Notebook F - Modern Physics

Notebook 'F':
Modern Physics
Lecture Demonstrations
Crooke's Tube Cloud

with Chamber
+ Cross on Hinge
-
Hydrogen
Atom
Model
FRANCK- M
MEASURING
AMPLIFIER
Geiger-
Mueller
HERTZ-
PA
Franck-
EXPERIME
NT
Tube
_
Hertz
COUNTER
ELECTROD- +1.5V
E
PERF
ANODORATED
E
Oven
CATHODE A
3
5
5
1
MR 4
3
/HR
7
2
0 1
X1
.1
11 X0
Vb...70V-
9
F
ON
M
OFF
RES
DLU
A
U
HV
D
LU
Vh 6.3
V AC
Radioactive Decay Model

Power Supply
for
Electron Diffraction Tube
4 6
2 8
0 10
D-C
PhotoMultiplier
KILOVOLTS
Anode Voltage
Tubes
Intensity Focus Vert. Horiz. AC On

X Ray
The Welch Scientific Compan
y
Tube
Electron Diffraction CRT
Book F: Modern and Contemporary Physics
Cathode and Canal Rays Popularity Rating

F+0+0 Vacuum tube with screen show cathode rays bent with a magnet. . . . . . . ◆◆
F+0+5 Vacuum tube with metal cross makes shadow with cathode rays. ◆
F+0+10 Vacuum tube with paddlewheel spins from cathode ray impact. . . . . . . . . ◆
F+0+15 Braun tube (CRT) with magnetic and electrostatic deflection. ◆
X-Rays
F+5+0 X-Ray tube: Hard X-rays detected by fluorescent screen. . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+5+5 X-rays ionize electrode and discharge electroscope. ◆
F+5+10 X-ray beam through cloud chamber shown on TV camera. . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+5+15 Bragg diffraction using microwaves and steel balls in foam cube. ◆
Electron Diffraction
F+10+0 Electron diffraction by aluminum and graphite on CRT. . . . . . . . . . ◆◆◆◆
F+10+5 Film: "Matter Waves", sound, 28 min. ◆◆
Photoelectric Effect
F+15+0 UV light hits charged zinc plate and discharges electroscope. . . . . . . . ◆◆◆
F+15+5 Light through different filters into phototube changes current. ◆◆◆
F+15+10 Phototube circuit allows current flow in one direction only. . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+15+15 EMF generated by phototube using halogen light source. ◆
F+15+20 Commercial solar cell spins propeller using halogen light source. . . . . . . ◆◆
F+15+25 Light hits diode,causes current flow. Uses arc lamp. ◆
F+15+30 NPN junction as a phototransistor amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+15+35 Recording modulates laser beam which hits solar cell and amplifier. ◆◆
F+15+40 Film loop: "Photoelectric effect", 4:02 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
Photons
F+18+0 Film: "Photons", sound, 19 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+18+5 Film: "Interference of photons", sound 13 min. ◆
F+18+10 Photomultiplier tubes to show. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+18+15 Photomultiplier tube on scope shows photons with TV camera. ◆
Atomic Structure
F+20+0 "Plum pudding": Corks with magnets float in bowl/solenoid on OHP. . . . . ◆◆
F+20+5 Rutherford scattering model: Steel balls, launcher, and "hill". ◆◆◆
F+20+10 Model of the nucleus: Steel balls in plastic dish on OHP. . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+20+15 Film: "Rutherford atom", sound, 40 min. ◆
F+20+20 Mechanical models of the hydrogen atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+20+25 Bohr-Stoner charts(5): Electron configurations of the elements. ◆◆
F+20+30 Wall chart of periodic table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+20+35 Wall chart of the nuclides. ◆
Scattering Popularity Rating
F+25+0 Film loop: "Scattering in one dimension-barriers", 3:00 min. . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+25+1 Film loop: "Scattering in one dimension-square wells", 2:40 min. ◆
F+25+2 Film loop: "Scattering in one dimension-edge effects", 4:00 min. . . . . . . . ◆
F+25+3 Film loop: "Scattering in one dimension-momentum space", 3:00 min. ◆
F+25+4 Film loop: "Free wave packets", 2:15 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+25+5 Film loop: "Particle in a box", 2:40 min. ◆
F+25+10 Film: "Scattering of quantum mechanical wave packets from
potential well and barrier", silent, 5 min. . . . . . . . . . . ◆
Quantum Mechanical Barrier Penetration

F+30+0 Tunneling:Microwave analogy using wax prisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆◆
Elementary Particles
F+35+0 Fundamental particle and interaction chart.(LBL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
Cloud Chambers
F+45+0 Expansion cloud chamber with water and compression bulb. . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+45+5 Wilson cloud chamber, piston compression type. ◆
F+45+10 Cloud chamber with dry ice and alcohol shown on TV camera. . . . . . . ◆◆◆
F+45+15 Cloud chamber shows X-rays: Same as F+5+10. ◆
Range of Alpha Particles

F+50+0 Alpha range measured using small cloud chamber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
Franck-uertz Experiment
F+55+0 Film: "Franck-uertz experiment", sound, 30 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+55+5 Working Franck-uertz device on scope with TV camera. ◆
Special Relativity
F+60+0 Film: "Relativistic time dilation", sound 12 min.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
Radioactivity
F+65+0 Scintillation counter using Geiger tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+65+5 Geiger counter. ◆◆◆
F+65+10 Mechanical model of radioactive decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+65+15 Wall chart of the nuclides. ◆◆
F+65+20 Film loop: "Radioactivity", 4:00 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
F+65+25 Film loop: "Radioactive decay", 4:55 min. ◆
Accelerators
F+70+0 Large mechanical model of the cyclotron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆
Fission and Fusion

F+80+0 Mousetrap chain reaction experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
F+80+5 Model of the uranium pile. ◆◆
Superconductivity Popularity Rating
F+85+0 YBaCuO pellet with magnet in liquid nitrogen on TV camera. . . . . . . . ◆◆
Zeeman Effect
F+90+0 Magnetic field splits Cd interferometer lines on TV camera. . . . . . . . . . . ◆
Laser
F+95+0 Working He-Ne laser in transparent housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ◆◆
Laser
F+100+0 Fuel Cell Car runs off hydrogen and oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .NEW
16mm Film List

Demo# Title Time Sound Color Rating
(min)
F+10+5 Matter waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 . . . . yes . . . . no . . . . . ◆◆
F+18+0 Photons 19 yes no ◆
F+18+5 Interference of photons . . . . . . . . . . 13 . . . . yes . . . . no . . . . . . ◆
F+20+15 Rutherford atom 40 yes no ◆
F+25+10 Scattering of quantum mechanical wave
packets from potential well and barrier . . 05 . . . . no . . . . . yes . . . . . . ◆
F+55+0 Franck-Hertz experiment 30 yes no ◆
F+60+0 Relativistic time dilation . . . . . . . . . 12 . . . . yes . . . . . yes . . . . . ◆◆
Super 8mm Film Loops

Demo# Title Length Rating
(min:sec)
F+15+40 The photoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:02 . . . . . .◆
F+25+0 Scattering in one dimension. Part I: Barriers 3:00 ◆◆
F+25+1 Scattering in one dimension. Part II: Square wells . . . . . . . 2:40 . . . . . .◆
F+25+2 Scattering in one dimension. Part III: Edge effects 4:00 ◆
F+25+3 Scattering in one dimension. Part IV: Momentum space . . . . 3:00 . . . . . .◆
F+25+4 Free wave packets 2:15 ◆
F+25+5 Particle in a box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:40 . . . . . .◆
F+65+20 Radioactivity 4:00 ◆
F+65+25 Radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:55 . . . . . .◆
Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 624-628
CATHODE AND CANAL RAYS. F+0+0
Vacuum tube with screen shows cathode rays bent with a magnet.
(Same apparatus
as D+30+24)
Horseshoe
Fluorescent Magnet
Screen
S
Anode Cathode
Deflected Slit
Beam
SOLID STATE
INDUCTION COIL POWER POLARITY
Electro-Tech
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
OUTPUT .2-3 Inch Pulsating Spark
Induction
120 V.A.C. Coil
An evacuated tube has an anode at one end, a cathode at the other, and a fluorescent screen
in between. When a high voltage (about 40 kV pulsating D.C.) from an induction coil is placed
across the tube, a beam of electrons is emitted from the cathode, passes through a slit, then
travels in a straight line to the anode. When a horseshoe magnet is lowered down over the
tube, the beam of electrons is deflected. (By the 'right-hand rule', the direction of the deflection
is qVxB. So, the deflection of the beam is down, if the North pole of the magnet is going into
the page...) The beam of electrons impinges on the fluorescent screen, making the path of the
beam visible.

Vacuum tube with metal cross makes shadow with cathode rays.
Metal Cross Shadow

on Hinge on Face
of Tube
Cathode
Anode
SOLID STATE
Electro-Tech
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
Induction
120 V.A.C. Coil
An evacuated Crooke's discharge tube with a hinged metal cross is used to illustrate that
cathode rays travel in straight lines. When a high voltage (about 40 kV pulsating D.C.) from an
induction coil is placed across the tube, a beam of electrons is emitted from the cathode,
casting a shadow of the cross on the glass envelope. The glass fluoresces green, and in the
shadow it remains dark. When the glass is bombarded continuously by cathode rays, the
fluorescence grows fainter due to 'fatigue' . If the hinged metal cross is tipped down, the fresh
glass that was in shadow glows brighter green.
Vacuum tube with paddlewheel spins from cathode ray impact.
Cathode
e-
Cathode Anode
Fig.1
SOLID STATE
Electro-Tech Induction
120 V.A.C.
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
Coil
In 1870, Crooke used an evacuated discharge tube with a vaned pinwheel that can roll along a
track to illustrate that cathode rays have momentum and energy. When a high voltage (about
40 kV pulsating D.C.) from an induction coil is placed across the tube, a beam of electrons is
emitted from the cathode. The electrons travel at high speed toward the anode, striking the
mica vanes of the pinwheel, exerting a force on the pinwheel and causing it to roll toward the
anode. If the voltage is reversed, the pinwheel will stop and roll in the opposite direction. From
this, Crooke concluded that electrons have mass, velocity, and kinetic energy. Fluorescent
paints on the tips of the mica vanes glow brightly when bombarded with electrons, so this
experiment may be performed in a darkened classroom.

