1.

The energy challenge Heat Q= m Cp T (or m CV T ) = mass specific heat temperature difference Potential energy Ep= m g h = mass gravitational acceleration height. Kinetic energy Ek= m v2 = half mass velocity squared. Work W= F d = force distance Pressure work Wp= p V= pressure Volume This is the same as applying on an area, A, a pressure force, F= pA, and moving it by a distance d. This will change the volume within the boundary by dA: W= F d= p A d = p V Electrical energy Eel= V Q= volt charge. Radiation energy of a photon: h = h c / , with Planck's constant, h= 6.625 10 34 J s, and the frequency, , or the speed of light, c, and wavelength, . 'Chemical' energy The heat released in a chemical reaction. This is specific to each reaction and is usually given as energy unit mass (e.g. kJ/kg) or number of molecules (e.g. kJ/mol) Atomic energy E= m c2 = mass speed of light squared, with c= 3 108 m/s

6
Introduction
Read also the sixth section of the online Basic Notes.

Fluid machines

The aim of this section is to provide the very basic principles of the common types of engines and turbines which exploit fluid motion or pressure. To provide the required basic fluid dynamic concepts, the basic processes, such as Bernoullis equation are briefly revised. These are then applied to the range of engines and turbines from reaction turbines to wind turbines.

Once you have read this section and the online notes, you are ready to complete the fourth set of online exercises, which is based on the material covered here and in the previous section.

Definition of fluid machines

This is an introduction to extracting work from a fluid flowing through a turbine. This could be a reaction turbine in a hydropower station, driven by a pressure drop across the turbine, or it could be a wind turbine extracting kinetic energy from the wind. Turbines and engines are machines which extract energy or power from a stream of fluid and convert it into mechanical energy (and then possibly into other forms, such as electricity) Pumps, fans, and compressors are machines which use mechanical energy or power to increase the pressure or kinetic energy of a fluid. Design parameters for pumps and fans: 1. Desired flow rate 2. Associated head loss 3. Power requirement Design parameters for compressors::

74

6. Fluid machines 1. Desired pressure increase 2. Associated flow rate 3. Power requirement Design parameters for turbines and engines: Either 1. Desired power generation 2. Available head 3. required flow rate Or, for wind turbines and similar, 1. Desired power generation 2. Available flow rate Important quantities 1. Head or available head: hydrostatic pressure at machine inlet/outlet: p= gH . When considering a turbine beneath a reservoir, the available head at the turbine inlet is the height of the water level above the turbine minus the head loss in the penstock feeding the water from the reservoir to the turbine (and possibly minus residual head required at the turbine outlet for the water to clear the turbine). 2. Flow rate, Q. 3. Power: this can be either the hydraulic power in cases where the static head is exploited: p= gH, or the power carried in an open stream, of velocity U, through the cross-section, A, of the turbine facing the stream (in the case of a wind turbine, this is the circle swept by the rotor blades of diameter D): P= AU .
3

75

6. Fluid machines

Basic Fluid Mechanic principles

This section quickly reviews the fundamental basics of fluid mechanics, based on the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.

2.a

The control volume

If we want to be able to describe the forces and mass balances we need to define a volume over which we do this. This volume of our choice is called the control volume, abbreviated CV, and the surface which encloses this volume is called the control surface (CS).

2.b

Continuity equation
The continuity equation states that mass is conserved. In an incompressible fluid, such as water, this is equally to the statement that the volume or volume flow rate is conserved. In other words: What comes in has to come out

in Qin = out Qout 1 Q1 = 2 Q2

If fluid is incompressible (all liquids), 1 = 2 , and Q1 = Q2 U1 A1 = U2 A2 , where Q is the volume flow rate, A the cross-sectional area through which the fluid flows, and U the average velocity through that cross-sectional area.

2.c

Momentum equation
Here, we have to remember that the best-known form of Newtons second law, F= m a, is a simplification of the proper definition as The change of momentum is equal to the applied forces', F= d(mv)/dt. To apply this to a fluid, we have to rephrased it slightly if we look at a position through which fluid is flowing, instead of looking at a solid object with mass m:

76

6. Fluid machines The Change of momentum in our control volume is equal to the net gain of momentum by momentum flowing into the control volume plus any forces applied to the fluid within the control volume or at its surfaces. By convention, one calculates the momentum flowing out of the control volume. This gives a minus sign which disappears if we move that term to the left of the 'iis equal'. Also, the forces can be divided into those which apply throughout the bulk of the volume, 'body forces' (e.g. gravity), and those which contribute only at the outer surfaces of the control volume (They are described by a stress tensor which includes forces due to pressure and stress). With this, the momentum equation for a control volume can be rephrased as Rate of Change of Momentum + Net loss of Momentum = Body Forces + Surface Forces .

