicate it of them, we convey the meaning that the attribute whiteness belongs to them. The same may be said of the other words above cited. Virtuous, for example, is the name of a

jects of discourse.

It may

b't

we must have had some reas those names rather than an1' true. but the name. once giver the reason. A man may have because that was the name o may have been named Dart-r

or, as we shall say henceforth, connotes, the

attributes. It is a connotative name. Connotative names have hence been also called denominative, becatse the subject which

situated at the mouth of the part of the signification of t the father of the person so ca name, nor even of the word

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11

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te1e4 selouep 'eldruexe toJ
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270 have had two fathers), "the author of the Iliad,"

NAM ES AN D DEMONSTRATIVES

OF NAMES

"the murderer of Henri Quatre," of the second.

For, though it is conceivable that more persons than one might have parlicipated in the authorship of the Iliad or in the murder of Henri Quatre, the employment of the article the implries that, in fact, this was not the case. What is here
done by the word rfte is done in other cases by the

context; thus, "Caesar's army" is an individual name if it appears from the context that the army meant is that which Caesar commanded in a particularbattle. The still more general expressions, "the Roman army," or "the Christian army," may be individualized in a similar manner. Another case of frequent occurrence has already been noticed; it is the following: The name, being a many-worded one, may consist, in the first place, of a generalname, capable therefore, in itself, of

being afflrmed of more things than one, but

which is, in the second place, so limited by other words joined with it that the entire expression can only be predicated of one object, consistently with the meaning of the general term. This is exemplified in such an instance as the following: "the present prime minister of England." "Prime Minister of England" is a general name; the attributes which it connotes may be possessed by an indefinite number of persons, in succession, however, not simultaneously, since the meaning of the name itself imports (among other things) that there can be only one such person at a time. This being the case, and the application of the name being afterward limited, by the arlicle and the wordpresent, to such individuals as possess the attributes at one indivisible point of time, it becomes applicable only to one individual. And, as this appears from the meaning of the name without any extrinsic proof, it is

ogy as for the other reasons formerly assigned) a connotative name ought to be considered a name of all the various individuals which it is predicable of, or, in other words, denotes, and not of what it connotes. But by learning what things it is a name of, we do not leam the meaning of the name; for to the same thing we may, with equal propriety, apply many names, not equivalent in meaning. Thus I call a cerlain man by the name Sophroniscus; I call him by another name, the father of Socrates. Both these are names of the same individual, but their meaning is altogether different. They are applied to that individual for two different purposes: the one merely to distinguish him from other persons who are spoken of; the other to indicate a fact relating to him, the fact that Socrates was his son. I further apply to him these other expressions: a man, a Greek, an Athenian, a sculptor an old man, an honest man, a brave man. All these are, or may be, names of Sophroniscus,
not, indeed, ofhim alone, but ofhim and each of an indefinite number of other human beings. Each ofthese names is applied to Sophroniscus

what attributes, when we call al ob name, we really mean to predicate ol And the question of most nicety is t this fixed connotation to a name si possible change in the objects whicJ is habitually employed to denote, si

possible disarrangement, either by subtraction, of the group of objects however. imperfect a manner, it sel cumscribe and hold together, and *i vitiation of the truth of any proposit are commonly received as true.

for a different reason, and by each whoever

understands its meaning is apprised of a distinct fact or number of facts concerning him, but those who knew nothing about the names except that they were applicable to Sophroniscus would be altogether ignorant of their meaning. It is even possible that I might know every single individual of whom a given name could be with truth affirmed and yet could not be said to know the meaning of the name. A child knows who are its brothers and sisters long before it has any definite ccnception of the nature of the facts which are involved in the signification of those words. . . . Since, however, the introduction of a new technical language as the vehicle

strictly an individual name.

From the preceding observations it will easily be collected that whenever the names given to objects convey any information-that is, when-

of

speculations on subjects belonging

to

the

domain of daily discussion is extremely difficult to effect and would not be free from inconven-

ever they have properly any meaning-the meaning resides not in what they denote but in what they connote. The only names of objects
which connote nothing are proper names, and these have, strictly speaking, no signification.
As a proper name is said to be the name of the one individual which it is predicated of, so (as well from the importance of adhering to anal-

ience even

if

effected, the problem

for

the

philosopher, and one of the most difficult which he has to resolve, is, in retaining the existing phraseology, how best to alleviate its imperfections. This can only be accomplished by giving to every general concrete name which there is frequent occasion to predicate a definite and fixed connotation in order that it may be known

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