Braun tube (CRT) with magnetic and electrostatic deflection. (Same apparatus
as D+50+0)
The Braun tube is a cathode ray tube. Electrons are emitted from a heated cathode (6.3
V.), focused (-15V.), then accelerated through a barrel anode (300 V.) and hit a fluorescent
screen. The beam position can be adjusted with a small centering magnet. For
demonstration purposes, the beam can be deflected magnetically either with a hand-held
permanent magnet or with magnetic deflection coils powered with a 0-12 VDC power
supply. The beam can also be deflected electrostatically, using a high-voltage generator.
This tube is reliable, but must be given a warm-up time of about 1 minute.
High Voltage Electrostatic
Power Supply Deflection
Plates Bar
Magnet
HEATHKIT REGULATED H.V. POWER SUPPLY
400
VOLTS MILLIAMPS
150 150
300 V.
STANDBY
OFF ON
D.C. OUTPUT D.C. OUTPUT Gnd

VOLTAGE CURRENT
-15 V.
METER SWITCH
400
6.3 V.
0 -100 O
C-VOLTS
6.3 V. AC B+VOLTS
4 AMPS
Braun
0 TO - 100 V AT 1 MA 0 TO 400 V AT 100 MA
Tube
GND
COMMON
Beam-
Centering Magnetic
Magnet Deflection
Coil
X-RAYS. F+5+0 Cu Wire
X-Ray tube: Hard X-rays detected by fluorescent screen. Bear Skeleton
Bear with Cu Wire Skeleton

Behind Fluorescent Screen
Lead-Lined Box
With
Lead Plastic Windows Cathode
e-
Target
Shadow X rays
of Wire
Skeleton SOLID STATE
INDUCTION COIL POWER POLARITY Anode
Electro-Tech
Fig.1
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
X-Ray Induction
Tube Coil
In this low-energy X ray tube, a high voltage (about 40 kV pulsating D.C. from an induction coil) is placed
across two electrodes. A stream of high speed electrons jumps from the cathode towards the anode and
hits a flat metal target, knocking out electrons from the inner shells of the target metal atoms (Fig.1).
Electrons from outer shells jump in to fill the vacancies, and in the process emit X rays*. A fluorescent
screen with a toy bear (with internal copper wire skeleton) is used to demonstrate the presence of X
rays: the screen glows green, and the dark shadow of the skeleton is clearly visible. The apparatus is
enclosed in a lead-lined box to protect viewers, and the fluorescent screen is visible through panes of
lead plastic. *X rays are also emitted by 'bremsstrahlung'. High-speed electrons decelerate down
in the proximity of the nuclei of the target metal atoms and give up their energy in the form of X rays.
Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 768

X-RAYS. F+5+5
X-Rays ionize electrode and discharge electroscope.
Lead-Lined Box
with
Lead Plastic Windows
Spiral
Electrode
SOLID STATE
Electro-Tech
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
X-Ray Induction
Braun Tube Coil
Electroscope
A metal spiral electrode is charged negatively (a Teflon rod is rubbed with cat fur) or positively (a Lucite
rod is rubbed with Saran Wrap), and the presence of charge is demonstrated with the Braun
electroscope. If a nearby X ray tube is turned on (see F+5+0 for explanation), the X rays discharge the
spiral electrode. The X rays knock electrons off molecules of oxygen and nitrogen in the air. The oxygen
and nitrogen molecules are left positively charged, and the electrons are picked up by other molecules
which take on a negative charge. The presence of both positive and negative ions created by the X rays
is sufficient to discharge the electrode.
The apparatus is enclosed in a lead-lined box to protect viewers.
Ref.:Physics For Scientists and Engineers by Giancoli, 2nd ed., p. 985
X-RAYS. F+5+10
X-ray beam through cloud chamber shown on TV camera.
T.V. Monitor
Camera
D.C. Power Supply

0-5000 Volts
CENCO
HIGH POTENTIAL
DC POWER SUPPLY 2000 3000
Lead-Lined Box
1000 4000
(For Clearing Field)

DANGER 0 5000
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
HIGH VOLTAGE
with
HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
- +

D.C. Voltmeter
3000 4000
2000 500
0 0
100
D.C.
60
VOLTS
00
0
0-6000 Volts
X-Ray
- +
Tube
Slide Projector
Light Source SOLID STATE
Electro-Tech
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
Lead
Induction
Cloud-Chamber Plate Coil
An X ray tube (see F+5+0) is next to a diffusion cloud chamber (see F+45+10) within a lead-lined box
with lead plastic windows to protect viewers. When a high voltage (40 kV pulsating DC from an induction
coil) is placed across the terminals of the X ray tube, X rays are sent through a hole in a lead plate into
the cloud chamber, through the 'sensitive layer'. The X rays knock electrons off molecules of oxygen and
nitrogen in the air, creating positively and negatively charged ions. Supercooled methanol vapor in the
cloud chamber begins condensing on the ions, producing trails of droplets that scatter light, making the
path of the beam of X rays visible. A TV camera can display this on a monitor.
X-RAYS. F+5+15
Bragg Diffraction using microwaves and steel balls in foam cube.
Trans. Bragg's Law Rec.
n� = 2d sin�
DIRECT CURRENT CENCO
Styrofoam block
.4 .6
.2 .8
MILLIAMPERES
1
0
3 CM (X-BAND) MICROWAVE
RECEIVER with Steel
Ball Bearings
SPEAKER OSCILLO-
ON INPUT GAIN SCOPE
d
�� 2d
OFF OFF
(Body-Centered
�
Cubic Crystal)
3 cm
3 cm �-wave
�-wave Receiver
CENCO Transmitter
Dielectric
TRANSMITTER
Drum
KLYSTRON INTERNAL EXT.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE OSCILLATOR MOD.
The apparatus shown above is basically a microwave spectrometer. The microwave transmitter represents
an x-ray emitter; the balls represent crystal atoms; and the microwave receiver represents either
photographic film or a geiger tube. (See instruction sheets for Cenco Diffraction apparatus #80474-001)
A styrofoam block (transparent to microwaves) consists of four 18x18x4.4 cm layers, each with a five
by five array of 3/8"diameter steel balls, so that it models a body-centered cubic crystal. (Distance
between balls is 4.4 cm). A 3 cm microwave transmitter sends a beam into the block. A 3 cm microwave
receiver makes a tone when it detects reflected microwaves, and is rotated about the styrofoam cube until
a maximum tone is heard. One can start with a cube side facing the transmitter, rotating the cube in small
increments and moving the receiver until three maximum peaks are heard. Or one can start with an edge
facing the transmitter and moving the receiver until two maximum peaks are heard.
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION. F+10+0
Electron diffraction by aluminum and graphite on CRT.
Target
Materials
CRT
Power Supply
for
Electron Diffraction Tube
4 6
2 8
0 10
D-C
KILOVOLTS
Electron Fig.1
Diffraction
Anode Voltage
Apparatus
Focus Vert. Horiz. AC On Fig.2

Intensity
Polycrystalline Polycrystalline
Aluminum Hexagonal
ny
The Welch Scientific Compa
Sample P-Graphite
Sample
The multiple-target electron-diffraction CRT consists of a cathode ray tube with thin-film
amorphous aluminum and crystalline graphite targets mounted within. In the tube, electrons are
accelerated to 8.2 kV and are directed to pass through either the aluminum or graphite
samples. The resulting diffraction patterns are made visible by the phosphors in the screen of
the tube. The dimensions of the patterns can be measured with a millimeter scale, and the
electron wavelength and lattice constants can be derived. A TV camera can display these
patterns on a monitor. Operating instructions: To prolong tube filament and target, the intensity
control should be turned down when not actually displaying the patterns. See Welch Scientific
Co. manual for more info.
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION F+10+5

Film : Matter Waves Length(min.):28
Color: No Sound: Yes a PSSC Film
Alan Holden and Lester Germer, Bell Telephone Laboratories
The wave behavior of matter is illustrated by experiments which show that electrons display interference pat-
terns. This film relates to Section 33-8 of the PSSC text.
The diffraction pattern at the edge of the ‘shadow’ of smoke particles as seen with an electron microscope is
compared to the diffraction pattern at the edge of an optical shadow cast by a razor blade. This comparison suggests
that electrons behave like waves; thus, Professor Holden points out that we should be able to see our interference
pattern produced by electrons scattered from a grating.
First, he reminds us of the interference pattern of a light beam produced by an ordinary reflection grating. To
devise a suitable grating for the diffraction of electrons, he uses the de Broglie relation to estimate the wave length
associated with the electrons he will use. This is calculated to be of the order of atomic dimensions. It is pointed out
that nature provides a suitable grating with the proper spacing in the regular array of atoms in a crystal.
To suggest the type of interference pattern that we might expect from a two-dimensional scattering array as
found in a crystal, two optical gratings are placed at right angles to each other. The interference pattern of the scat-
tered light is a two-dimensional, square array of spots.
The scene shifts to the Bell Telephone Laboratories in N.J., where Dr. Germer is preparing to perform the
experiment with electrons. A beam of electrons is reflected from a crystal onto a fluorescent screen. The pattern
is a square array of spots. As the electron energy is increased, the spacing of the spots decreases, indicating a
decrease in the electron wave length. Dr. Germer then shows the results and equipment of the original Davisson-
Germer experiment which first demonstrated the wave behavior of electrons.
Professor Holden continues with a description of the classic experiment of G.P. Thomson in which an interference
pattern is produced by a beam of electrons passing through a thin polycrystalline gold foil. The resultant interference
pattern is expected to be the same as the optical pattern produced when crossed gratings are rapidly rotated. The
rotating spots form bright circles which are compared to a photograph of the circular interference pattern produced
by electrons passing through a foil. The patterns produced by electrons and X rays, both of the same wave length
and passing through identical foils, are shown to be circles of identical spacing.
Finally, evidence for the diffraction of helium atoms and of neutrons is shown indicating that all matter shows
wave behavior.
Ref.:Physics For Scientists and Engineers by Giancoli, 2nd ed., p. 870-871
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT. F+15+0
UV light hits charged zinc plate and discharges electroscope.
-
-
-
-
-
Hg Zinc -
-
-
Lamp Plate -
Glass
Hg Plate Step1 Step2
Power
Supply +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
Braun
Electroscope
120 VAC
Step3 Step4
Light shining on a metal surface causes electrons to be emitted. More accurately, if a photon of sufficiently
high frequency collides with an electron in a metal surface, the attractive forces holding the electron in the
metal will be overcome and the electron will be ejected; the photon is absorbed in the process. This is the
photoelectric effect. For most of the metals (except the alkali metals), electrons are liberated only by
ultraviolet light.
In this demo, a zinc plate (lightly sandpapered to remove any oxide coating) is attached to a device for
indicating charge called a Braun electroscope. Facing the zinc plate is a turned-on mercury lamp.
Separating the lamp from the zinc is a piece of glass which transmits infrared and visible light, but blocks
ultraviolet. When the zinc is charged negatively (a Teflon rod is rubbed with cat fur) and the glass is in
place, the zinc stays charged. But when the glass is raised, the needle of the electroscope falls. When the
zinc is charged positively (a Lucite rod is rubbed with Saran Wrap) and the glass is in place, the zinc stays
charged. When the glass plate is raised, the zinc still stays charged. From this it is concluded that
electrons are liberated by ultraviolet light.