You could also visualise the different meanings of the terms by realising that the momentum carried by the fluid is carried by the mass flow rate = rate of change of mass: F= d(mv)/dt. = m dv/dt + v dm/dt = m a + v m = m a + v Q= m a + A U . Remember that this is more of an illustration than a derivation. In particular, any force applied is given by the difference between the value of v Q at the inlet and the outlet. If we are looking at a steady-state flow, then there will be no acceleration. If we furthermore only consider a case where the only velocity component is that in the direction of the mass flow rate, then the force becomes F= 1 A1 U1 2 A2 U2 . The most important forces of all is the pressure force, F= pA.
2 2 2

77

6. Fluid machines

2.d

Energy, energy per unit volume, and head

The most important forms of energy for fluid machines are 1. Potential energy: m g z 2. kinetic energy: m U
2

3. flow work or pressure energy: p V. (all having the base unit: 1 joule= 1J= 1 kg m s 2) In fluid mechanics one often uses energy per unit volume: 1 joule per m = 1 kg m1 s2. Note that this has the same units as pressure: 1 pascal= 1 Pa= 1 kg m1 s2. 1. Potential energy: g z 2. kinetic energy: U
2 3 2

3. flow work or pressure energy: p Using the hydrostatic pressure equation, p= g H, this pressure is equivalent to a stationary column of fluid above the point you are looking at with a height of H. As hydropower is usually associated with a reservoir a certain elevation above a turbine house, and because pressure is most easily measured by the height of a fluid column in a manometer, one often converts these into quantities with dimension (m) by dividing each term by g, and refers to them as head: 1. Elevation: z 2. dynamic head:
1 U 2 2

3. static head: H =

p g

2.e

Bernoulli's equation
Bernoulli's equation is the statement of the first law of Thermodynamics that energy is conserved. It considers the energy balance at two points along a path that a fluid takes, a stream line. In terms of energy per volume (unit pascal: 1 J/m3= kg m1 s2= Nm= Pa):
2 2 1 1 p1 + gz1 + 2 U1 = p2 + gz 2 + 2 U 2

78

6. Fluid machines In terms of energy per mass (unit J/kg= m s ) p1 p 1 2 1 2 + gz1 + 2 U1 = 2 + gz 2 + 2 U 2 In terms of head (unit m) p1 U2 p U2 + z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2 g 2g g 2g The last can be rewritten using the hydrostatic pressure due to a fluid column of height h1: p= gh: h1 + z1 +
2 U1 U2 = h2 + z 2 + 2 , 2g 2g
2 2

giving us Bernoullis equation using elevation, static head, and dynamic head. Taking into account losses and work done on or by the fluid, the energy balance at point 2 can be worked out in terms of the energy balance at point 1 and what has been lost or gained in between. If energy is added to the fluid the work term is positive if energy has been extracted, HW is negative:
2 2 U1 U2 h1 + z1 + = h2 + z 2 + + H L + HT H P , 2g 2g

where HL is the head loss (e.g., due to friction) between points 1 and 2, HT the head extracted by a turbine, and HP the head added by a pump. The head loss is usually due to a combination of friction and minor losses, quantified by a friction factor, f, and minor loss coefficients, K, which result in a head loss of H L = 4f

L D

U2 + K 2g

If we only have a pump but no turbine in the system, we can re-arrange it to HP

2 2 U 2 U1 = h2 h1 + z 2 z1 + + 4f 2g

L D

U2 . + K 2g

79

6. Fluid machines As the left-hand side only quantifies the pump and the right only the two endpoints of the fluid system, the right-hand side is called the system head, HS.. This equation is used to calculate what flow rate and pressure one finds if one puts a given pump into a pipeline system. The same can be done for a turbine:
2 2 U1 U 2 HT = h1 h2 + z1 z 2 + 4f 2g

L D

+ K

) Ug 2

2.f

Mechanical and Fluid power

Mechanical Force Energy Torque Power F E T P F Fs Fd F U= F d = T mVt d mVt d = dVt Q Fluid
mV

Hydraulic

gHQ

s is used for linear distance moved, while d is used for distance of selected point from centre of rotation. is the angular velocity of the machine rotor. Note that in the torque only the component of the force is counted which is at right angles to the distance vector from the axis of rotation. Eulers turbomachine equation states that, in the absence of losses etc., the change in hydraulic power across the turbine is fully transferred into shaft power by means of the fluid applying a torque on the shaft in the form of the tangential velocity. In short, it states that the three columns in the bottom row of the table above are all equal.

