Types of pavements: There are two major types of pavements: 1) Flexible pavements (Fig.

3) In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain to grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement having less flexural strength, acts like flexible sheet (E.g. Bituminous Road) 2) Rigid pavements( Fig. 4) In rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to the subgrade soil by flexural strength of the pavement & the pavement cats like a rigid plate (E.g. Cement concrete roads) Components (Cross sectional elements) of a road (Fig. 1 & Fig. 2): Pavement or Carriageway: It refers to the path over which the vehicles and other traffic lawfully. The width of the carriageway is designed considering the volume of expected traffic and as per guidelines specified by Indian Road Congress (IRC). Maximum width of the vehicle 2.44 metres (m) Side margin- 0.68 m Single lane carriageway width- 3.8 m Two or more lanes, single lane width- 3.5 m Shoulder: The width of the road is always extended beyond the road on both sides by a width of at least 2.5 m. This space acts as a space for moving away any broken down vehicles or parking vehicles in an emergency. The shoulders should satisfy following requirements: - Sufficient bearing capacity in wet condition. - The shoulders should have distinctive colour from the pavement to guide the vehicle users on the pavement only. Soil subgrade:

It refers to the natural soil or prepared soil on which the loads coming on the road are ultimately transferred. Hence, atleast top 50cm soil subgrade should be prepared by proper compaction using rollers under controlled conditions of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. It is necessary to evaluate the strength properties of soil subgrade & it is essential at no time, the soil subgrade is overstressed. If the soil characteristics do not meet the required standards, the same is treated or stabilised to suit the requirements. Base & Sub-base course: These layers are made of broken stones, bound or unbound aggregate. Sometimes in sub-base course, a layer of stabilised soil or selected granular soil is also used. In some places, boulder stones or bricks are also used as sub base course. However, at sub-base course, it is desirable to use smaller size graded aggregates or soil aggregate mixes because of their good interlocking properties. Base course and sub-base course are primarily used to improve the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through a finite thickness. Wearing course or surface course: The purpose of wearing course is to give a smooth riding surface that is dense. It resists pressure exerted by tyres and takes up wear & tear due to traffic. Wearing course also offers a water tight layer against surface water infiltration. This layer is either made of flexible materials (bitumen or coal tar mixed with stones) or a rigid material (concrete). The top surface is provided by lateral slopes (Camber) on either side to drain off rain water from the road surface quickly and effectively. Classification of roads: Depending upon various criteria, roads can be classified as follows:

1) Based on weather/seasonal usage: a) All weather roads- Usable in all seasons, including monsoon seasons. b) Fair weather roads- Traffic may be interrupted during rainy season at causeways, where streams may overflow across the road. 2) Based on type of carriageway: a) Paved roads- The minimum criteria for the pavement to be called paved road, if they are provide with hard pavement course which should be atleast Water Bound Macadam (WBM) layer. b) Unpaved roads- It is unpaved road, if they are not provided with atleast Water Bound Macadam (WBM) layer. Thus, earth roads and gravel roads may be called unpaved roads. 3) Based on type of pavement surfacing provided: a) Surface roads- Provided with bituminous surfacing (Black top roads) or cement concrete surfacing. b) Unsurfaced roads- Top surface not covered with bituminous or cement concrete layer but covered with layer of stones mixed with gravel and thoroughly compacted. 4) Based on location and function: The government of India introduced long term planning programme for a period of 20 years(hence called twenty year road development plan), to formulate the plans and implement those plans within the next 20 years. They are: ->Nagpur Road Plan (1943-1963) - 1st twenty year plan. ->Bombay Road Plan (1961-1981) - 2nd twenty year plan. ->Lucknow Road Plan (1981-2001) - 3rd twenty year plan. The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India based on location and function into following five categories: i) National Highways (NH) ii) State Highways (SH) iii) Major District Roads (MDR)

iv) Other District Roads (ODR) v) Village Roads (VR) According to modified classification of road system by third road development plan, Roads are classified as: i) Primary system - Expressways - National Highways (NH) ii) Secondary system - State Highways (SH) - Major District Roads (MDR) iii) Tertiary system or rural roads - Other District Roads (ODR) - Village Roads (VR) National Highways(NH)- These are main highways running through the length and breadth of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large industrial and tourist centres including roads required for strategic movements for the defence of India. State Highways (SH) - These are arterial roads of a state, connecting up with national highways of adjacent state, district head quarters and important cities within the state and serving as the main arteries for traffic to and from district roads. Major District Roads (MDR) - These are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and connecting those with each other or with the main highways of a district. Other District Roads (ODR) - These are roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centres, taluk head quarters, block development head quarters or other main roads. Village Roads (VR) - Roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the nearest road of a higher category.

Expressways- Expressways are a separate class of highways with superior facilities and design standards and are meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic. The expressways are to be provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separations at cross roads and fencing. Other components of Roads: 1) Traffic separators- Traffic separators are provided to separate the traffic moving in opposite direction, thus, avoiding head on collision. They can be provided as yellow colour strips or steel barricade or a permanent median all along the centre line of the road. 2) Kerbs- Within city limits to separate the pavements from the footpath, a raised stone called kerb is provided at the edge of the pavement. Depending upon the height, the kerbs can be classified as: ->Class 1 70 to 80 mm. ->Class 2 150 to 200 mm. ->Class 3 230 to 450 mm. (Note: Provide 5 to 6 lines space for drawing the figure of Kerbs) 3) Footpath- Space provided at the edge of the roads for the movement of pedestrians. The width of the footpath should be 1.3m or more, depending on the volume of pedestrian traffic. The level of footpath may be raised slightly higher than the road surface. 4) Parking lanes- Usually provide or reserved on the road edges within the city limits, for allowing the vehicles to be parked conveniently. The parking lanes are distinctively separated by white colour strips so that moving vehicles do not enter parking lanes.

5) Cycle tracks- In urban areas of some countries, separate cycle tracks of 2 metres wide are provided all along the length of the road. 6) Guard stones and Guard Rails- Whenever, the road formation level is higher then the natural ground level, at the edges of the shoulders, guard stones or guard rails should be provided to avoid accidental fall of vehicles from earth slope. 7) Fencing- In highways and expressways, fencing is provided all along the road to prevent the cattle and people from entering the traffic zone.