Light through different filters into phototube changes current.
Tungsten
Halogen CsAr Screen
Lamp Iris Photocell Tube - - - - - -- Fig.1
e-
(CsAr) e-
-- +++e- -
Light -- - -
Meter
+ -
Colored -45V
6 V.D.C.
Filter
Coax
OP-AMP
150 �a Ealing
OUTPUT ATTEN INPUT
6V
FUSE
Battery Projection Colored

D.C. Amplifier Multimeter Filters
In this demo, white light from a tungsten halogen lamp is sent through various colored filters into a CsAr
photocell biased with a DC voltage. The current output is displayed on a screen via a projection
multimeter. This photocell is very sensitive to blue light (as well as ultraviolet light), somewhat sensitive to
green light, and insensitive to red. Thus, the current output is large with blue light, and none with red.
Read F+15+0 for a brief explanation of the photoelectric effect. See Fig. 1. The photoelectric cell in
this demo has a thin layer of Cesium deposited on the inside of the soda glass envelope, except for the
clear part where light is allowed to enter. The gas inside the tube is inert argon. A DC bias of 6 volts is
placed across the tube. The Cesium film is the cathode. The electrode at the center of the tube acts as
the anode. When visible light hits the Cesium, there is a flow of photoelectrons from the Cs through the
argon to the collector anode, allowing a current to flow in the circuit. Thus, the photocell acts like a switch,
with light turning it on.
Phototube circuit allows current flow in one direction only.
Tungsten
Halogen
Lamp Iris
Photocell Screen 0
(CsAr)
-45V
Coax
6V
Battery
OP-AMP
Projection
Galvonometer
OUTPUT ATTEN INPUT
FUSE
.5 ma
D.C. Amplifier
Reversing Switch
This demo is similar to F+15+5, except that no colored filters are used; and a reversing switch
has been placed in the circuit so that the bias can be reversed on the photocell to show that
almost no current flows in one bias direction. In other words, the photocell acts like a diode.

EMF generated by phototube using small arc lamp.
CsAr
Tube Fig.1
e- +
e- +
e- +
Light +
Meter Screen
Tungsten -
Halogen
Lamp Iris Photocell
0
(CsAr)
-45V
Projection
Voltmeter
.15 V
White light from a Halogen lamp is sent into a CsAr photocell and the generated voltage (or
EMF) is displayed on a screen via a projection voltmeter.
See Fig. 1. The photoelectric cell in this demo has a thin layer of cesium deposited on the
inside of the soda glass envelope, except for the clear part where light is allowed to enter. The
gas inside the tube is inert argon. When visible light hits the cesium, there is a flow of
photoelectrons from the cesium into the argon. The cesium becomes more positive as
electrons leave. The argon becomes more negative, as does the central electrode which is
bathed in the argon. Thus, there is a small potential difference between the two photocell
electrodes which can be measured with a high input impedance voltmeter.
Commercial solar cell spins propeller using small arc lamp. (Same apparatus
as D+60+6,8)
Several types of solar cells (silicon cells, iron-selenium cells) are
available for display. Photovoltaic cells convert incandescent light or Screen
sunlight directly into electrical energy. They can be hooked up to a
projection galvanometer to illustrate voltage or current characteristics.
EV
ER
Halogen
Coax
E AD
Flashlight
Y HA
LO
GEN
Various
Solar Cells
Iris Projection
Ammeter / Voltmeter
Tungsten
Halogen
Lamp
Solar-Powered Solar-Powered
Propeller Propeller Solar-Powered Solar
Helicopter Cell
There are several demonstrations that have motor-driven propellers powered by silicon
solar cells. Perhaps the helicopter is the most visible in a large class.
NOTE: There are many light sources that can be used to drive the motors. Some
people prefer carbon arcs (very intense light), while others prefer smaller electric lamps or
flashlights. For a greater effect, the light source can be placed about ten feet away from
the solar-driven motor. Consult with the demonstration staff...

Light hits diode, causes current flow. Uses arc lamp. (Similar to
D+60+4)
Light
The P-N junction of a clear diode can act as a
photoelectric source. The bright white light of a N P
carbon arc is focused for a short time on a 1N34 E C Meter
diode. The current signal is displayed on a screen
with a projection ammeter. (Note: focus light on Fig.1
the diode for only a brief time, or else the diode Electric Electron
Field I
will be destroyed by overheating.) Current
See Fig. 1. If light is shone on a PN junction,
the light is absorbed, freeing electrons and
creating holes. There is a strong electric field in
the transition region between P and N, causing Screen
the electrons to move to the left and the holes to
move to the right, causing a measurable current.
Focusing
Lens 1N34
Diode ax
Co
+
I
Projection
Ammeter
Carbon Arc (15 �a D.C.)
and Lens Note: can also use
.15 VDC meter
NPN junction as a phototransistor amplifier.
Phototransistor
Display Board Phototransistor
� 2K FPT-136 Screen
FPT 136
EVEREADY HALOGEN
6V Coax
25K I
Halogen MA
Flashlight
Projection
Ammeter
6V (150 �a)
Battery
The semiconductor device in this circuit is an NPN phototransistor with a clear plastic window.
Light hitting the device is absorbed in both the NP and PN junctions, freeing electrons and
creating holes, which increases the base current of the transistor. The circuit is set up as an
amplifier, so the increased base current is amplified by the factor �. The projection meter
displays the amplified current on the screen.
Note: The sensitivity of the phototransistor is varied by the amount of the negative bias
allowed by the 25 K ohm rheostat. The sensitive area is very small (< 1mm x 1mm), so the light
must be moved back and forth until you hit it squarely.

Recording modulates laser beam which hits solar cell and signal is amplified.
He-Ne Laser Hooded

Photocell
Speaker
Coax
Walkman
with Tape 8 Watt Audio Amp Output
8 Ohm
Line
Coax
Audio
Microphone
Level
Line
Inputs
Amplifier
Barkhausen
An audio signal from a small portable tape recorder is plugged into the video-jack of a laser
specially built to have its light intensity modulated by the changing amplitude and frequency of
sound wave forms. A hooded silicon solar cell at the opposite end of the lecture table receives
the modulated light beam, converting it, once again, to an electrical audio signal which is then
amplified and sent to a speaker for the class to hear. Placing an object in the beam will
interrupt the sound.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT F+15+40
Film Loop: The Photoelectric Effect Length(min.):4:02
Color: No Sound: No
Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy packets called photons. On impact with a material particle, a
photon ceases to exist and all of its kinetic energy is transferred to the struck particle, e.g. an electron. If such
an electron is in a metal near the surface, this added energy may be sufficient to permit the electron to penetrate
the potential energy barrier at the surface and escape from the metal. Electrons which have been ejected in this
way are called photoelectrons and the phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect.
In the film, a zinc disc is connected to an electroscope. The electroscope is charged and a mercury vapor
lamp pointed at the disc. The first two times, the electroscope is discharged; the third time, it stays charged.
Q288.1 What was different about the third attempt? (Hint: Watch Film-Loop 80-284.)
Q288.2 If we agree to call the charge on the plastic rod “negative”, what is the sign of the excess charge on the
zinc disc in each of the three demonstrations?
Q288.3 If the electromagnetic radiation liberates only electrons from the metal, in which case(s) must there
have been more electrons near the surface?
Q288.4 If we assume that the electrons themselves are charged, what sign must we assign them under the
convention we have been using?
Q288.5 Discuss the differences between the photoelectric effect and the point discharge shown in Film-Loop
80-284. When an ordinary incandescent bulb is substituted for the mercury vapor lamp, the electroscope stays
charged - even though the bulb appears quite bright and is held quite close to the disc. When the lens of the
mercury vapor lamp is covered with a piece of window glass, the blue light that comes through also fails to
discharge the electroscope, but when a piece of quartz is used, the photoelectric effect occurs again.
Q288.6 What kind of radiation can get through quartz but not through glass and, thus, appears to be the active
component in the output of the mercury vapor lamp?
Q288.7 If the intensity of light doesn’t seem to have anything to do with producing the effect, what is the property
of the radiation that counts?
Q288.8 How would this account for the differing results from visible light and the mercury radiation?
Q288.9 The cardboard seems to block the photoelectric effect even when the mercury vapor lamp is used.
Would a cardboard shield protect a charged electroscope against all types of radiation?
Q288.10 When the zinc is turned around, you can see that the other surface is relatively dull. Now, the mercury
vapor lamp fails to produce the effect. When this same surface is cleaned with abrasive, it works as well as the
first side did. Why isn’t the effect produced with the dull side?
Q288.11 Do you think visible light might work if the disc were made of something other than zinc?
PHOTONS F+18+0
Film : Photons Length(min.):19
Color: No Sound: Yes a PSSC Film John King, M.I.T.
In this film an experiment is performed to demonstrate the particle nature of light.
Professor King describes the apparatus he will use to demonstrate that light exhibits a particle-like behavior.
A photomultiplier detects the very weak light used in the experiment. The operation of this device is outlined
and the amplification is determined to be about 106 by measuring the output current and photoelectron cur-
rent going into the first stage of the photomultiplier. The photomultiplier is connected to an oscilloscope, and
pulses are seen on the oscilloscope trace. He shows that the pulses are due to the weak light shining on the
photomultiplier, but that some pulses are due to background noise. To reduce this thermal background, the
photomultiplier is cooled by a mixture of Dry Ice and alcohol.
The difference between the continuous wave model and the particle (photon) model for the transport of
light energy is illustrated by an analogy to milk delivery. He shows that if the milk is to be delivered at the rate
of one quart every ten seconds this can be achieved in either of two ways: (1) a pipe in which milk flows con-
tinuously at the uniform rate of one quart every ten seconds, or (2) a conveyor belt on which quart cartons of
milk are randomly positioned so that on the average one quart of milk is delivered every ten secs.
In the first case then, there is a consistent 10-second delay before one quart of milk is delivered. How-
ever, in the second case, although on the average one quart (packaged) arrives every ten seconds, there is
no consistent delay between the arrival of successive quarts; and thus some arrive at intervals of less than
10 seconds. It is this idea, of looking for the arrival of packages in less than the average time interval, that
Professor King uses to find out whether light energy comes in packages (photons).
A beam of light shines on the photomultiplier through a hole in a disc. The light intensity is reduced with
filters until the output current of the photomultiplier is only 3 x 10-10 amperes, implying that the photoelectron
current is 3 x 10-16 amperes. This is equivalent to an average of one electron from the photocathode every
1/2000 of a second. The photomultiplier output is displayed on the oscilloscope and, with the disc spinning at
a constant rate, it is determined that the light shines on the photomultiplier for 1/5000 of a second during each
revolution. From the analogy using the flow of milk it is argued that a continuous transport of light energy would
require 1/2000 of a second between pulses from a photoelectron; whereas a particle model would imply that
at any instant during the 1/5000-second interval one might see a pulse from of a second photoeIectron, with
the average rate still one pulse every 1/2000 of a second. The pulses are seen to arrive randomly during the
1/5000-second interval implying the particle nature of light.
PHOTONS F+18+5
Film : Interference of Photons Length(min.):13
Color: No Sound: Yes a PSSC Film John King, M.I.T.
In this film the wave and particle nature of light are exhibited in one experiment in which an
interference pattern is examined with a photomultiplier.
It is recommended that this film be used only after viewing the film Photons. The film relates to
the subject matter in Section 33-3 of the PSSC text.
Professor King describes the apparatus, which consists of an 8-foot-long box containing a weak
light source. The light passes through a double slit, forming an interference pattern which is displayed
visually. A photomultiplier connected to a sensitive ammeter is made to scan the pattern. The inter-
ference maxima and minima are clearly reflected in the meter readings. When the photomultiplier is
connected to both an oscilloscope and a loud-speaker, the pulses seen on the oscilloscope screen
correspond to the crackling of the loud-speaker. The pulse rate is seen to increase and decrease
at the respective positions of the interference maxima and minima.
At a maximum of the interference pattern, the photomultiplier output current is measured to be
10-9 amp. Because the multiplier amplification is 106, this corresponds to an input current of 10-15 amp
or about 104 electrons per second. Professor King points out that, on the average, only one electron
is ejected for every 103 photons incident on the photocathode. Thus, a current of 104 electrons per
second corresponds to about 107 photons per second incident on the photocathode.
In 10-7 seconds a photon travels about 100 feet. Therefore, it is argued that there is rarely more
than one photon in the 8-foot-long apparatus. It is concluded that the interference pattern must be
characteristic of individual photons, instead of an interaction between two or more photons.
PHOTONS. F+18+10
Photomultiplier tubes to show. Photocathode
Tube With A Light