2.g

Dimensional analysis
Dimensional analysis is tool used universally in all areas of the physical sciences albeit frequently not overtly. It is a method to find parameters which describe the important dynamics of a system in a way which is not restricted to that particular system. Without it, it would be useful to build scale models of cars or aeroplanes and test them in a wind tunnel. Dimensional analysis helps you to transfer the data from the wind tunnel to the real thing. 80

6. Fluid machines The procedure is to gather all relevant parameters, and then to reduce them to a minimum set of nondimensional parameters using a set of base units. If we have different situations where all nondimensional parameters are the same, then the dynamics is the same, and we have similarity. Similarity is usually split into geometric similarity, i.e. the shape is the same, and dynamic similarity, i.e. the other parameters are the same. To have a truly similar situation, we need both geometric and dynamic similarity. It is probably best illustrated by an example. To read the theory, refer to a standard Fluid Mechanics textbook Example: Wind drag on a car. The relevant parameters are the size and geometry of the car, the fluid properties of the air through which the car is moving, the speed at which it is moving, and the drag force: Size L, air density , air viscosity , speed U, Force F. The base units are length, m, mass, kg, and time, s. The first condition is that we test the car using a scale model; trying to measure the drag force on a Ferrari will be different to that on a minibus Secondly, we have 5 parameters and 3 base units. Since the procedure boils down to a simultaneous set of equation for the five parameters, we know that we will end up with 53 = 2 nondimensional parameters. One parameter to characterise the drag force will have the form Fa UbLcde The other one will have the form UfLgh i We can safely start with a=1. Putting this into the base units: kg m s and
1 1 2

m s m s
f

m kg m m kg m
g h

3d

kg m
i

= =

0 0

2f

3h

kg m s

which can only be satisfied if each base unit drops out: kg: m: s: 1 1 2 +b b +c +d 3d +e=0 e = 0 e=0

81

6. Fluid machines This reduces to : b=e2 c= 2e 2 d= e 1 We can now choose to set e=0, and get b= 2, c= 2, and d=1: The force parameter is F U 2L2 1 or, CD = F = L2U 2 F , the drag coefficient. 1 AU 2 2

Repeat the exercise for the second parameter (and making sure you dont choose i=0!) to get the Reynolds number, Re =

UL .

As you saw, we had a choice to set one of the unknown exponents to zero. One can end up with a different set of equally valid nondimensional parameters.

2.h

Dimensional Analysis for fluid machines

Taking a reaction turbine as a representative, we recognise that the relevant parameters are most likely to be: Shape of the turbine

1. Size of the turbine: usually the diameter of the rotor, D in [m] 2. Operating speed of the turbine, N in [rad/s] 3. Density of the fluid, in [kg/m ] 4. Viscosity of the fluid, in [kg/m/s] 5. Available head of the fluid, H, or pressure, p in [kg/m/s ] 6. Flow rate through the turbine, Q in [m /s] 7. Power output, P in [kg m / s ] With 7 parameters and 3 base units, we expect 4 nondimensional parameters. If you go through the analysis, trying to find one parameter proportional to H, and to Q, and one to P, you are likely to end up with
2 3 3 2 3

82

6. Fluid machines

a Reynolds number, Re =

Q D

a head coefficient, H =

gH N 2D 2 Q , and ND 3 P . N 3 D 5

a flow coefficient, Q =

a power coefficient, P =

This particular set is correct but has not been adopted as the most useful one. As there is always some freedom in choice of nondimensional parameters, and because any product of two nondimensional parameters is still a nondimensional parameters, we can find one parameter which expresses the power in terms of head and flow rate, and another parameter which in some way characterises the machine by its operating speed without any reference to its size: The new power coefficient becomes: = P P = . Recognising that the term H Q gHQ

at the bottom is the hydraulic power, we see that we have derived an expression for the efficiency.

2.i

Specific Speed
The speed coefficient, KN can be found by combining the power coefficient and the head coefficient so that the size drops out, and that it is proportional to the operating speed:
2 P KN = 5 H

1/ 4

P2 N 10 D 10 = 2 6 10 5 5 N D g H

1/ 4

N 4P 2 = 2 5 5 g H

1/ 4

=N

( gH )

5/4

A turbine with a high specific speed will provide a high power output for a low head, where as a turbine with a low specific speed will provide power at a high head. Another rule of thumb not immediately obvious from the equation is that of two turbines providing the same power, the one with the higher specific speed will be more compact. 83

6. Fluid machines Because the specific speed has been found to be very useful for many years, it has been adopted in all sorts of units, from the standard SI units to Imperial units but also practical units which then resulted in the specific speed not being a nondimensional unit at all. Because all the turbines have almost exclusively been used for water (
3

= 1000kg/m ), and on the Earths surface, (g= 9.81m/s), engineers have adopted the
P specific speed using the short form N S = N H 5 / 4 (where I have used NS to distinguish it

from the nondimensional version derived above. Often, the speed is also taken in rev/s rather than rad/s, which changes the specific speed value by a factor of 2.
P Exercise: Try to find the units of N S = N H 5 / 4 if you take N in rev/s (rather than

rad/s), P in MW, and H in m.

