OS Concepts

Operating System Concepts
System Structure
System structured as a series of levels - each level performs a

related subset of functions
Each level relies on the next lower level for more primitive functions
Layers Concepts
z Hardware abstraction layer
z Microkernel
z Device drivers
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components

z Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
z Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
z Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
z Users
People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System ??
Computer applications today require a single machine to perform

many operations and the applications may compete for the
resources of the machine.
This demands a high degree of coordination
This coordination is handled by system software known as the
operating system
Operating System ??
What is an operating system?

z Hard to define precisely, because operating systems arose
historically as people needed to solve problems associated
with using computers.
z How about…
“Software that makes computing power available to users by
controlling the hardware.”
“A collection of software modules including device drivers,
libraries, and access routines.”
Operating System Objectives
Operating systems are among the most critical pieces of software

ever developed
z Convenience
Makes the computer more convenient to use
z Efficiency
Allows
computer system resources to be used in an efficient
manner
z Ability to evolve
Permiteffective development, testing, and introduction of
new system functions without interfering with service
Operating System Services
Program development
z Editors, debuggers, frameworks
Program execution
z Initialization, scheduling
Access to I/O devices
z Uniform interface, hides details
Controlled access to files
z Authorization, sharing, caching
System access
z Protection, authorization, resolve conflicts
Error detection and response
z Hardware errors: memory error or device failure
z Software errors: arithmetic errors, access forbidden memory
locations, allocation errors
OS as a Resource Manager
OS executes same way as ordinary computer software - it is set of

computer programs
The key difference is in the intent
z Directs use of resources
z Relinquishes control of the processor to execute other
programs
Kernel or nucleus
z Portion of operating system that is in main memory
z Contains most-frequently used functions
Evolution of Operating Systems
Operating systems have evolved because

z New types of hardware and hardware upgrades
z Development of new services and needs
z Fixes to OS faults
Distributed Processing Systems

Time-Sharing Systems
Multi-programmed Batch Systems
Simple Batch Processing

Serial Processing
OS for batch jobs
z Program execution required significant preparation of

equipment
z Program execution (job)
z OS was a system to simplify program setup and simplify
transition between jobs
z Physical separation of users and equipment led to computer
operators
z Users left jobs with the operator and came back the next day
(batch jobs)
z Users had no interaction with computer during program
execution. Maybe okay for some applications, but not for all.
OS for Interactive Processing
z Allowed programs to carry on dialogue with user via remote

terminals (workstations)
z Real-time processing
z Users demand timely response
z Machines too expensive to serve only one user
z Common for several users to want interactive services at the
same time
OS for time-sharing
z To accommodate multiple real-time users, the OS rotates its

various jobs in and out of execution via time-sharing
z Each job gets a predetermined “time slice”
z At end of time slice current job is set aside and a new one
starts
z By rapidly shuffling jobs, illusion of several jobs executing
simultaneously is created
z Without time slicing, a computer spends most of its time waiting
for peripheral devices or users
z A collection of tasks can be completed in less time with time-
sharing than when completed sequentially
Different Operating Systems on the Same Machine ?
It is possible to have more than one operating system available to

be used on a machine.
Only one operating system is run at a time, though.
Examples:
z PCs -- DOS, Windows, or Linux
Distributed Processing Systems
Distributed operating systems

z provides the illusion of a single main memory and single
secondary memory space
z used for distributed file system
Modern OS Architecture
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

z Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
z Initializates all aspects of system
z Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
z One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
z Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt.
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly.
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity.
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
z Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
z The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer.
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

z Speed
z Cost
z Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage.
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
z If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
z If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
z Cache management important design problem
z Cache size and replacement policy
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
z Several copies of a datum can exist
z Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Structures
The OS Kernel
The internal part of the OS is often called the kernel

Kernel Components
z File Manager
z Device Drivers
z Memory Manager
z Scheduler
z Dispatcher
User Operating System Interface - CLI
CLI allows direct command entry

Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
– Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of
programs
» If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell
modification
User Operating System Interface - GUI
User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

z Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
z Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
z Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide information, options, execute function,
open directory (known as a folder)
z Invented at Xerox PARC
Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
z Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
z Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
z Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Program Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API
for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX,
Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine
(JVM)
Why use APIs rather than system calls?
(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)
API – System Call – OS Relationship
Write()
Write()
Implementation
of Write()
Standard C Library Example
C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call
Simple Structure
MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least

space
z Not divided into modules
z Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels
of functionality are not well separated
MS-DOS Layer Structure
Layered Operating System
Microkernel System Structure
Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space

Communication takes place between user modules using message
passing
Benefits:
z Easier to extend a microkernel
z Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
z More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
z More secure
Detriments:
z Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication
Solaris Modular Approach
Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical

conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system
kernel as though they were all hardware
A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the
underlying bare hardware
The operating system creates the illusion of multiple
processes, each executing on its own processor with its own
(virtual) memory
Virtual Machines (Cont.)
The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the

virtual machines
z CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have
their own processor
z Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers and
virtual line printers
z A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual
machine operator’s console
Virtual Machines
Non-virtual Machine Virtual Machine
(a) Non-virtual machine (b) virtual machine

Virtual Machines (Cont.)
The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system

resources since each virtual machine is isolated from all other virtual
machines. This isolation, however, permits no direct sharing of
resources.
A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for operating-systems
research and development. System development is done on the
virtual machine, instead of on a physical machine and so does not
disrupt normal system operation.
The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement due to the effort
required to provide an exact duplicate to the underlying machine
VMware Architecture
The Java Virtual Machine
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security
Distributed Systems
Processes …
Process Concept
An operating system executes a variety of programs:

z Batch system – jobs
z Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
Textbook uses the terms job and process almost
interchangeably
Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
A process includes:
z program counter
z stack
z data section
Process in Memory
Process State
As a process executes, it changes state

z new: The process is being created
z running: Instructions are being executed
z waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
z ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
z terminated: The process has finished execution
Diagram of Process State
Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process

Process state
Program counter
CPU registers
CPU scheduling information
Memory-management information
Accounting information
I/O status information
Process Control Block (PCB)
CPU Switch From Process to Process
Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create

other processes, forming a tree of processes
Resource sharing
z Parent and children share all resources
z Children share subset of parent’s resources
z Parent and child share no resources
Execution
z Parent and children execute concurrently
z Parent waits until children terminate
Process Creation (Cont.)
Address space
z Child duplicate of parent
z Child has a program loaded into it
UNIX examples
z fork system call creates new process
z exec system call used after a fork to replace the process’
memory space with a new program
Process Creation
Process Termination
Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to

delete it (exit)
z Output data from child to parent (via wait)
z Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)
z Child has exceeded allocated resources
z Task assigned to child is no longer required
z If parent is exiting
Some operating system do not allow child to continue if its
parent terminates
– All children terminated - cascading termination
Inter-process Communication (IPC)
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their

actions
Message system – processes communicate with each other
without resorting to shared variables
IPC facility provides two operations:
z send(message) – message size fixed or variable
z receive(message)
If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
z establish a communication link between them
z exchange messages via send/receive
Implementation of communication link
z physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)
z logical (e.g., logical properties)
Communications Models
Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:

z send (P, message) – send a message to process P
z receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Properties of communication link
z Links are established automatically
z A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating
processes
z Between each pair there exists exactly one link
z The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
Client-Server Communication
Sockets
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote Method Invocation (Java)
Sockets
A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication

Concatenation of IP address and port
The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host
161.25.19.8
Communication consists between a pair of sockets
Socket Communication
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between

processes on networked systems.
Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server.
The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the
parameters.
The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the
marshalled parameters, and peforms the procedure on the server.
Note : Marshalling is the process of packaging and sending interface

method parameters across thread, process or machine boundaries.
Remote Method Invocation
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java mechanism similar to

RPCs.
RMI allows a Java program on one machine to invoke a method on
a remote object.
Threads
Single and Multithreaded Processes
User Threads
Thread management done by user-level threads library
Three primary thread libraries:

z POSIX Pthreads
z Win32 threads
z Java threads
Kernel Threads
Supported by the Kernel
Examples
z Windows XP/2000
z Solaris
z Linux
z Tru64 UNIX
z Mac OS X
Multithreading Models
Many-to-One
One-to-One
Many-to-Many
Many-to-One
Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread

Examples:
z Solaris Green Threads
z GNU Portable Threads
Many-to-One Model
One-to-One
Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread

Examples
z Windows NT/XP/2000
z Linux
z Solaris 9 and later
One-to-one Model
Many-to-Many Model
Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many

kernel threads
Allows the operating system to create a sufficient
number of kernel threads
Solaris prior to version 9
Windows NT/2000 with the ThreadFiber package
Many-to-Many Model
Two-level Model
Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be

bound to kernel thread
Examples
z IRIX
z HP-UX
z Tru64 UNIX
z Solaris 8 and earlier
Two-level Model
Threading Issues
Semantics of fork() and exec() system calls

Thread cancellation
Signal handling
Thread pools
Thread specific data
Scheduler activations
Thread Cancellation
Terminating a thread before it has finished

Two general approaches:
z Asynchronous cancellation terminates the target
thread immediately
z Deferred cancellation allows the target thread to
periodically check if it should be cancelled
Signal Handling
Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a

particular event has occurred
A signal handler is used to process signals
1. Signal is generated by particular event
2. Signal is delivered to a process
3. Signal is handled
Options:
z Deliver the signal to the thread to which the signal applies
z Deliver the signal to every thread in the process
z Deliver the signal to certain threads in the process
z Assign a specific thread to receive all signals for the
process
Thread Pools
Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work

Advantages:
z Usually slightly faster to service a request with an existing
thread than create a new thread
z Allows the number of threads in the application(s) to be
bound to the size of the pool
Java Thread States
Deadlocks
Deadlock ???
A condition that occurs when two processes are each

waiting for the other to complete before proceeding. The
result is that both processes hang. Deadlocks occur most
commonly in multitasking and client/server environments.
Ideally, the programs that are deadlocked, or the operating
system, should resolve the deadlock, but this doesn't
always happen. A deadlock is also called a deadly
embrace.
Bridge Crossing Example
Traffic only in one direction.

Each section of a bridge can be viewed as a resource.
If a deadlock occurs, it can be resolved if one car backs up (preempt
resources and rollback).
Several cars may have to be backed up if a deadlock occurs.
Starvation is possible.
z In computer science, starvation is a multitasking-related
problem, where a process is perpetually denied necessary
resources. Without those resources, the program can never
finish its task.
Main Memory
Objectives
To provide a detailed description of various ways of

organizing memory hardware
To discuss various memory-management techniques,
including paging and segmentation
To provide a detailed description of the Intel Pentium, which
supports both pure segmentation and segmentation with
paging
Background
Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and placed

within a process for it to be run
Main memory and registers are only storage CPU can access
directly
Register access in one CPU clock (or less)
Main memory can take many cycles
Cache sits between main memory and CPU registers
Protection of memory required to ensure correct operation
Base and Limit Registers
A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space
Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory
Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses

can happen at three different stages
z Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute
code can be generated; must recompile code if starting
location changes
z Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory
location is not known at compile time
z Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the
process can be moved during its execution from one
memory segment to another. Need hardware support for
address maps (e.g., base and limit registers)
Multi-step Processing of a User Program
Logical vs. Physical Address Space
The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a

separate physical address space is central to proper memory
management
z Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to
as virtual address
z Physical address – address seen by the memory unit
Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time
and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and
physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding
scheme
Contiguous Allocation
Main memory usually into two partitions:

z Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with
interrupt vector
z User processes then held in high memory
Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each

other, and from changing operating-system code and data
z Base register contains value of smallest physical address
z Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each
logical address must be less than the limit register
z MMU maps logical address dynamically
Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
Multiple-partition allocation
z Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are
scattered throughout memory
z When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole
large enough to accommodate it
z Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
OS OS OS OS
process 5 process 5 process 5 process 5

process 9 process 9
process 8 process 10
process 2 process 2 process 2 process 2

File-System Interface
File-System Interface
File Concept
Access Methods
Directory Structure
File-System Mounting
File Sharing
Protection
File Concept
Contiguous logical address space
Types:
z Data
numeric
character
binary
z Program
File Structure
None - sequence of words, bytes