0V e-
Envelope B
Removed +200 V
C
+400 V
+600 V
+800 V
+1000 V
+1200 V
+1400 V
Collector
Various
Photomultiplier
Tubes
Fig.1 Photomultiplier
Tube
A photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light and can convert the energy of a single photon into an
electrical signal. See Fig.1. The PM tube is an evacuated tube containing usually 8 to 10 electrodes
called dynodes. Each successive dynode is at a higher voltage. When light enters the tube, it hits a
photoelectric surface (A) called the photocathode which has a work function low enough that a photon will
liberate an electron. The electron is accelerated and has enough kinetic energy when it hits the first
dynode (B) that two to five electrons are liberated. These electrons are accelerated and hit the second
dynode (C), liberating many more electrons. And so forth. The numbers of electrons hitting the last
electrode or collector may be millions. Thus a single photon can result in a big enough signal to be sent to
a counter.
PHOTONS. F+18+15
Photomultiplier tube is used to detect photons.
D.C.
Power Supply
0-5000 Volts
D.C. Voltmeter
0-6000 Volts
CENCO
HIGH POTENTIAL
1000 4000
3000 4000
2000
DANGER
50
00 00
10
0 5000 D.C.
60
VOLTS
00
0
Neutral
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
HIGH VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE
Density
OUTPUT
- +
- +
Filters
Tektronix TDS 3014 1.4-1.6
Digital Scope kVolts
TEKTRONIX TDS 3014
INTENS
VERTICAL
Save Ref Save Pre-Trig Store
HORIZON TAL
Erase Cont. 0% N0n-Store
TRIGGER
Input Coax
POSITION POSITION POSITION SLOPE LEVEL
MODE MAG MODE

BEAM FIND CH1 both CH2 Add Alt Chop x1 x10 P-P Sgl
TRIG'D Auto Norm Swp
Photomultiplier
CH1 Volts/DIV CH2 Volts/DIV
FOCUS x1 SEC/DIV TV TV
x1 mS 2 1 .5 .2 .1 RESET Line Field
.2 .1 .2 .1 5 50
.5 50 .5 50 10 20
1 20 1 20 20 10
50 5
TRACE 2 10 2 10 .1 2
5 mV 5 5 mV 5 .2 1 SOURCE
Tube in Box
ROTATION
10 2 10 2 .5 .5 CH1 Line
S .2
X DEFL uS Vert Ext/10
POWER ON CH2 EXT
EXT Ext=Z
AC GND DC AC GND DC
Small
ON OFF CH1 or X CH2 or Y PROBE EXT Input or Z
ADJUST
1M 1M 1M
25 PF 25 PF 25 PF
Output Black Cloth Covers Light

Coax Tube and Box Hole
A photomultiplier tube has its light-sensitive end encased in a box that has a small hole at one end.
Neutral density filters are placed in front of the hole to control how much light enters the tube. The tube
senses photons, and the resulting pulses are displayed on a digital scope. A TV camera displays the
image on monitors for the class. This is not a very accurate setup, but the class does see a
photomultiplier tube in action. See F+18+10 for an explanation of how a photomultiplier tube works.
Notes: 1400-1600 volts DC are applied to the input of the tube. The output goes to a Tektronix TDS
3014 digital scope with input impedance of 1 M�. Voltage scale is set at 5 mV/Div; Time scale is set at 1
mSec/Div. The Trigger Source is CH1-Line, Mode = Norm or Auto. Set the trigger level so that there are
fewer spikes rather than many. The 'Store' button should be pushed to give long vertical spikes.
Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 663

ATOMIC STRUCTURE. F+20+0
"Plum pudding": Corks with magnets float in bowl/solenoid on OHP.
Steel Needle J.J. Thompson envisioned an atom to be made up of a
in Cork small sphere of uniform positive charge within which
2 cm negatively charged electrons were distributed, rather
like plums in plum pudding. The positive charge would
Overhead
drive the electrons inward, and the electric charges
Projector
would repel each other, arranging themselves in
Projected on Screen 'shells'.
A simple model to demonstrate this concept
two-dimensionally is to float corks with magnetized
needles in a dish of water immersed in a magnetic
field. This demo uses a clear glass dish about 25 cm in
diameter wound with about 30 turns of insulated
copper wire. A six volt battery is attached to the coil
Plum-Pudding through a variable resistor. The glass dish is filled with
Model enough water to float the corks, with a few milliliters of
methyl alcohol added to cut surface tension. (Care
must be taken that all the cork needles are magnetized
in the same direction.) The magnetic field is switched
on so that each cork is driven toward the center of the
dish. As corks are added, a stable pattern of rings
becomes evident. A decrease or increase in current
will cause the patterns to shrink or increase,
6V Control corresponding to a lesser or greater positive charge.
Battery Box The apparatus is on an overhead projector enabling
class to view the shadow projections.
Rutherford scattering model: Steel balls, launcher, and "hill".
Fig.1
potential energy E p
25
20
15 E p = k QQ '
r
10 Conical "hill"
5 Represents
Steel -12 the Nucleus
2 4 6 8 10 x10 cm
Ball
Ramp
Rutherford performed experiments bombarding thin gold foil with high-speed � particles, demonstrating -12
that the positive charge and mass of gold nuclei were confined to a space smaller than 10 cm in
diameter.
As an � particle approaches a charged gold nucleus, it is deflected by electrostatic repulsion into a
hyperbolic trajectory. The graph of the potential energy versus distance between � particle and positively
charged nucleus is hyperbolic as well. See Fig.1. If this graph is rotated about the vertical axis, an actual
physical model can be constructed where the peak of the hill represents the nucleus of the atom. Steel
balls representing � particles are rolled down a ramp towards the potential hill of the nucleus. The balls
approach the hill at different angles, rolling up to a certain height then veering off to one side or the other.
The paths, when viewed from above, are hyperbolas, except for the case of a head-on collision where
the ball rolls up to a certain point then reverses direction and rolls back. (Also, a ball may roll up the side
and drop into the center of the hill, representing a capture prior to disintegration.) The potential energy of
the � particle near a nucleus is analogous to the potential energy of the ball on the hill. The electrostatic
repulsion between � particle and nucleus is analogous to the downward pull of gravity on the ball.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE F+20+10

Model of the nucleus: Steel balls in dish on OHP.
Diameter Radius of
Model Size of Dish L Curvature R
R
R-D 15x15" 13" 32"
2r
L/2 L/2
9x9"(Trans.) 9" 17"
D 8x8" 6" 4"
There are many similarities between a pendulum

undergoing simple harmonic motion by oscillating back and
forth, and a ball undergoing simple harmonic motion by
This dish is rolling back and forth without sliding in a concave spherical
transparent. bowl. See the Welch Instruction Sheets (Room 72
LeConte) for an analysis of this... Use Digital Timer or
Stopwatch to measure the period of the oscillation.
Overhead Projector
Steel Ball Diameters: 3/8,1/2,5/8,3/4,7/8,1"

ATOMIC STRUCTURE F+20+15
Film : Rutherford Atom Length(min.):40
Color: No Sound: Yes a PSSC Film R. Hulsizer, Univ. of Illinois
Qualitative experiments and appropriate models are used to indicate the ideas leading to
Rutherford’s nuclear concept of the atom. Its historical verification through the α-particle scattering
experiments of Geiger and Marsden is discussed.
The film should be used with Chapter 32 of the PSSC text.
Observing α-particles in a small cloud chamber, Professor Hulsizer shows that a thin gold foil
placed in their path apparently does little more than shorten the observed tracks. He describes an
experiment in which Geiger examined the character of the small angle deflections of α-particles in
a narrow beam passing through a foil. Geiger’s data showed that most α-particles are not deflected
out of the beam by more than one degree, and none beyond five degrees.
Using a similar scattering set-up but with a wider beam of α-particles, Professor Hulsizer demon-
strates an experiment done by Marsden which establishes that, although by far most of the particles
are undeflected, a few are indeed deflected through very wide angles by the gold foil.
A mechanical scattering model is used to suggest the kind of atom that might explain these wide-
angle deflections. Rutherford’s concept that the atomic mass is concentrated in a small scattering
center is discussed. Scattering by a Coulomb force is illustrated, using a Van de Graaff generator
as the scattering center. With a three-dimensional model of the nuclear atom, the major aspects of
a theoretical calculation for the distribution of scattered α-particles are clearly pointed out. A com-
parison is made of the results of Rutherford’s calculations with the experimental results of Geiger
and Marsden in 1913, confirming the nuclear model of the atom.
Rutherford’s estimate of the size of a gold nucleus, less than 10-11 cm, is discussed and com-
pared to atomic dimensions.