3 3.a

Types of turbines Reaction turbines

The action of driving the turbine shaft is by a gradual pressure drop over rotor. ' Degree of reaction = Pressure drop through rotor Pressure drop through machine

Depending on the size of the rotor and its orientation with the main flow direction, they are classified into radial flow, axial flow, and mixed flow machines. 1. Radial flow turbine: Runner between outer inlet radius and inner outlet radius. specific speed range: 0.10.4 ; moderate head (up to 500m) and moderate flow rates; The most common example of a radial flow reaction turbine is the Francis turbine. In fact, this turbine is in principle the same as a centrifugal pump operating in reverse, and in cases where specifically designed turbines are too expensive, centrifugal pumps have been used as turbines. This also opens up the possibility of a pumped-storage hydropower station; when there low 84

6. Fluid machines electricity demand, the power station operates the machines as pumps to fill up its reservoir, and when electricity demand rises, the same machines are used as turbines to generate electricity. 2. Axial flow turbine: Runner entirely within fluid, except for shaft. specific speed range: 0.31 ; low head (up to 150m for Kaplan, up to 25m for Bulb turbine) and high flow rates. Kaplan turbine='Propeller in housing' although usually with vertical axis. Bulb turbine, usually with horizontal axis but with generator in bulb in line with runner. Used at very low heads, such a tidal power stations.

85

6. Fluid machines

3.b

Impulse turbines
Examples of impulse turbine are the Pelton Wheel and the Turgo turbine: All energy is converted to kinetic energy in a fluid jet hitting the turbine runner. The runner is everywhere at atmospheric pressure. As a result, the degree of reaction is zero.

Because the size of the buckets at the rim of the runner limit the size of the jet, Pelton Wheels operate best at fairly low flow rates. They are therefore best suited for high heads. This is reflected in a specific speed range of 0.01 0.1.

3.c

Turbine types according to their specific speed

The diagrams only show the rotor, but not the stationary housing or guide vanes. The values in the various specific speeds are only approximate ranges. The usual conversion is Kn= 2 Kn (rev) = 0.0052 NS (metric)= 0.023 NS (British) The specific speed for the Pelton Wheel applies to a single jet. For multiple jet, the power output is proportional to the number of jets.

86

6. Fluid machines
Name Image of the runner typical head (m) Kn Kn (rev) NS (metri c) Impulse turbines Pelton Wheel > 300 <0.2 <0.03 < 30 < 10 NS (Britis h)

Turgo turbine (cross flow)

steam turbine (axial flow)

87

6. Fluid machines

Reaction turbines Radial flow reaction turbines Francis 500 30 0.25 1.3 0.04 0.2 50 250 10 60

Mixed flow reaction turbines 100 15 0.6 2 0.1 0.3 120 360 30 100

1.3 2.5

0.2 0.4

250 500

60 120

23

0.3 0.5

360 600

100 150

88

6. Fluid machines

Axial flow reaction turbines Kaplan 50 4 26 0.3 1 360 1200 100 300

Bulb or Pit

< 20

>3

> 0.5

> 600

> 150

Wells

3.d

Controlling the output

As the turbine will slow down if energy is drawn off at a higher rate, the response of a turbine to an increase of the electricity demand is a change in speed. Frequencies can be measured extremely accurately, and this is a way to monitor whether a turbine is matching the electricity demand. If the frequency drops, the flow rate through the turbine has to increase. This control of the flow rate is achieve by different means. The flow rate of the water jets in a Pelton Wheel is usually controlled by a spear valve, which can change the volume flow rate but does not affect the jet velocity. In reaction turbine, wicket gates and guide vanes are used to both, control the flow rate and condition the velocities to enter the turbine runner smoothly.