Simple record structure
z Lines
z Fixed length
z Variable length
Complex Structures
z Formatted document
z Relocatable load file
Can simulate last two with first method by inserting appropriate
control characters
Who decides:
z Operating system
z Program
File Attributes
Name – only information kept in human-readable form

Identifier – unique tag (number) identifies file within file system
Type – needed for systems that support different types
Location – pointer to file location on device
Size – current file size
Protection – controls who can do reading, writing, executing
Time, date, and user identification – data for protection, security,
and usage monitoring
Information about files are kept in the directory structure, which is
maintained on the disk
File Types – Name, Extension
Example of Index and Relative Files
Directory Structure
A collection of nodes containing information about all files
Directory
Files
F1 F2 F4
F3
Fn
Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk,

Backups of these two structures are kept on tapes
A Typical File-system Organization
Single-Level Directory
A single directory for all users
Naming problem
Grouping problem
Two-Level Directory
Separate directory for each user
Path name
Can have the same file name for different user
Efficient searching
No grouping capability
Tree-Structured Directories
Tree-Structured Directories (Cont)
Absolute or relative path name

Creating a new file is done in current directory
Delete a file
rm <file-name>
Creating a new subdirectory is done in current directory
mkdir <dir-name>
Example: if in current directory /mail
mkdir count
mail
prog copy prt exp count
Deleting “mail” ⇒ deleting the entire subtree rooted by “mail”

Acyclic-Graph Directories
Have shared subdirectories and files

Protection
File owner/creator should be able to control:

z what can be done
z by whom
Types of access
z Read
z Write
z Execute
z Append
z Delete
z List
Mass-Storage Systems
Overview of Mass Storage Structure
Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern computers

z Drives rotate at 60 to 200 times per second
z Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and computer
z Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk arm to
desired cylinder (seek time) and time for desired sector to rotate under
the disk head (rotational latency)
z Head crash results from disk head making contact with the disk
surface
That’s bad
Disks can be removable
Drive attached to computer via I/O bus
z Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre Channel, SCSI
z Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk controller built
into drive or storage array
Moving-head Disk Machanism
Disk Structure
Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical

blocks, where the logical block is the smallest unit of transfer.
The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into the

sectors of the disk sequentially.
z Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on the outermost
cylinder.
z Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then the rest of
the tracks in that cylinder, and then through the rest of the
cylinders from outermost to innermost.
I/O Systems
I/O Systems
I/O Hardware
Application I/O Interface
Kernel I/O Subsystem
Transforming I/O Requests to Hardware Operations
Streams
Performance
Objectives
Explore the structure of an operating system’s I/O subsystem

Discuss the principles of I/O hardware and its complexity
Provide details of the performance aspects of I/O hardware and
software
I/O Hardware
Incredible variety of I/O devices

Common concepts
z Port
z Bus (daisy chain or shared direct access)
z Controller (host adapter)
I/O instructions control devices
Devices have addresses, used by
z Direct I/O instructions
z Memory-mapped I/O
Polling
Determines state of device

z command-ready
z busy
z Error
Busy-wait cycle to wait for I/O from device
Interrupts
CPU Interrupt-request line triggered by I/O device
Interrupt handler receives interrupts
Maskable to ignore or delay some interrupts
Interrupt vector to dispatch interrupt to correct handler

z Based on priority
z Some nonmaskable
Interrupt mechanism also used for exceptions

Interrupt-Driven I/O Cycle
A Kernel I/O Structure
SCSI : small computer system interface

