COURSE OUTLINE (WEEKS 5-13)

MODULE 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION INTEGRAL FORM (Cengel & Cimbala Chapter 5: Conservation of Mass & Energy Chapter 6: Conservation of Momentum)

LAB 1: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

MODULE 2. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE (Chapter 7)

LAB 2: SWAN RIVER MODEL

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MODULE 3. PIPE FLOW (Chapter 8)

LAB 3: TRANSITION TO TURBULENCE

MODULE 4. EQUATIONS OF MOTION DIFFERENTIAL FORM (Chapter 9)

Lecturer: Asst. Prof. Marco Ghisalberti Email: marco.ghisalberti@uwa.edu.au

MODULE 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION APPLIED TO A CONTROL VOLUME. Threshold concepts 1. You may apply any and all of these conservation laws to any system. You may have to apply all 3 to fully solve a problem. 2. A control volume is a property of your solution method, not of the system. There is no 'correct' choice of control volume, but there are 'smart' choices that will enable you to solve the problem. 3. Unlike mass and energy, momentum is a vector and that changes how we deal with it.

KINEMATICS Kinematics is the study of the form of the motion, without consideration of the dynamics. DEFINITIONS Steady & Uniform flows A flow is steady if the fluid velocity does not vary in time at any given point in space. A flow is uniform if the velocity does not vary in space over a specified region.

Fluid particle:

A volume of fluid small compared to the domain, but large enough to contain many fluid molecules. This is the volume used to apply our conservation laws (mass, momentum, energy). Control volumes can be fixed in space (Eulerian) OR moving with the fluid (Lagrangian).

Fluid control volume:

We will now look at the 3 conservation laws we use to solve fluid mechanics problems: conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. We typically need to use 2 or 3 of these equations together to solve a problem. Conservation laws can be applied to an infinitesimal element, or may be integrated over a large control volume. In this unit, we will consider both approaches. First, we will apply our conservation laws to an Eulerian control volume.

CONSERVATION LAW 1 - MASS Consider fluid flowing through a duct:

Provided that mass of fluid in control volume doesnt change, conservation of mass says that: Mass flux through 1 = Mass flux through 2.

Mass flux through any surface ( m ) given by

m = Vn dA
A

In above case

m1 = m2

V
1 A1

dA =

A2

Vn dA

If flow is incompressible, density doesn't change. That is, 1 = 2 and both are independent of their position in the cross-section.

V
A1

dA =

V
A2

dA

If we define U as the (areal) average velocity over the crosssection:

U1 dA = U2
A1

dA
A2

U1 A1 = U2 A2 Q1 = Q2
Q = volumetric flow rate = m

if flow is incompressible

Example: Flow through a pipe with a contraction

U2 U1

For incompressible flow, U1 D12 = U2 D2 2 4 4 2 2 i.e. U1 D1 = U2 D2

Problem: Water is flowing through a circular pipe with a contraction. If the diameter at the entrance is 0.5 m, the diameter at the exit is 0.1 m and Q = 0.30 m3s-1, find the discharge velocities at the entrance and exit at 20C. Area of pipe at 1 = Area of pipe at 2 =

D12 =

(0.5 m) 2 = 0.196 m 2

(0.1 m) 2 = 0.0079 m 2
0.30 m3s-1 U1 = = 1.5 ms-1 2 0.196 m 0.30 m3 s-1 U2 = = 38.2 ms-1 0.0079 m 2

Entrance velocity

Discharge velocity

General Form of Conservation of Mass In some cases, the fluid mass inside the control volume does change. In these situations, we have to allow for the rate of change of mass inside the control volume. e.g.

d ( mcv ) = min - mout dt

mcv = cv

dmcv d cv = if incompressible dt dt

d cv = Qin - Qout dt

CONSERVATION LAW 2 - MOMENTUM Newtons 2nd law for fluid flowing through a finite control volume (c.v.) (Note: momentum = vector quantity. So, well have 1 momentum equation for each direction!)