89

6. Fluid machines Example: A large hydropower station A new 150MW hydropower station is to be built at a site where the available head is estimated at 350m. The generators require the turbine to rotate at 10Hz. 1. Find the volume flow rate to generate 150MW of hydraulic power. 2. Find the specific speed (KN (rev)) to generate 150MW. 3. If the only available turbines are Francis turbines with KN= 0.08 rev, find the power output from one turbine, and the number of turbines required to generate 150MW. Solution 1. Q = Ph 150,000,000 = = 43.7m 3 s 1 gH 9810 350 P 150,000,000 1000 ( 3434 ) 1.25

2. K n = N

( gH )

5 4

= 10

= 0.147

3. P = K n ( gH ) N2
2

2.5

0.08 2 1000 ( 3434 ) 2.5 10

2

= 44.2 10 6 W = 44MW

So, we would need 4 turbines

90

6. Fluid machines

Euler's Turbomachine equation

In an ideal world, all power transferred to or from the machine rotor is transferred from or to the fluid power, and all the power transferred to or from the fluid in the rotor is transferred to or from the hydraulic power of the fluid. As the power transmitted by a rotating shaft is due to a torque, the component at of the fluid velocity which acts perpendicular to the direction to the axis of rotation, the momentum flow rate associated with the tangential velocity is the crucial quantity in the power transfer mechanism. The deficit in angular momentum of the fluid found between the fluid entering the turbine and leaving it must have been transferred elsewhere, ideally to the turbine shaft. This is quantified in Eulers turbomachine equation: P = T = m ( R 2Vt 2 R1Vt1 ) = gHQ

where

:
T: R1: R2: Vt1: Vt2:
m:

angular velocity of the machine rotor torque on the rotor shaft inlet radius of the rotor outlet radius of the rotor tangential fluid velocity at the rotor inlet tangential fluid velocity at the rotor outlet mass flow rate through the machine volume flow rate through the machine head difference between inlet and outlet of the machine

Q: H:

The problem is to know or find the tangential fluid velocities, Vt, To find the tangential velocities, we need to know the radial fluid velocities and the rotor blade velocities The rotor blade velocity, U, is found from the rotation rate: U = r

91

6. Fluid machines m 2r b

The radial fluid velocity, Vr, is found from the mass flow rate: Vr =

where b is the 'height' of the blade, i.e. 2rb is the cross-section of the cylindrical opening through which the fluid flows To be able to find relationships between all velocities, we assume that the fluid is always flowing parallel to the blades. The control volume is the space between two blades, which is moving with the rotating runner . In this moving frame of reference, the fluid whirl/tangential velocity is apparently reduced by blade velocity, U = R The usual notation for the different velocity components is U: blade velocity, Vr: radial component of fluid velocity Vt or Vw: tangential component of fluid velocity, aka whirl velocity R or W: Fluid velocity relative to blade This is the effective velocity in the control volume!

5.a

Principle of a Francis Turbine

Eulers turbomachine equation, P = T = m ( R 2Vt 2 R1Vt 1 ) , is illustrated using the Francis turbine as an example. The rotation rate is fixed by the grid frequency, the inlet and outlet radius of the runner are fixed by design, but the mass flow rate and inlet whirl velocities are variable. The mass flow rate is adjusted by opening or closing a valve. By the mass flow rate, the radial component of the fluid velocity is specified, by Vr =
m A

, where A is the cross-sectional area of the inlet or outlet, respectively.

An inlet whirl velocity can be added by deflecting the water before it enters the turbine. This is done by guide vanes surrounding the runner

92

6. Fluid machines The outlet whirl velocity is determined by the outlet radial velocity, the blade speed, and the orientation of the blade. (blade angle refers to the angle between the blade tangent and the blade motion, U)

1 1 2

Blade, moving at velocity U U W Vr V Vt To centre Fluid flowing along blade, W W Vr U Vt

Figure 10.Control volume for the Francis turbine: the space between two turbine blades

Using velocity vectors, we can locally fit a Cartesian co-ordinate system to a fluid particle near a blade with the x-axis in the tangential direction and the y-axis in the radial direction. Vt U and the blade velocity is U = , but we also V= The fluid velocity is then 0 V r know that the fluid is moving along the blade, which has an angle of with the tangential direction. Therefore, the fluid velocity relative to the blade is

cos W . The combination of the fluid moving along the blade while the blade W = sin U W cos , which describes the fluid is moving, happens at a velocity of W + U = W sin velocity. Therefore, we have two expressions for the fluid velocity, which obviously

93

6. Fluid machines U W cos Vt = V . The second component gives = W +U = have to be equal: W sin V r us W = Vr , which we can use in the first component to get: sin
cos = U Vr cot sin

Vt = U Vr

or, in terms of the rotation rate and flow rate, and using only the magnitude of the velocities:
Vt = R
Q A

cot

Ideal operation It is usually the best to have the water leave the turbine with relatively little tangential velocity. However, it is not possible to have zero outlet whirl for all flow rates. The ideal power output is given by P = Q ( R 2Vt 2 R1Vt 1 ) = Q R 2 R 2 = = =
2 Q R 2

[ (

[(

Q A2

cot 2 R1 R1
R1Q A1

R2Q A2

2 cot 2 R1

) (

cot 1

)]