Block and Character Devices
Block devices include disk drives

z Commands include read, write, seek
z Raw I/O or file-system access
z Memory-mapped file access possible
Character devices include keyboards, mice, serial ports

z Commands include get, put
z Libraries layered on top allow line editing
Scheduling
z Some I/O request ordering via per-device queue
z Some OSs try fairness
Buffering - store data in memory while transferring between

devices
z To cope with device speed mismatch
z To cope with device transfer size mismatch
z To maintain “copy semantics”
Caching - fast memory holding copy of data

z Always just a copy
z Key to performance
Spooling - hold output for a device

z If device can serve only one request at a time
z i.e., Printing
Device reservation - provides exclusive access to a device

z System calls for allocation and deallocation
z Watch out for deadlock
I/O Protection
User process may accidentally or purposefully attempt to disrupt

normal operation via illegal I/O instructions
z All I/O instructions defined to be privileged
z I/O must be performed via system calls
Memory-mapped and I/O port memory locations must be
protected too
z Note : a system call, or software interrupt is the mechanism

used by an application program to request service from the
operating system. System calls often use a special machine
code instruction which causes the processor to change mode
(e.g. to "supervisor mode" or "protected mode"). This allows the
OS to perform restricted actions such as accessing hardware
devices or the memory management unit.
Kernel Data Structures
Kernel keeps state info for I/O components, including open file
tables, network connections, character device state
Many, many complex data structures to track buffers, memory

allocation, “dirty” blocks
Some use object-oriented methods and message passing to

implement I/O
I/O Requests to Hardware Operations
Consider reading a file from disk for a process:
z Determine device holding file

z Translate name to device representation
z Physically read data from disk into buffer
z Make data available to requesting process
z Return control to process
Life Cycle of An I/O Request
Performance
I/O a major factor in system performance:
z Demands CPU to execute device driver, kernel I/O code

z Context switches due to interrupts
z Data copying
z Network traffic especially stressful
Security
The Security Problem
Security must consider external environment of the system, and

protect the system resources
Intruders (crackers) attempt to breach security
Threat is potential security violation
Attack is attempt to breach security
Attack can be accidental or malicious
Easier to protect against accidental than malicious misuse
A Boot-sector Computer Virus
Cryptography as a Security Tool
Broadest security tool available

z Source and destination of messages cannot be trusted without
cryptography
z Means to constrain potential senders (sources) and / or
receivers (destinations) of messages
Based on secrets (keys)
Secure Communication over Insecure Medium
Digital Certificates
Proof of who or what owns a public key

Public key digitally signed a trusted party
Trusted party receives proof of identification from entity and
certifies that public key belongs to entity
Certificate authority are trusted party – their public keys included
with web browser distributions
z They vouch for other authorities via digitally signing their keys,
and so on
Encryption Example - SSL
Insertion of cryptography at one layer of the ISO network model

(the transport layer)
SSL – Secure Socket Layer (also called TLS)
Cryptographic protocol that limits two computers to only exchange
messages with each other
z Very complicated, with many variations
Used between web servers and browsers for secure
communication (credit card numbers)
The server is verified with a certificate assuring client is talking to
correct server
Asymmetric cryptography used to establish a secure session key
(symmetric encryption) for bulk of communication during session
Communication between each computer theb uses symmetric key
cryptography
Distributed System Structures
Motivation
Distributed system is collection of loosely coupled processors

interconnected by a communications network
Processors variously called nodes, computers, machines, hosts
z Site is location of the processor
Reasons for distributed systems
z Resource sharing
sharing and printing files at remote sites
processing information in a distributed database
using remote specialized hardware devices
z Computation speedup – load sharing
z Reliability – detect and recover from site failure, function
transfer, reintegrate failed site
z Communication – message passing
A Distributed System
Types of Distributed Operating Systems
Network Operating Systems

Distributed Operating Systems
Network-Operating Systems
Users are aware of multiplicity of machines. Access to

resources of various machines is done explicitly by:
z Remote logging into the appropriate remote machine
(telnet, ssh)
z Remote Desktop (Microsoft Windows)
z Transferring data from remote machines to local
machines, via the File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
mechanism
Distributed-Operating Systems
Users not aware of multiplicity of machines

z Access to remote resources similar to access to local
resources
Data Migration – transfer data by transferring entire file, or
transferring only those portions of the file necessary for the
immediate task
Computation Migration – transfer the computation, rather than the
data, across the system
Distributed-Operating Systems (Cont.)
Process Migration – execute an entire process, or parts of it, at

different sites
z Load balancing – distribute processes across network to even
the workload
z Computation speedup – subprocesses can run concurrently on
different sites
z Hardware preference – process execution may require
specialized processor
z Software preference – required software may be available at
only a particular site
z Data access – run process remotely, rather than transfer all
data locally
The Future…
In the future, computers will continue to become physically smaller and

more portable.
Operating systems have to deal with issues like disconnected operation and
mobility.
Media rich information within the grasp of common people - information with
psuedo-real time components like voice and video.
Operating systems will have to adjust to deliver acceptable performance for
these new forms of data.
Finally
Operating systems are so large no one person understands whole system.