Mechanical models of the hydrogen atom.
A B +
-
+ - Mechanical
Models of
The Hydrogen
Atom
120 V.A.C.
Both models are representations of the hydrogen atom. Bohr proposed that a hydrogen atom
consisted of a proton nucleus with a positive charge +e, with an electron circling around it in a
circular orbit with charge -e. Because the mass of the nucleus is 1836 times larger than the
mass of the electron, it can be said to be at rest. In order to keep the electron stable in its
orbit, Bohr assumed that the centripetal force on the electron is the inward electrostatic force
between the nucleus and the electron. Also, he made the quantum assumption that electrons
can only have certain discrete orbitals with certain angular momentums. The electron is also
spinning about its own axis as it orbits around the nucleus. In the hydrogen atom model 'A',
the magnetic moment of a spinning electron is about twice that for the electron orbit, which is
indicated by the vector arrows. In the hydrogen atom motorized model 'B', the hydrogen atom
precesses in a magnetic field.
Bohr-Stoner charts(5): Electron configurations of the elements.
-e -e
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS +1 +3 +12
OF THE ELEMENTS -e -e Fig.2
n=1
n=1 n=2
K L M N O P Q NORMAL n=1 n=2 n=3
STATE
1S 2S 2P 3S 3P 3D 4S 4P 4D 4 F 5S 5P 5D 6S 6P 6D 7S H, Z=1 Li, Z=3 Mg, Z=12
2
S1 2
1 H 1
2 He 2
1
S0 The Bohr-Stoner charts display in a systematic
2
S1 2 way how the electrons fill the orbitals of the
3 Li 2 1 chemical elements. See Fig.1. There are 5 of
1
4 Be 2 2 S0
2 0 these charts (only one is shown), showing the
5 B 2 2 1 P1 2 electron configurations through element 96.
3
6 C 2 2 2 P0 Bohr and Stoner proposed that the Bohr
7 N 2 2 3
4 0
S3 2 hydrogen orbital model be expanded to include all
8 O 2 2 4
3
P2 the elements. Each atomic nucleus has a number
2 0
P3 2 of positive charges called the atomic number Z,
9 F 2 2 5
1
S0
and an equal number of negative charges or
10 Ne 2 2 6 2 electrons. See Fig. 2. Hydrogen has 1 positive
S1 2
11 Na 2 2 6 1
1
charge on the nucleus, with one electron in the
12 Mg 2 2 6 2 S0 first shell or orbital. Lithium has 3 positive charges
13 Al 2 2 6 2 1
2
P01 2 on the nucleus, with 2 electrons in the first shell
14 Si 2 2 6 2 2
3
P0 and 1 in the second shell. Magnesium has 12
15 P 2 2 6 2 3
4
S3 2 positive charges on the nucleus, with 2 electrons
3
P2 in the first shell, 8 electrons in the second shell,
16 S 2 2 6 2 4 and 2 electrons in the third shell. The2general rule
is that there can be a maximum of 2n electrons in
Bohr-Stoner Charts the nth shell, before the n+1 shell starts to fill
Fig.1 (There are 5 charts, (although in some of the heavier elements there
through element 96) are exceptions in the ways shells are filled.)

Periodic Table OHP transparancy.
1 Periodic Table of the 2

H Chemical Elements He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
L Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105
Fr Ra Ac Rf Ha
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Yb
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide Series Th Pa Pa Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6rd ed., p. 894-905
RADIOACTIVITY. F+20+35
Wall chart of the nuclides. A nuclide is an atom defined by the composition of its
nucleus. On the chart of the isotopes, all the known
nuclides of all the elements are shown. Each square
CHART OF THE ISOTOPES corresponds to one nuclide and includes information
HARSHAW
such as the atomic number Z, the mass, the half life,
the relative abundance, the activity and decay
Kr
energies, and whether it is stable, naturally
Br
b
35
R
Sr
Se
34
radioactive or artificially radioactive. Isotopes,
As
33
e
Y
G
32
Zn
30
Zr
G
31
nuclides that have the same number of protons, lie
b
o
N
i
N
C
28
27
u
a
C
C
29
20
o
Sc
M
21
Fe
r
C
Ti
26
24
22
n
on a 45° line rising to the right. Isotones, nuclides
Tc
M
Ar
V
K
25
23
18
19
l
C
S
17
16
P
15
g
e
Si
Al
M
N
N
N
O
C
14
13
12
10
11
7
8
6
Li
that have the same number of neutrons, lie on a 45°

F
B
3
9
5
Be
on
e
H
utr
4
2
ne
H
1
0
line rising to the left. Isobars, nuclides that have the

same number of neutrons and protons, lie on vertical
Is
oto
ne
lines.
s
:A
Xe
NUCLEAR PROCESSES CODE
-Z
54
s
C
C
on
55
Ba
sta
�
� out
56
o
nt
Isobars: A Constant
La
H
Pm
D
p out n in
57
66
All of the atoms of a single element have the
Er
e
61
Sm
d
Te
Eu
C
G
I
d out Orig. d in
52
53
58
� out � in
63
64
62
Sb
Tb
Pr
Nuc
Tm
59
65
51
n out p in
d
N
60
�
� out
Yb
same chemical properties, but some of the atoms
Lu
nt
Sn
sta
50
on
C
f
H
:Z
Kr
s
36
have different masses. These different forms, called

pe
b
R
oto
37
Sr
Is
38
Y
39
Ag
d
Zr
In
C
M
40
49
47
b
48
42
Pd
Tc
N
isotopes, are due to different numbers of neutrons in

41
43
46
u
h
Br
R
44
45
35
Se
the nucleus. Some of these isotopes are stable, but

34
As
33
e
G
32
some of them are unstable and decay into other

U
92
isotopes or different elements that may be stable or
Pu
p
N
93
94
Am
radioactive. The rate of decay of an isotope is
a
Th
R
95
m
88
90
Ac
C
Pa
96
89
91
Bk
97
specified by the term 'half-life'.

Po
n
Pb
f
R
C
84
86
98
82
At
Bi
Fr
85
83
87
Tl
81
There are three types of radioactive decay: �

g
H
80
Pt
Ir
77
78
s
Au
O
decay (emits a helium nucleus), � decay (1] emits an

76
79
W
74
e
Ta
R
75
73
Yb
electron and antineutrino, or 2] emits a positron and

f
Lu
H
70
72
71
Er
68
Tm
o
H
69
67
y
Pm
D
66
61
Sm
d
Eu
neutrino, or 3] captures a K orbital electron and emits

63
64
62
Tb
65
a neutrino), and � decay (emits a high energy

photon). In all the three types of decay, the classical
conservation laws hold for energy, linear momentum,
STABLE
ARTIFICIALLY RADIOACTIVE
ATOMIC
MASS
angular momentum, electric charge, and nucleon

< 1 SEC 1 HR- ISOTOPE
1 DAY
ATOMIC
MASS
NATURALLY
number: (number of nucleons A = number of

< 1 SEC- HALF 1 DAY-
ISOTOPE
1 MIN LIFE 1 YR
RADIOACTIVE
DECAY
ENERGY
ATOMIC
MASS
neutrons plus protons = constant, even though