Q cot 1 A1

)]

2 2 2 R 2 R1 Q 2 2 2 R 2 R1 Q

R2 A2

cot 2

R1 cot 1 Q 2 A1

2 1 1 Q 2 b2 tan 2 b1 tan 1

Ideal outlet conditions Once you have decided on the flow rate at which the fluid leaving the turbine should
Q have no whirl, the outlet blade can be designed by setting 0 = Vt 2 = R 2 A2 cot 2

or

tan 2 =

Q R 2A2 94

6. Fluid machines Inlet blade angle Having decided on the flow rate and chosen the appropriate outlet blade angle, we can fix the inlet blade angle to give the ideal power at that flow rate.
P = Q R1Vt 1 = Q R1 R1

Q cot 1 A1

) or cot

A1P

R1Q

R1A1 Q

Ideal inlet conditions Given all the parameters in the power output equation, it is desirable to give the fluid the right inlet flow conditions before it encounters the turbine blade. This is done by the guide vanes. They give the fluid the correct tangential velocity component. By convention, this angle, , is often (but not always) measured with respect to the radial direction (in contrast to the blade angle which often (but not always) is measured with respect to the tangential direction!!!)
Q 2 Vt 1 A1 R1 A1 cot 1 A1R1 2b1R1 tan = = = cot 1 = cot 1 Vr 1 Q Q Q

If is defined with respect to the tangential, then tan = Vr / Vt Real performance With good design and control, the real efficiency of a Francis turbine can be in excess of 90% over a relatively large range around the best efficiency point, from about 50% to 110% of the rated power of the turbine.

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Q (m3/ s)

Figure 12. Power input (blue diamonds), Power output (red squares), and efficiency (triangles) for a typical Francis turbine

95

6. Fluid machines

5.b

Example
A small Francis turbine, turning at 11rev/s, has a runner diameter of 0.5m, a constant blade height of 60mm, and an outlet diameter of 0.3m. At maximum efficiency it delivers 200kW and has a specific speed of 0.09rev. 1. Calculate the optimum blade outlet angle. 2. Calculate the inlet angle, assuming that the best efficiency is 95%. 3. Calculate the angle of the guide vanes at the best-efficiency point 4. Calculate the guide angle and power output at 75% and 50% of the flow rate, assuming an efficiency of 90% and 75%, respectively. Solution 1. For the optimum blade angle, we want that the fluid leaves the turbine without any whirl, ie Vt is zero: tan 2= Q/(R2A2) We know

= 11 rev/s= 69rad/s
R2= 0.15m A2= 2bR2= 20.060.15=0.0566m To solve this, we still need the flow rate. From the specific speed, we can get the head at which the turbine delivers 200kW: H= (N/KN)
4/5 2

(P/)

2/5

/ g= (11/0.09)

4/5

(200)

2/5

/ 9.81= 39.7m

If the turbine has an efficiency of 95% at this point, we know that the (hydraulic) power going in is 200kW/0.95= 210.5kW. The hydraulic power, Ph= gHQ, gives us then the flow rate: Q= Ph / (gH)= 210500/ (10009.8139.7)= 0.541m /s. Finally, we can use the blade angle equation tan 2= Q/(R2A2)= 0.541 / (690.150.0566)= 0.9228 which gives us 2= 42.7.
3

96

6. Fluid machines

2. To calculate the inlet angle, we use Euler's equation which relates the difference of the fluid's angular momentum at the inlet and outlet. Since we know from 1. that we have designed the outlet so that the fluid has no angular momentum when it leaves the turbine, the entire angular momentum at the inlet is available for power generation, and we can use the equation for the inlet blade angle, cot 1= A1P/ (R1Q ) R1A1/Q. We know
2

= 69rad/s
R1= 0.25m A1= 2bR1= 20.060.25=0.0942m P= 200kW Q= 0.541m /s, and we get cot 1= 0.0953200000 / (1000690.250.541 ) 690.250.0942/ 0.541= 0.7174 or tan 1= 1/ cot 1= 1.3939 which gives 1= 54.3.
2 3 2

3. For the angle of the guide vanes, we need to work out the radial fluid velocity and the tangential fluid velocity. The radial velocity is given from the inlet area, A1, and the flow rate, Q: Vr,1= Q/ A1= 0.541m /s / 0.0942m = 5.74m/s. The tangential velocity can be found from re-arranging Eulers equation, P= Q R1Vt,1, to Vt,1= P/ (Q R1)= 200,000/ (69.1 1000 0.541 0.25)= 21.4m/s. If we take the angle with respect to the radial direction, we get tan = Vt,1/ Vr,1= 21.4/5.74= 3.728, or = 75. If we take the angle with respect to the tangential direction (ie the same as the blade angle), we get tan = Vr,1/ Vt,1= 5.74/21.4= 0.268, or = 15.
3 2

97

6. Fluid machines 4. For the power output, we use the hydraulic power at the reduced flow rate and the efficiency. For the guide vane, we use the reduced radial velocity and the tangential velocity to get the ideal (hydraulic) power out.
Q= 75% Q efficienc y Pin Pout Vr,1 Vt,1 =gHQ = Pin = Q/A =P/ (Q R1) tan = Vt,1/ Vr,1 =atan 9810*39.7*0.406= 0.90*158= 0.406/0.0942= 158,000/ (69.1000 0.4060.25) 22.5/ 4.3 5.232 79 158 142 4.30 22.5 9810*39.7*0.270= 0.75*105.3= 0.270/0.0942= 105,300/ (69.1000 0.2700.25) 22.5/2.87 7.848 83 105.3 78.9 2.87 22.5 kW kW m/s m/s 0.541*0.75= 0.406 90% Q= 50% 0.541*0.5= 0.270 75% m3/s

Propellers and wind turbines

To get a good idea what one might get out at best, one can simplify the problem greatly. Instead of looking at the detailed flow through the turbine, we can treat the turbine itself as a black box and only look at its effect on the nearby fluid stream. One simplification is to regard the black box as a very thin disk just enclosing the rotor, the actuator disk. We can then define a control volume which encloses some fluid upstream of the rotor, the actuator disk, and some downstream fluid. Because the only object within that control volume is the actuator disk, we can use Bernoulli's equation everywhere, except across the disk. But the disk is the only thing which can affect the flow, so it is the only thing where a force can be exerted. Propellers generate thrust by accelerating the fluid through the rotor. Wind (and tidal stream) turbines generate power by converting kinetic energy of the fluid flow into rotation of the rotor.

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6. Fluid machines They have no casing to guide the fluid through the machine They cannot maintain a pressure drop between upstream and downstream of the machine. Simple wind mill designs may have flat rotor blades which act like deflector plates. The torque on the rotor is given by how much the air stream is deflected by the blades. The real efficiency is much reduced because one cannot have ideal flow conditions across a moving deflector blades if it is to do work (use the velocity triangles: because the entry angle and the exit angle of the blade are the same, we cannot do the work gradually along the blade. Rotor blades are generally shaped like areofoils - they generate a lift force perpendicular to the fluid flow along the blade (remember that the blade is moving at the same time). Propellers want to generate forward thrust while wind turbines want to generate torque.
T h ru st

P r o p e lle r
L ift

W in d t u r b in e
T o rq u e L ift

6.a

Actuator disk theory

To get a good idea what one might get out at best, one can simplify the problem greatly. Instead of looking at the detailed flow through the turbine, we can treat the turbine itself as a black box and only look at its effect on the nearby fluid stream. One simplification is to regard the black box as a very thin disk just enclosing the rotor, the actuator disk. We can then define a control volume which encloses some fluid upstream of the rotor, the actuator disk, and some downstream fluid. Because the only object within that control volume is the actuator disk, we can use Bernoullis equation everywhere, except across the disk. But the disk is the only thing which can affect the flow, so it is the only thing where a force can be exerted.

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6. Fluid machines Actuator disk Control Volume The control volume wants to enclose the actuator disk completely but not look at the fluid flowing past it. We also want to use streamlines as the side boundaries so that we know that there is no fluid leaving the control volume through sides and that we can use Bernoullis equation along the side. The streamline which just touches the edge of the disk is called the slipstream. Also, we need to extend the control volume to far enough away from the disk so that we look at simple, unperturbed flow: Pressure far upstream and downstream is unaffected: p 4 = p1 = 0 Mass flow through control volume: m = A1u1 = A2u 2 = A3 u 3 = A4 u 4 The disk is very thin: A3 = A2 = A , where A is the swept area of the rotor. p
1

A A A
1 2 2

u p

u
2

u p

By continuity, Au 2 = Au 3 : u 2 = u 3 The force on the disk by the flow is the pressure difference across the disk: F = ( p 2 p3 ) A

2 2 1 Bernoulli before disk: p2 = 2 u1 u 2 2 2 1 Bernoulli after disk: p3 = 2 u 4 u 2

) ( )

)
2 2 A u1 u 4

Inserting pressures gives force: F =

1 2

Force on disk is also the net change in the momentum flow rate: F = m ( u1 u 4 )

with Momentum flow rate into C.V.: J in = mu1 Momentum flow rate out of C.V.: J out = mu 4 100

6. Fluid machines
2 2 Equating both forces, using u1 u 4 = ( u1 u 4 )( u1 + u 4 ) , 1 and re-arranging gives u 2 = 2 ( u1 + u 4 )