Outlives any of its original builders.
The major problem facing computer science today is how to build large,
reliable software systems.
Operating systems are one of very few examples of existing large software
systems, and by studying operating systems we may learn lessons
applicable to the construction of larger systems.

OS Concepts

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OS Concepts

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Operating System Concepts

 System structured as a series of levels - each level performs a

Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components

 Computer applications today require a single machine to perform

 What is an operating system?

 Operating systems are among the most critical pieces of software

 OS executes same way as ordinary computer software - it is set of

 Operating systems have evolved because

Distributed Processing Systems

Simple Batch Processing

OS for batch jobs

z Program execution required significant preparation of

OS for Interactive Processing

z Allowed programs to carry on dialogue with user via remote

z To accommodate multiple real-time users, the OS rotates its

Different Operating Systems on the Same Machine ?

 It is possible to have more than one operating system available to

 Distributed operating systems

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

 The internal part of the OS is often called the kernel

CLI allows direct command entry

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

 MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least

 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space

 A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical

 The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the

Non-virtual Machine Virtual Machine

(a) Non-virtual machine (b) virtual machine

 The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system

 An operating system executes a variety of programs:

 As a process executes, it changes state

Information associated with each process

 Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create

 Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to

 Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their

 Processes must name each other explicitly:

 A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication

 Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between

Note : Marshalling is the process of packaging and sending interface

 Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java mechanism similar to

 Thread management done by user-level threads library

 Three primary thread libraries:

 Supported by the Kernel

 Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread

 Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread

 Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many

 Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be

 Semantics of fork() and exec() system calls

 Terminating a thread before it has finished

 Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a

 Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work

A condition that occurs when two processes are each

 Traffic only in one direction.

 To provide a detailed description of various ways of

 Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and placed

Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory

System structured as a series of levels - each level performs a

Computer system can be divided into four components

Computer applications today require a single machine to perform

What is an operating system?

Operating systems are among the most critical pieces of software

OS executes same way as ordinary computer software - it is set of

Operating systems have evolved because

It is possible to have more than one operating system available to

Distributed operating systems

bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

The internal part of the OS is often called the kernel

User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least

Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space

A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical

The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the

The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system

An operating system executes a variety of programs:

As a process executes, it changes state

Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create

Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to

Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their

Processes must name each other explicitly:

A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication

Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between

Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java mechanism similar to

Thread management done by user-level threads library

Three primary thread libraries:

Supported by the Kernel

Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread

Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread

Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many

Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be

Semantics of fork() and exec() system calls

Terminating a thread before it has finished

Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a

Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work

Traffic only in one direction.

To provide a detailed description of various ways of

Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and placed

Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses

The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a

Main memory usually into two partitions:

Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each

Contiguous logical address space

None - sequence of words, bytes

Name – only information kept in human-readable form

A collection of nodes containing information about all files

A single directory for all users

Separate directory for each user

Absolute or relative path name

Have shared subdirectories and files

File owner/creator should be able to control:

Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern computers

Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical

The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into the

Explore the structure of an operating system’s I/O subsystem

Incredible variety of I/O devices

Determines state of device

CPU Interrupt-request line triggered by I/O device

Interrupt handler receives interrupts

Maskable to ignore or delay some interrupts

Interrupt vector to dispatch interrupt to correct handler

Interrupt mechanism also used for exceptions

Block devices include disk drives

Character devices include keyboards, mice, serial ports

Buffering - store data in memory while transferring between

Caching - fast memory holding copy of data

Spooling - hold output for a device

Device reservation - provides exclusive access to a device

User process may accidentally or purposefully attempt to disrupt

Many, many complex data structures to track buffers, memory

Some use object-oriented methods and message passing to

Consider reading a file from disk for a process: