CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Table of Contents
Meiosis [ Ploidy [ Life Cycles [ Phases of Meiosis [ Prophase
I [ Metaphase I
Anaphase I [ Telophase I [ Prophase II [ Metaphase II [ Anaphase
II [ Telophase II
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis [ Gametogenesis [ Links
Meiosis [ Back to Top
Sexual reproduction occurs only in eukaryotes. During the Iormation
oI gametes, the number oI chromosomes is reduced by halI, and returned to
the Iull amount when the two gametes Iuse during Iertilization.
Ploidy [ Back to Top
Haploid and diploid are terms reIerring to the number oI sets oI
chromosomes in a cell. Gregor Mendel determined his peas had two sets oI
alleles, one Irom each parent. Diploid organisms are those with two (di) sets.
Human beings (except Ior their gametes), most animals and many plants are
diploid. We abbreviate diploid as 2n. Ploidy is a term reIerring to the
number oI sets oI chromosomes. Haploidorganisms/cells have only one set
oI chromosomes, abbreviated as n. Organisms with more than two sets oI
chromosomes are termed polyploid. Chromosomes that carry the same
genes are termed homologous chromosomes. The alleles on homologous
chromosomes may diIIer, as in the case oI heterozygous individuals.
Organisms (normally) receive one set oI homologous chromosomes Irom
each parent.
Meiosis is a special type oI nuclear division which segregates one copy oI
each homologous chromosome into each new "gamete". Mitosis maintains
the cell's original ploidy level (Ior example, one diploid 2n cell producing
two diploid 2n cells; one haploid n cell producing two haploid n cells; etc.).
Meiosis, on the other hand, reduces the number oI sets oI chromosomes by
halI, so that when gametic recombination (Iertilization) occurs the ploidy oI
the parents will be reestablished.
Most cells in the human body are produced by mitosis. These are
the somatic (or vegetative) line cells. Cells that become gametes are reIerred
to as germ line cells. The vast majority oI cell divisions in the human body
are mitotic, with meiosis being restricted to thegonads.
Life Cycles [ Back to Top
iIe cycles are a diagrammatic representation oI the events in the organism's
development and reproduction. When interpreting liIe cycles, pay close
attention to the ploidy level oI particular parts oI the cycle and where in the
liIe cycle meiosis occurs. For example, animal liIe cycles have a dominant
diploid phase, with the gametic (haploid) phase being a relative Iew cells.
Most oI the cells in your body are diploid, germ line diploid cells will
undergo meiosis to produce gametes, with Iertilization closely Iollowing
meiosis.
Plant liIe cycles have two sequential phases that are termed alternation oI
generations. The sporophyte phase is "diploid", and is that part oI the liIe
cycle in which meiosis occurs. However, many plant species are thought to
arise by polyploidy, and the use oI "diploid" in the last sentence was meant
to indicate that the greater number oI chromosome sets occur in this phase.
The gametophyte phase is "haploid", and is the part oI the liIe cycle in
which gametes are produced (by mitosis oI haploid cells). In Ilowering
plants (angiosperms) the multicelled visible plant (leaI, stem, etc.) is
sporophyte, while pollen and ovaries contain the male and Iemale
gametophytes, respectively. Plant liIe cycles diIIer Irom animal ones by
adding a phase (the haploid gametophyte) aIter meiosis and beIore the
production oI gametes.
Many protists and Iungi have a haploid dominated liIe cycle. The dominant
phase is haploid, while the diploid phase is only a Iew cells (oIten only the
single celled zygote, as in Chlamydomonas ). Many protists reproduce by
mitosis until their environment deteriorates, then they undergo sexual
reproduction to produce a resting zygotic cyst.
Phases of Meiosis [ Back to Top
Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction) and Meiosis
II (Division). Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells. Mitosis produces 2 diploid
cells. The old name Ior meiosis was reduction/ division. Meiosis I reduces
the ploidy level Irom 2n to n (reduction) while Meiosis II divides the
remaining set oI chromosomes in a mitosis-like process (division). Most oI
the diIIerences between the processes occur during Meiosis I.

The above image is Irom http://www.biology.uc.edu/vgenetic/meiosis/
Prophase I [ Back to Top
Prophase I has a unique event -- the pairing (by an as yet undiscovered
mechanism) oI homologous chromosomes. Synapsis is the process oI
linking oI the replicated homologous chromosomes. The resulting
chromosome is termed a tetrad, being composed oI twochromatids Irom
each chromosome, Iorming a thick (4-strand) structure. Crossing-over may
occur at this point. During crossing-over chromatids break and may be
reattached to a different homologous chromosome.
The alleles on this tetrad:
A B C D E F G
A B C D E F G
a b c d e I g
a b c d e I g
will produce the Iollowing chromosomes iI there is a crossing-over event
between the 2nd and 3rd chromosomes Irom the top:
A B C D E F G
A B c d e I g
a b C D E F G
a b c d e I g
Thus, instead oI producing only two types oI chromosome (all capital or all
lower case), Iour diIIerent chromosomes are produced. This doubles the
variability oI gamete genotypes. The occurrence oI a crossing-over is
indicated by a special structure, a chiasma (plural chiasmata) since the
recombined inner alleles will align more with others oI the same type (e.g. a
with a, B with B). Near the end oI Prophase I, the homologous
chromosomes begin to separate slightly, although they remain attached at
chiasmata.

Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes produces chromosomes
with new associations oI genes and alleles. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe:
The Science oI Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with
permission.
Events oI Prophase I (save Ior synapsis and crossing over) are similar to
those in Prophase oI mitosis: chromatin condenses into chromosomes,
the nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane is disassembled, and the spindle
apparatus Iorms.


Major events in Prophase I. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe: The Science oI
Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH
Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase I [ Back to Top
Metaphase I is when tetrads line-up along the equator oI the spindle. Spindle
Iibers attach to the centromere region oI each homologous chromosome
pair. Other metaphase events as in mitosis.
Anaphase I [ Back to Top
Anaphase I is when the tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite poles by
the spindle Iibers. The centromeres in Anaphase I remain intact.

Events in prophase and metaphse I. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe: The
Science oI Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com)
and WH Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Telophase I [ Back to Top
Telophase I is similar to Telophase oI mitosis, except that only one set oI
(replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell". Depending on species, new
nuclear envelopes may or may not Iorm. Some animal cells may have
division oI the centrioles during this phase.

The events oI Telophase I. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe: The Science oI
Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH
Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Prophase II [ Back to Top
During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (iI they Iormed during Telophase I)
dissolve, and spindle Iibers reIorm. All else is as in Prophase oI mitosis.
Indeed Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.

The events oI Prophase II. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe: The Science oI
Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH
Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase II [ Back to Top
Metaphase II is similar to mitosis, with spindles moving chromosomes into
equatorial area and attaching to the opposite sides oI the centromeres in the
kinetochore region.
Anaphase II [ Back to Top
During Anaphase II, the centromeres split and the Iormer chromatids (now
chromosomes) are segregated into opposite sides oI the cell.

The events oI Metaphase II and Anaphase II. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe:
The Science oI Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with
permission.
Telophase II [ Back to Top
Telophase II is identical to Telophase oI mitosis. Cytokinesis separates the
cells.

The events oI Telophase II. Image Irom Purves et al., iIe: The Science oI
Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH
Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis [ Back to Top
Mitosis maintains ploidy level, while meiosis reduces it. Meiosis may be
considered a reduction phase Iollowed by a slightly altered mitosis. Meiosis
occurs in a relative Iew cells oI a multicellular organism, while mitosis is
more common.





Comparison oI the events in Mitosis and Meiosis. Images Irom Purves et
al., iIe: The Science oI Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whIreeman.com), used with
permission.
Gametogenesis [ Back to Top
Gametogenesis is the process oI Iorming gametes (by deIinition haploid, n)
Irom diploid cells oI the germ line. Spermatogenesis is the process oI
Iorming sperm cells by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis in plants) in
specialized organs known as gonads (in males these are termed testes). AIter
division the cells undergo diIIerentiation to become sperm
cells. Oogenesis is the process oI Iorming an ovum (egg) by meiosis (in
animals, by mitosis in the gametophyte in plants) in specialized gonads
known as ovaries. Whereas in spermatogenesis all 4 meiotic products
develop into gametes, oogenesis places most oI the cytoplasm into the large
egg. The other cells, the polar bodies, do not develop. This all the cytoplasm
and organelles go into the egg. Human males produce 200,000,000 sperm
per day, while the Iemale produces one egg (usually) each menstrual cycle.


Gametogenesis. Images Irom Purves et al., iIe: The Science oI Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whIreeman.com), used with permission.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout liIe, with
several hundred million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm Iorm
they move into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.

Human Sperm (SEM x5,785). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel
at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Oogenesis
The ovary contains many Iollicles composed oI a developing egg
surrounded by an outer layer oI Iollicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesisas a
primary oocyte. At birth each Iemale carries a liIetime supply oI developing
oocytes, each oI which is in Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary
oocyte) is released each month Irom puberty until menopause, a total oI
400-500 eggs.

Oogenesis. The above image is
Irom http://www.grad.ttuhsc.edu/courses/histo/notes/Iemale.html.
Links [ Back to Top
O Access Excellence page on Mitosis
O Cell Division and the Cell Cycle (University oI Alberta): Similar to
this page, but with its own glossary and questions.
O moeba Proteus Mitosis Small photomicrographs oI protistan
mitosis.
O Animated Meiosis Yale University, a simpliIied series oI cartoons
about meiosis.
O Meiosis Tutorial North Carolina State University, animations and 3-D
graphics.
O McGill University Mitosis Page Quality site, with photos and
downloadable animation and video.
O 'irtual Meiosis University oI Cincinnati, Animated GIF and
text/images to explain meiosis.

Text 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2007, by M.J. Farabee, all
rights reserved. Use Ior educational purposes is encouraged.
Back to Table of Contents [ Mitosis Page
Email: mj.Iarabeeemcmail.maricopa.edu
Last modified: Tuesday May 18 2010
The URL of this page is:
www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookmeiosis.html