1 MIN- HALF
1 HR
> 1 YR ISOTOPE LIFE
HARSHAW SCIENTIFIC
DECAY
ENERGY
neutrons can change into protons and vice versus.)
SCATTERING F+25+0
Film Loop: Scattering in One Dimension - Part1)Barriers Length(min.):3:00
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows the time development of a Gaussian wave packet as
it moves into and out of the region of a finite square-potential barrier. The reflection from the barrier
and the penetration into or through the barrier are shown for incident particle energies equal in mag-
nitude to (a) one-half the barrier height, (b) the barrier height, and (c) twice the barrier height.
DISCUSSION: The horizontal coordinate used in the display is the X-axis; the potential bar-
rier is symmetrical about X = 0. For the barrier, the vertical coordinate is potential energy. For the
wave packet, the vertical coordinate is the position probability density, Ψ(x,t)2. In each example the
initial value of the probability density is the same even though the particle energy increases by a
factor of two in each successive example. In the last case, where the particle energy is twice the
barrier potential, two weak reflections are seen - from the near and from the far barrier walls. In
the second case, where the average particle energy equals the barrier potential, a portion of the
wave packet is trapped inside the barrier for a relatively long period of time; note that the peak of
the trapped part of the packet appears to bounce back and forth between the barrier walls as the
probability leaks out from both walls.
The rapid oscillations which appear when the packet is close to the potential (see figure) are
accurate solutions to the time-dependent Schrodinger equation and are not the result of computer
error or programming approximations. Detailed information concerning the formulation of the prob-
lem, integration techniques, initial conditions, and computer input parameters has been published
in American Journal of Physics, 35, 177 (March 1967).
SCATTERING F+25+1
Film Loop: Scattering in One Dimension - 2)Square Wells Length(min.):2:40
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows the time development of a Gaussian wave packet
as it moves into and out of the region of a finite square-potential well. The reflection from the well
and the transmission through the well are shown for incident particle energies equal in magnitude
to: (a) one-half the well depth (b) the well depth, and (c) twice the well depth.
DISCUSSION: The horizontal coordinate used in the display is the X-axis; the potential well
is symmetrical about X = 0. For the well, the vertical coordinate is potential energy. For the wave
packet the vertical coordinate is the position probability density Ψ(x,t)2. In each example the initial
value of the probability density is the same even though the particle energy increases by a factor of
two in each successive example. As the particle energy relative to the well potential increases, the
reflected portion of the wave packet decreases and the rapid oscillations which appear when the
packet is close to the potential (see figure) become less complex — these are accurate solutions
to the time-dependent Shrodinger equation and are not the result of computer error or program-
ming approximations. Detailed information concerning the formulation of the problem, integration
techniques, initial conditions, and computer input parameters has been published by American
Journal of Physics, 35, 177 (March 1967).
SCATTERING F+25+2
Film Loop: Scattering in One Dimension - 3)Edge Effects Length(min.):4:00
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows the time development of a Gaussian wave packet
as it moves into and out of the region of a potential well; the sharpness of the edges of the well
are varied. The behavior of the wave packet is shown for three well shapes: (a) sharp edges and
infinitely steep walls; potential has zero surface thickness; (b) rounded edges and slightly sloped
walls; 90% to 10% falloff distance is about 1/8 the well width, or a thin potential surface; (c) gently
varying well shape; 90% to 10% falloff distance is about 1/4 the well width, or a thick potential
surface.
DISCUSSION: The horizontal coordinate used in the display is the X-axis: the potential well is
symmetrical about X = 0. For the well, the vertical coordinate is the potential energy; a Wood-Saxon
potential has been described in American Journal of Physics, 35, 177 (August 1967). For the wave
packet, the vertical coordinate is the position probability density, Ψ(x,t)2. The average energy of the
wave packets is one-half the maximum depth of the well, and is the same for all three examples.
As the boundary of the potential becomes more diffuse, the structure of the wave packet during
the scattering event becomes less complicated. The figure, taken from the last sequence in the
film, compares the structure of the wave packet at similar times during an interaction with a square
well (top) and the softer Wood-Saxon well (bottom). Other pertinent information concerning the
formulation of this type of problem, integration techniques, and computer-input parameters has
been published in American Journal of Physics, 35, 177 (March 1967).
SCATTERING F+25+3
Film Loop: Scattering in One Dimension 4)Momentum Space Length(min.):3:00
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows the time development of a Gaussian wave packet in
two representations: configuration space and momentum space. In each representation the same
wave packet moves into and out of the region of a finite square-potential well. In each case, the
energy of the packet is equal to one-half the well depth. The event in configuration space is shown
first (same as first sequence in 80-4013 and 80-4021); then the same event in momentum space;
finally, a simultaneous comparison of both representations.
DISCUSSION: The displays with the dark background represent one-dimensional configuration
space; the origin is in the center of the horizontal axis. The vertical axis is the position probability
density Ψ(x,t)2. The displays with the light background represent one-dimensional momentum
space; zero momentum is in the center of the horizontal axis. The vertical axis is in the momen-
tum-probability density M(k,t)2. A note on this momentum-space sequence has been published in
American Journal of Physics, 36, May 1968. The figure shows the wave packet near the middle of
the scattering event in both X-space (top) and Ψ-space (bottom). The probability density in X-space
moves into the region of the potential, develops rapid oscillations, and begins to reflect part of the
packet. At the same time, the probability density in Ψ-space develops high-momentum components
and a packet begins to grow at negative momenta. Because a free-particle momentum-probability
density is independent of time, the wave packet in momentum space does not change until the
particle, in configuration space enters the region of the potential; after the particle, in configuration
space, has left the region of the potential, the altered shape of the packet, in momentum space,
again remains constant. (The behavior of the free-particle position-probability density is shown in
80-4054.) Detailed information concerning the formulation of the problem, integration techniques,
initial conditions, and computer input parameters has been published in American Journal of Phys-
ics, 35, 177 (March 1967).
SCATTERING F+25+4
Film Loop: Free Wave Packets Length(min.):2:15
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows a Gaussian wave packet in free space. The wave
packet spreads out as time increases. The rate of spreading depends on the initial width of the
packet. A packet initially very narrow spreads much more rapidly than one initially wide; both nar-
row and wide packets are shown simultaneously (see figure). Then, a stationary wave packet is
compared to an identical but moving wave packet. The rate of spreading does not depend on the
motion of the packets; both packets spread equally.
QUESTION: The figure shows the initial shape of two wave packets in X-space. What are the
relative shapes of these same two packets in Ψ-space? Reference might be made to 80-4039 which
shows the time development of a wave packet scattering from a potential well in both X-space and
Ψ-space.
DISCUSSION: The horizontal coordinate in these displays is the X-axis, and the vertical coor-
dinate is the position-probability density Ψ(x,t)2. Detailed information concerning the formulation
of the problem, integration techniques, initial conditions, and computer-input parameters has been
published in American Journal of Physics 35, 177 (March 1967); an alternative derivation has been
published in the same journal, 36, 525 (June 1968).
SCATTERING F+25+5
Film Loop: Particle in a Box Length(min.):2:40
Color: No Sound: No
This computer-animated sequence shows the periodic time dependence of a wave packet
confined in an infinitely deep square-well potential.
DISCUSSION: The potential well (box) is not displayed. The position-probability density, P(x,t)2
is plotted. The figure shows a time exposure of the entire periodic position-probability density; the
figure is not shown in the film. In the film one sees the distribution change with time and recur
periodically.
QUESTIONS: If you assume the width of the well to be L and the mass of the particle to be m,
can you derive an expression for the time required for the distribution to reassemble? Does this
time depend on the shape of the initial distribution?
SCATTERING F+25+10
Film : Scattering of Quantum Mech.Wave Packets from Pot.Wells and Barriers
Length(min.):5
Color: Yes Sound: No made at U.C.L.R.L., Livermore Labs
1] A particle is scattered from a square potential well.

There are three situations:
a) the average particle energy is 1/2 the well depth.
b) the average particle energy is equal to the well depth .
c) the average particle energy is twice the well depth.
2} A particle is scattered from a square potential barrier.

There are three situations:
a) the average particle energy is 1/2 the well height.
b) the average particle energy is equal to the well height.
c) the average particle energy is twice the well height
Ref.:Physics Demonstration Experiments by Harry Meiners, 1970 ed., Vol II, p. 1188-1190
QUANTUM MECHANICAL BARRIER PENETRATION. F+30+0
Tunneling: Microwave analogy using wax prisms.
A Wax 30 cm B
�-wave Prism �-wave �-wave
Transmitter Transmitter Receiver
CENCO 3 CM (X-BAND) MICROWAVE

CENCO
35 cm
TRANSMITTER 3 CM (X-BAND) MICROWAVE
TRANSMITTER

CENCO
CENCO
�-wave
DIRECT CURRENT
DIRECT CURRENT
.4 .6
.2 .8
Receiver
.4 .6 MILLIAMPERES
.8
1
0
.2
MILLIAMPERES
1
0
RECEIVER
RECEIVER SPEAKER OSCILLO-
ON INPUT GAIN SCOPE
SPEAKER OSCILLO-
ON INPUT GAIN SCOPE
OFF OFF
OFF OFF
55°
Overhead Overhead
View View 5 cm
or less
In situation 'A', a microwave transmitter beams 3 cm microwaves into a large paraffin wax equilateral
prism. The beam strikes the face of the prism at about a 55 degree angle, and total internal reflection
occurs. This can be tested by moving the receiver to different positions around the prism. In situation 'B',
the receiver is placed in line with the incident beam, and a second identical prism is moved in towards the
first. When the distance between the prisms is 5 cm or less, the receiver will strongly pick up the
microwave beam. The microwave beam has 'tunneled' through the air barrier into the second prism.
Classical wave theory predicts that evenescent standing waves penetrate into the air a few
wavelengths past the prism interface, so the tunneling produced by moving the second prism into this
region seems understandable. However, in quantum mechanics, material particles can also tunnel. The
behaviour of the microwaves is analogous to the behavior of matter waves striking a potential barrier with
a total energy less than the potential energy within the barrier.
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES. F+35+0

Chart of the Standard Model of Fundamental Particles & Interactions.
This chart helps explain how 6 types of leptons and 6 types of quarks and their antiparticles,
plus 4 types of force-carriers are needed to explain all observed particles.
Standard Model of
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES AND INTERACTIONS
matter constituents force carriers
FERMIONS spin = 1/2,3/2,5/2... BOSONS spin = 0,1,2,....
Structure within Unified Approx. Strong Approx.
Leptons spin=1/2 Quarks spin=1/2 the Atom
Electroweak
spin=1
Mass
GeV/c2
Electric
Charge or color
spin=1
Mass
GeV/c
Electric
Charge
Approx. Approx.
Flavor Mass
Electric Flavor Mass
Electric Quark photon xxx 0
gluon 0 0
e-
Charge Charge
GeV/c2 GeV/c2
u
W- xxx -1
electron up
xxx 0 xxx 2/3
neutrino
Electron
electron xxx -1 down xxx -1/3 u d d u W+ xxx +1
muon xxx charm xxx

d Z
o xxx 0
u d
neutrino 0 2/3
muon xxx -1 strange xxx -1/3

d u u Neutron
tau xxx 0 top xxx 2/3 Nucleus d
neutrino Proton
tau xxx -1 bottom xxx -1/3
Atom
PROPERTIES OF THE INTERACTIONS Sample Bosonic Hadrons

Sample Fermionic Hadrons Interaction Weak Electromagnetic Strong Mesons qq
Baryons qqq and Antibaryons qqq Property Gravitational (Electroweak) Fundamental Residual Symbol Name Quark Electric Mass Spin
Symbol Name Quark Electric Mass 2 Spin Acts on: Mass-Energy Flavor Electric Charge Color Charge content charge GeV/c2
content charge GeV/c + pion ud +1 xxx 0
p proton uud 1 xxx 1/2
Particles experiencing: All Quarks, Leptons Electrically Charged Quarks, Gluons Hadrons
K- kaon su -1 0
p
anti-
1/2 Particles mediating: Graviton W+ W- Zo Gluons Mesons xxx
proton uud -1 xxx + rho ud +1 xxx 1
n neutron udd 0 xxx 1/2 Strength 10
-18
m 10
-41
.8 1 25 Not applicable
for two u quarks at: to quarks D+ D+ cd +1 xxx 0
-17 -41 -4
lambda uds 0 xxx 1/2 (relative to electromagnet) 3x10 m 10 10 1 60
c eta-c cc 0 xxx 0
-36 -7 Not applicable 20
omega sss -1 xxx 3/2 for two protons in nucleus 10 10 1
to hadrons
+ o -
n pe - e e+ e- D+ D - D- c KK +
c u
d
u
d e- e+ gluon d c d
W- or gluons
d u
e-
field
d c+ s Ko
e Z s
c u
D+ K-
CLOUD CHAMBERS. F+45+0
Expansion cloud chamber with water and compression bulb.
T.V.
Monitor Camera
Radioactive
Light Source
Source
Expansion +
Water,
Cloud - Died Black
Chamber
Rubber
110 V.D.C. Bulb
for Lamp and
Clearing Field
Squeezing slowly and then releasing suddenly the bulb of this Wilson expansion cloud chamber causes
alpha tracks from a radioactive source to become briefly visible.
This is a simple Wilson expansion cloud chamber. The top sealed glass cylinder is filled with air. There
is a small radium-salt radioactive source sealed inside a thin glass tube and attached to the cylinder wall.
The source emits positive � rays (helium nuclei), and � rays (photons). The ��rays knock electrons off of
nitrogen and oxygen in the air, leaving a trail of negative and positive ions, but the � rays produce few
ions. The ��rays leave a strong trail of ions, and the � rays do not leave an ionized trail.
In the base and rubber bulb of the device is water. When the bulb is squeezed, the water is pushed up
and compresses the air in the cylinder. When the bulb is released, the air temperature is temporarily
lowered and the air becomes supersaturated with water vapor. The water vapor condenses on the
positive and negative ions left by the ��rays, leaving visible trails. A light source helps to illuminate the
trails. A 'clearing field' potential difference of 100 volts is placed across the top and bottom of the cylinder
to clear the air of ions so that new tracks can be seen.