Newton's Law:

Forces acting on cv = Rate of change of momentum of fluid

= Rate of accumulation of momentum inside c.v. + Rate of momentum flux out of c.v. Rate of momentum flux into c.v.

Term 1: Rate of accumulation = t steady.

v V dV
V

= 0, if flow is

ur Terms 2 and 3: Momentum flux through a surface A = V Vn dA

A

where Vn is component of fluid velocity normal to the surface A. u r (N.B. Vn is one component of V )

If we can assume the flow is (a) uniform across A, and (b) incompressible, ur ur ur V Vn dA = V Vn dA = QV
A A

So, our conservation of momentum equations become

Forces acting on cv =

(
out

ur ur QV - QV

in

We can apply this equation in each direction (i.e. in x, y & z directions).

If there is a change in momentum flux in a certain direction, then forces are acting in that direction.

Forces acting on cv (LHS of equation) In general, four types of forces can act: 1. 2. 3. 4. Gravity Pressure Shear stress Force due to solid objects in the cv that present frontal area to the flow

So, our conservation of momentum equations read:

r r r r ur ur Fgrav + Fpress + Fshear + Fsolid = QV - QV

out

in

Fgrav = mg = g Fpress = (pA), where A is cross-sectional area Fshear = A* = where A* is contact area between walls and fluid Fsolid = usually what were solving for.
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CONSERVATION LAW 3 - (MECHANICAL) ENERGY

List of assumptions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conservation of energy law: Rate of change of fluid energy in cv = Rate of work done on cv + Rate of energy transport across boundaries of cv

Flux of (KE+PE)out Flux of (KE+PE)in = Rate of work done by pressure

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Flux of KEout = U22 (U2 A2) = U22Q Flux of KEin = U12Q Flux of PEout = gz2Q Flux of PEin = gz1Q Q(U22 U12) + gQ(z2 z1) = Rate of work done by pressure Looking at RHS: Rate of work done by pressure = p1A1U1 p2A2U2 = (p1 p2) Q

Q(U22 U12) + gQ(z2 z1) = (p1 p2) Q If we divide through by gQ, and group 1 terms on LHS and 2 terms on RHS, we are left with:

U12 p1 U2 2 p + z1 + = + z2 + 2 2g g 2g g
Thus along a streamline in a steady, inviscid flow

U2 p i.e. +z+ = constant . 2g g

This is called Bernoulli's Law.

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Each term has units of length (head) so we say:

p = Pressure head g u2 = Velocity head 2g z = Elevation head

Sum of 3 = Total head

Applications of Bernoullis Law 1. Drainage from tank: what is velocity of jet out of the hole?

- Assume flow is steady and that we can neglect friction/viscous effects.

Apply Bernoulli's equation along streamline from 1 to p1 U12 p2 U2 2 + + z1 = + + z2 g 2g g 2g p1 = p2 = pATM z1 = h ; z2 = 0

U1 0, if area of tank large compared to area of hole; U2 = ?

U2 2 h= 2g

U2 =

2gh

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2. Pitot tube: how do we get the flow velocity from the tube reading?

Apply Bernoulli's equation from

to

U12 p1 U2 2 p + z1 + = + z2 + 2 2g g 2g g
Now, p1 = g(h - z1 )

p2 = g(h+ h - z1 ) z1 = z 2 U1 =? U2 = 0
.

U12 = 2g

h U1 = ( 2 g h )

1/ 2

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Hydraulic Grade Line and Energy Line

z+

p g

is the static head and this yields the hydraulic grade line (HGL). is the total head and yields the energy line (EL)

p U2 z+ + g 2g

Energy Losses In applying Bernoullis equation, we assume that there is no loss of mechanical energy to heat. In most systems, there are real mechanical energy losses due to: 1. Viscous effects/Friction all real fluids have viscosity. 2. Turbulence in general, the more turbulent a fluid flow, the more mechanical energy is lost. When we look at pipe flow, we will discuss ways to allow for these energy losses.

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