2 2 1 Power transmitted by disk: P = Fu 2 = 4 A u1 u 4 ( u1 + u 4 )

Using U = u1 and = P = Fu 2 =
1 4

u4 : u1

AU 3 1 2 (1 + ) =

1 4

AU 3 1 + 2 3

6.b

Wind turbine
0.7

Wind turbine efficiency

The flow of kinetic energy by the wind

Efficiency

0.6

through an area A is
1 Pair = 2 AU 3

0.5 0.4

0.3

0.2

The efficiency of a stationary actuator disk is therefore:

0.1

0 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6 =u4/U

0.7

0.8

0.9

P = Pair

1 2

(1 +

6.c

Propeller
1

Propeller efficiency

If we consider a propeller, the power conversion between actuator disk and fluid is
Efficiency

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 1

given by the force and the fluid velocity through the disk, u 2 , but the useful power is that which is related to the actual speed of

5 6 =u4/U

10

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6. Fluid machines the aircraft, which is U, but the force is obviously still the same. So the useful output is
1 Pout = FU = 2 AU 3 1 2 .

The efficiency is =

Pout 2 = . Pturbine 1 +

Example: Design of an aircraft propeller. An aircraft is powered by to turboprop engines. Assume that the actual propellers work at the ideal limit according to actuator disk theory where the wind speed behind the propeller is 50% higher than the travelling speed. Each engine must provide a thrust of 50kN to achieve a speed of 300mph at an altitude where the density of air is 0.8kg/m . 1. Calculate the efficiency of the propellers 2. Calculate the power requirement for the engines. 3. Calculate the diameter of the propellers. 4. Calculate the pressure changes across the propeller. Solution U= 300mph= 185m/s. = 1.5=3/2 2 2 1 1. = 1 + = 5 = 5 = 0.2 = 20%
2
3

2. F= 50,000N u2= (U+u4)= 1.25U= 231m/s. P= Fu2= 11.55MW

2 3. F = 1 AU 1 --> A= 2.92m and D= 1.93m. 2
2

4. p =

F = 17kPa = 0.17bar = 170mbar A

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6. Fluid machines

Design of a helicopter rotor A helicopter design requires from the rotor that it can carry a mass of 5,000kg. The diameter of the rotor is not to exceed 8m. Assume that actuator disk theory gives a useful indication of the situation. Near ground, the air density is 1.2kg/m . 1. Sketch a diagram of the helicopter rotor as an actuator disk, and outline the slipstream boundary and the velocities at crucial points. 2. Determine the air velocity through the disk required to produce the force to balance the weight of the helicopter. 3. Calculate the power requirement for the motor powering the rotor. 4. Estimate the torque on the rotor shaft if the rotor rotates at 300rpm
3

Solution
2 The swept area of the rotor is A = D = 50.27m 4
2

The upstream velocity, u1, is zero, and the velocity through the disk, u2, is therefore half of the downstream velocity, u4.
2 The force generated by the change in velocity is F = m( u 4 u1 ) = 2 Au 2 .

The force required to counteract the weight of 5,000kg is F= mg= 49kN. The air velocity through the rotor is then u 2 = F = 20m / s . 2 A

The power carried by the air is F = 2 A F3 = 2 A 2F 3 1 = 980kW D

P = 1 mu 2 = Fu 2 = F 2
4

The torque is T =

P 980,000 = = 31kNm . 2 5

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6. Fluid machines

6.d

Some remarks on wind turbines

One of the design and operating conditions not used in the actuator disk theory is the rotational speed of the turbine rotor. It is obvious, however, that wind of a given speed, U0, can turn the rotor only at a certain speed. The parts of the rotor moving fastest are the tips of the rotor blades. A rotor with a radius, R, and turning with an angular velocity, , has blade tips moving at Utip= R . In fact, two other constraints limit the useful speed of such a turbine or propeller: 1. If any part of the rotor is moving at speeds approaching the speed of sound, the compressibility of air will affect the performance 2. If the rotor is moving too fast (or if the blades are too close together), a blade will follow in the wake of the previous blade rather than receive 'fresh' air. While the first is more relevant to aircraft propellers, the second is important for wind turbines. As a result, smaller turbines may turn faster and/or have more blades, while larger ones tend to have fewer blades and turn slower. Equally, if you want to reduce the number of blades for a given rotor radius or diameter, you must increase the rotation rate to achieve the same output. Most current large wind turbines have three blades, and operate at a tip speed ratio of about 8:1. This means that the tips move about 8 times faster than the mean wind.

Reading
This section is best revised with a standard textbook on basic Fluid Mechanics, such as that by Massey.

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