Wilson cloud chamber, piston compression type. ��Ray Tracks
D.C. Power Supply Slide Projector
0-5000 Volts Light Source
CENCO
HIGH POTENTIAL
1000 4000
DANGER 0 5000
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
HIGH VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTPUT +
- +
Wire
+
3000 4000
2000 50
00 00
10
D.C.
60
Ring
VOLTS
00
0
- +
- Source
Hand Clearing
Pump Field Felt Pad &
D.C. Voltmeter Alcohol
0-6000 Volts Wilson
To Hand
Cloud Table - Pump
Chamber Clamp
Giving a short strong pull on the handle of this Wilson expansion cloud chamber causes ��ray tracks from
a radium source to become briefly visible.
This is a Wilson expansion cloud chamber, similar to F+45+0. The top sealed glass cylinder is filled
with air. There is a small radium radioactive source (5-10 mc) fitted into the bottom base plate. The
source emits positive � rays (helium nuclei), and � rays (photons). The � rays knock electrons off of
ions. The � rays leave a strong trail of ions, and the � rays do not leave an ionized trail.
In the base is a felt pad soaked with a 50% mixture of methanol and water. When the handle of the
hand pump is pulled quickly and held, the air temperature is temporarily lowered and the air becomes
supersaturated with methanol vapor which condenses on the positive and negative ions left by the ��rays,
leaving visible trails. A slide projector light source helps to illuminate the trails. A 'clearing field' potential
difference of 200-500 volts is placed across the top and bottom of the cylinder to clear the air of ions so
that new tracks can be seen. A TV camera can be used to display the tracks on a monitor.
Cloud chamber with dry ice and alcohol shown on TV monitor.
D.C. Power Supply
0-5000 Volts
Monitor T.V. (For Clearing Field)
Camera
CENCO
HIGH POTENTIAL
1000 4000
DANGER 0 5000
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
HIGH VOLTAGE
Slide Projector Cloud -

HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
Light Source Chamber

- +
Radio-
active
Source
00
2000
3000 4000
50
00
D.C. Voltmeter
+
10
0-6000 Volts
D.C.
60
Dry Ice
VOLTS
00
0
Chamber
- +
This Wilson continuously sensitive cloud chamber can work for up to several hours, displaying tracks of
various radioactive decay products. It takes 5-10 minutes to reach a sensitive stationary activated state.
A felt ring located under the top cover is soaked with methanol which will give off a constant vapor
when placed on top of the glass cylinder of the chamber. The cover plate is then clipped on with spring
clips. A reservoir under the base is packed with dry ice (about 180 mm in diameter and 40 mm thick).
Cooling the base creates a supersaturated atmosphere a few centimeters above the base of the chamber
that causes methanol to condense out on ionized trails left by � and � rays. Single traces of high-energy
electrons caused by cosmic radiation are readily visible. There are 2 holes in the chamber sides where
weak radioactive samples can be inserted. Warning: don't insert strongly active substances like radium: it
will disturb or temporarily ruin the proper functioning of the chamber.
In a darkened room, the slide projector light source helps to illuminate the ion trails. A 'clearing field'
potential difference of 2000 volts is placed across the top and bottom of the cylinder to clear the air of ions
so that new tracks can be seen. A TV camera can be used to display the ion trails on a monitor.
Ref.:Physics For Scientists and Engineers by Giancoli, 2nd ed., p. 985

X-ray beam through cloud chamber shown on TV camera. (Same apparatus
as F+5+10)
T.V. Monitor
Camera
D.C. Power Supply

0-5000 Volts
CENCO
HIGH POTENTIAL
Lead-Lined Box
1000 4000
(For Clearing Field)

DANGER 0 5000
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
HIGH VOLTAGE
with
HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
- +

D.C. Voltmeter
3000 4000
2000 500
0 0
100
D.C.
60
VOLTS
00
0
0-6000 Volts
X-Ray
- +
Tube
Slide Projector
Light Source SOLID STATE
Electro-Tech
INPUT 115V 60 Hz
Lead
Induction
Cloud-Chamber Plate Coil
An X ray tube (see F+5+0) is next to a diffusion cloud chamber (see F+45+10) within a lead-lined box
with lead plastic windows to protect viewers. When a high voltage (40 kV pulsating DC from an induction
coil) is placed across the terminals of the X ray tube, X rays are sent through a hole in a lead plate into
the cloud chamber, through the 'sensitive layer'. The X rays knock electrons off molecules of oxygen and
nitrogen in the air, creating positively and negatively charged ions. Supercooled methanol vapor in the
cloud chamber begins condensing on the ions, producing trails of droplets that scatter light, making the
path of the beam of X rays visible. A TV camera displays this on a monitor.
RANGE OF ALPHA PARTICLES. F+50+0
Expansion cloud chamber with water and compression bulb. (Same apparatus
as F+45+0)
T.V.
Monitor Camera
Radioactive
Light Source
Source
Expansion +
Water,
Cloud - Died Black
Chamber
Rubber
110 V.D.C. Bulb
for Lamp and
Clearing Field
Squeezing slowly and then releasing suddenly the bulb of this Wilson expansion cloud chamber causes
alpha tracks from a radioactive source to become briefly visible.
This is a simple Wilson expansion cloud chamber. The top sealed glass cylinder is filled with air. There
is a small radium-salt radioactive source sealed inside a thin glass tube and attached to the cylinder wall.
The source emits positive � rays (helium nuclei), and � rays (photons). The ��rays knock electrons off of
ions. The � rays leave a strong trail of ions, and the � rays do not leave an ionized trail.
In the base and rubber bulb of the device is water. When the bulb is squeezed, the water is pushed up
and compresses the air in the cylinder. When the bulb is released, the air temperature is temporarily
lowered and the air becomes supersaturated with water vapor. The water vapor condenses on the
positive and negative ions left by the ��rays, leaving visible trails. A light source helps to illuminate the
trails. A 'clearing field' potential difference of 100 volts is placed across the top and bottom of the cylinder
to clear the air of ions so that new tracks can be seen.
FRANCK-HERTZ EXPERIMENT F+55+0

Film : The Franck-Hertz Experiment Length(min.):30
Color: No Sound: Yes a PSSC Film
Byron L. Youtz, Reed College with an epilogue by James Franck
The aim of the film is to show the existence of discrete energy states of atoms. The classical Franck-Hertz
experiment is performed, which establishes that the smallest energy that an electron can impart to an atom
of mercury in an inelastic collision is 4.9 electron volts.
This film should be used with Sections 34-1 and 34-2 of the PSSC text.
Professor Youtz points out that the light emitted by excited mercury atoms appears in the form of line
spectra. Since mercury atoms (or any other kind) can lose only discrete amounts of energy - proportional to the
frequency of their spectral lines one might predict that these atoms can only gain discrete amounts of energy.
This should be true whether this energy is supplied by photons, as in the absorption of light, or by any other
means. It is noted that this hypothesis was originally tested in 1914 by James Franck and Gustav Hertz, who
studied the energy transferred in inelastic collisions between electrons and mercury atoms. Professor Youtz
then describes the apparatus he will use to repeat that experiment. The process of energy transfer by inelastic
collisions, which lies at the heart of the experiment, is illustrated with the help of a mechanical model.
In a specially designed tube , electrons are accelerated through mercury vapor and are detected by an
ammeter in the anode circuit. Professor Youtz shows that with very little mercury vapor in the tube the current
rises steadily as the accelerating voltage is increased. If the density of the mercury vapor is increased, he pre-
dicts a steady rise in anode current until the energy of the electrons reaches the minimum value for an inelastic
collision to occur. At this point the current should decrease as the accelerating voltage is increased.
A pen recording of the anode current vs. the accelerating voltage shows the current rising and falling at
regularly spaced intervals of 4.9 volts.
From an examination of the data it is concluded that 4.9 electron volts is the smallest amount of energy
which can be absorbed by a mercury atom. It is calculated that this is the same amount of energy that is lost
by a mercury atom when it emits a photon in the 2537 Angstrom spectral line. This experiment implies that
the mercury atom can exist only in states of discrete rather than continuous energies.
In an epilogue, Professor Franck discusses another experiment in which he and Hertz established that
mercury atoms, excited by the bombardment of 4.9-ev electrons, emitted light of only one wave length - 2537
Angstrom.
FRANCK-HERTZ EXPERIMENT. F+55+5
Experimental demonstration that mechanical energy in atoms is quantized.
400° C
Franck- Thermometer 7613 OSCILLOSCOPE
Ammeter Fig. 1
Hertz
VERT TRIG INTENSITY
TEKTRONIX MODE SOURCE
LEFT LEFT
VERT
ALT MODE
ILIUM
ADD RIGHT
Oven
CHOP
Anode
RIGHT PERSISTANCE
MEASUR
FRANCK- M ING
AMPLIFIER
HERTZ- JVC
PA
EXPERIME STORED
NT INTENSITY
- Retarding
TV
_
POWER
+ Voltage
Controller
COUN SLOPE TRIGGERING
TER-
ELECTROD +1.5V POSITION
VOLTS/DIV POSITION
VOLTS/DIV LEVEL
0
E
PERF
ANODORATED
Camera
E
CATHO A CH 1
DE 3 CH 1
Current
AC DC
Box
AC DC
5 POSITION
HOLD
1 TRIGGER DISPLAY TRIGGER DISPLAY MAG
OFF
X1
7 SOURCE SOURCE CH1 MODE
CH1 MODE
CH1 ALT CH2
CH1 ALT X10
CH2
POLARITY
POLARITY TIME/DIV
11 MODE ADD MODE ADD
Vb...70V- �S
Amplifier
9 CHOP CH2 CHOP
CH2 MS
CH2 CH2
Grid
POSITION POSITION
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
e-
S
Vh 6.3V CH 2 CH 2 EXT TRIG IN
AC
AC DC AC DC
+ Accelerating
DUAL TRACE AMPLIFIER 7A18A DUAL TRACE AMPLIFIER 7B50A TIME BASE
7A18A
Tektronix
FRANCK-H
Ub
ERTZ EXPE
+ RIMENT POWER
Uh SUPPLY
Voltage
Uh FILAMENT
VOLT ADJ
CURREN
-
T AMP
LIFIER
Scope
_ 10 -7 10 -8
10 -6 10 -9
+
Ub
50 MS
1 MS
ON FUSE 10 -10
500 MS AC
CURRENT
+ OFF (1V OUTP RANGE
UT)
RETAR RAMP
Fluke
DING
Heated U
VOLTAG
E
IN
OUT
CURRE Fluke 75 Multimeter Fluke 75 Multimeter
ZERO
Cathode h
AMPLI NT
pA
FIER Ub
ADJUS DC
Mercury
T
Fluke Meter #2
RETARDIN
VOLTAGE G
ADJUST OFF OFF
V V
Cathode
V V
300 MV 300 MV
Vapor
ON
Meter #1 Monitor
A A A A
Uh Ub
(Anode current)
OFF +
Supply
FUSE RETARD
MAIN
POW
ER _ 10A 10A
VOLT V V
AGE
MON
ITOR 300 mA 300 mA
COM COM
In 1914 Franck and Hertz showed that discrete energy levels existed in atoms. They established that the smallest energy that an electron
can impart to a mercury atom via an inelastic collision is 4.9 electron volts which is the amount of energy lost by a mercury atom when it
emits a photon in the 2537 Angstrom spectral line.
See Fig. 1.They constructed an evacuated tube with a 'heater' cathode, a 'grid', an anode, and a trace of mercury. Electrons are
'boiled' off the cathode and are accelerated towards the grid. They pass through the grid and are decelerated by a small retarding voltage
and hit the anode. (This small current is amplified and shown on a scope.) If the tube is heated, the mercury vaporizes. At low
acceleration voltages, electrons hit mercury atoms before they reach the grid, but the collisions are elastic; little kinetic energy is lost, and
these electrons reach the anode. Hence, the anode current seems to be proportional to the accelerating potential. However, at a certain
threshold voltage , the electrons collide inelastically with the mercury atoms, giving up all their kinetic energy, and they are unable to move
through the retarding voltage to get to the anode. At this point, the anode current drops. If the accelerating voltage is further increased, the
electrons reach the required threshold energy sooner as they travel from cathode to anode and they have time to have an inelastic
collision, lose their energy, then accelerate again, and have another inelastic collision. Thus, as the acceleration voltage increases, we
see a series of peaks and valleys in the anode current at regular spaced intervals of 4.9 volts.
Procedure: Set accelerating voltage (Ub) to zero. Set amp current range to 10-8 (or 10-9 ). Adjust rheostat so that oven stays about
180° C. (Box gets hot!) Adjust filament voltage (Uh) to 3 volts. Set retarding voltage to 1.15 volts. When oven temperature is greater than
150° C, initially set accelerating voltage (Ub) to 15 volts ( 1] set switch to 'DC', measure maximum Ub on Fluke Meter #1. 2] set switch to
'ramp'. Adjust ramp speed to minimize 60 cycle noise on scope.) Adjust amp so that zero input gives zero output (disconnect input cable
and turn 'zero adjust knob' and read output on Fluke Meter #2.) Now, set retarding voltage to 1.5 volts. Increase filament voltage (Uh) (no
higher than 6 volts!) to give a measureable amp output, but lower it if you see a blue glow around the cathode. Increase accelerating
voltage (Ub) to 25 volts . Adjust filament voltage very slowly until the output doesn't rise when filament voltage is increased. By this time,
you should see peaks and valleys on the scope trace. (See Physics 7C lab write-up!)
SPECIAL RELATIVITY F+60+0

Film : Relativistic Time Dilation Length(min.):12
Color: Yes Sound: Yes by Paul Hewett, 1976
An animated treatment of the concept of time dilation, using a flashing light sequence to show
the different rates of aging of twins in different frames of reference. On earth, one twin gets on a
rocket ship that travels away from the earth, then turns around and comes back. The clocks on
the earth show a longer time for the entire trip than the clocks aboard the rocket ship. The twin on
earth is older than the twin that took the rocket trip.
Electronic counter using Geiger tube. Thin Wire Electrode
Window Gas (Anode) Glass
+
Electronic Counter 9 0 1 9 0 1 9 0 1 9 0 1 9 0 1
8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 1000 1500
2000
-
(16x32x48 cm)
500
2500
7 3 7 3 7 3 7 3 7 3 0
VOLTS
6 5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4
POWER TEST COUN T HIGH
Metal Tube
VOLTAGE
RESET
THE ABACUS G-M SCALER model 123
(Cathode)
1000 V
- +
Fig. 1 To
Geiger-Mueller Geiger Counter Counter
Tube Schematic
A Geiger-Mueller tube for detecting atomic radiation is hooked to an old style electronic counter (using
neon tubes to display number of counts).
In principle, a Geiger-Mueller tube can be used to detect high energy photons such as � rays or for
counting individual charged particles such as � particles (helium nuclei) or � particles (high speed
electrons) or cosmic rays (high-speed particles: either an atomic nucleus or an electron from outer space).
(However, � particles usually don't make it through the glass, and only 1 in 100 � rays are detected.)
See Fig.1. The tube is made of thin glass that is filled with a low density mixture of gases. Inside is an
open cylinder about 1 cm in diameter and 10 cm long made of copper. A tungsten wire runs down the
center. A potential difference of about 1000 volts is applied, the positive to the center wire, and the
negative to the cylinder. A high-speed particle from a radioactive source or a cosmic ray can enter the
tube, creating ions by knocking electrons off gas molecules. The freed electrons are attracted to the
positive wire, accelerated by the 1000 volts to a high enough velocity to knock electrons off other gas
molecules. This 'avalanche' of electrons flowing to the central wire is a current pulse that can be amplified
and counted by electronic circuitry.
Operation: turn up the voltage slowly until the counter starts counting. Don't raise the high voltage
more than 150 volts above where the counting begins. Don't exceed 1000 volts on the tube.
Geiger counter.
Geiger-Mueller
Tube
Large 500 1000
Classmaster
Geiger Nuclear-Chicago 0 1500

MODEL 1613A
Counter COUNTS
Hand-held
(25x28x34 cm) Geiger
5
MR 4
3
/HR
2
VOLTS COUNTS/MINUTE
0 1
X1
Counter
X0.
VOLUME HIGH VOLTAGE x10

F
x1 x1
ON
M
F
U
OF
RE
A
DL
U
HV
D
LU
(8x8x18 cm)
ON
OFF
Geiger-Mueller
Tube
Both of these devices are Geiger Counters, using Geiger-Mueller tubes as detectors for emissions
from radioactive materials. Both devices have the option of making audible clicking sounds when radiation
is detected. Both have meters to indicate 'count rate'. The large heavy older unit, the 'Classmaster', is
tube technology, suitable for stationary class demonstrations. The newer light hand-held battery-operated
Ludlum Survey Meter is easily portable and sensitive, and the meter reads in millirem/hour.
See F+65+0 for a brief description of how a Geiger-Mueller tube operates.
Classmaster: Turn High Voltage control to 'Off' before plugging in the device. 'Volume' switch should be
on maximum. Selector switch should be set to 'Volts' and the high-voltage knob should be adjusted to
about 700 volts. Place a radioactive source near the Geiger-Mueller tube. Turn up the voltage slowly until
the counter starts counting. Don't raise the high voltage more than 150 volts above where the counting
begins. Don't exceed 1000 volts on the tube. See manual for further info.
Ludlum Survey Meter: Has 3 linear ranges that vary from 0-50 MR/HR. Uses two standard 'D' cells.
There is a battery test switch. The speaker can be switched on or off. The meter can be set to fast (full
scale 3 sec) or slow response (full scale 11 sec). The unit has an power supply adjustable from 0 to 1600
volts, if different G-M or scintillator tubes are desired.
Mechanical model of radioactive decay.
Fig.1
T.V.
Camera Stable Unstable
Monitor
Nuclues Nuclues
Overhead
Variac View
Model of
Radioactive
Decay
46x46x8 cm 120 V.A.C.
This demo is a mechanical model of a nucleus for demonstrating a) the increased kinetic energy of
nuclear particles after a capture, and b) the chance probability of radioactive decay or disintegration by
the ejection of a particle. There is a somewhat flattened potential barrier surrounding a 'nucleus' of steel
balls that are constantly agitated by an rotating eccentric pin. A steel ball rolls down a ramp and moves
into the group of moving balls. After a number of collisions another ball usually is knocked out the other
side of the nucleus. This is analogous to a proton going in and a neutron coming out. Even if no particle is
ejected immediately, the kinetic energy of the set of balls is increased somewhat, increasing the likelihood
of the emission of a particle. If the motor is left running, a single ball will be hit by several balls moving in
the same direction and will recoil with enough speed to carry it over the potential barrier. Note: start with
Variac set at 105 volts and 15-25 balls set in the 'nucleus'. (Also see F+20+5.)
Fig. 1 represents graphical models of the nucleus proposed by Gamow. To an approaching positive
charge, the potential barrier of a nucleus is analogous to the crater of a volcano. In the stable nucleus, the
particles are moving slowly at the bottom of the volcano pit. When a proton or � particle penetrates the
potential barrier and accelerates toward the nucleus with considerable speed, it collides with other
particles and increases the rapid state of motion. One of the other particles may be hit hard enough to
escape up and over the barrier, which is analogous to disintegration and radioactivity.

ACCELERATORS. F+70+0
Cycle 1
Large mechanical model of the cyclotron.
Switch
Cycle 2 Steel Balls Fig.1
Mechanical
Model of the Magnet
Coil Exit
Cyclotron Vacuum
(82x82x93 cm) B V
S
D1 D2
D1 D2 A
W
N
Cyclotron Top View Beam
Cross-section Fig. 2 of 'Dees'
The mechanical model of a cyclotron mimics the way a simple cyclotron works. See Fig.1. The top consists
of three aluminum parts: two 'D' shaped semi-circles that pivot on either side of a rectangular piece. A
machined groove starts in the center and spirals out. When the machine operates, there are two cycles. In
cycle 1, a steel ball pops up in the center, the left D lowers down while the right D raises up, the rectangular
piece tilts, and the ball rolls down the groove in the rectangle and around the beginning of the spiral. In
cycle 2, the left D raises up, the right D lowers down and the rectangular piece tilts in the opposite
direction, sending the ball down the groove in the rectangle, increasing its speed for the next part of the
spiral. Then everything repeats. The raising and lowering of the Ds is timed to match the motion of the balls
so that they speed up in the spiral and end up in the 'exit' hole. The force speeding up the balls is gravity.
See Fig.2. The cyclotron designed by Lawrence in 1930 used a magnetic field B perpendicular to two D
shaped evacuated cavities ('Dees') to insure that charged particles traveled in nearly circular orbits. A
voltage is placed across a gap between the Dees. Charged particles such as protons are introduced at A.
This device operates in two cycles. In cycle 1, D1 is charged positively and D2 is charged negatively, and
the protons are accelerated towards D2, spiraling clockwise in the magnetic field. In cycle 2, D1 is charged
negatively and D2 is charged positively, and the protons are accelerated again, moving into a spiral of
increasing radius. Then everything repeats. The alternating voltage on the gap is timed to match the motion
of the particles in the magnetic field, raising the particles to a high velocity to exit at W.
RADIOACTIVITY F+65+20
Film Loop: Radioactivity Length(min.):4:00
Color: No Sound: No
Matter is radioactive when it emits radiation. There are three kinds of radiation that are easily detected and are
the object of this Film-Loop. They are invisible to the unaided eye, but they are detectable with a variety of instru-
ments including geiger counters, proportional counters, electroscopes, and photographic film. Each kind of radiation
- alpha, beta and gamma - has unique physical properties. When you have learned to recognize these properties it
is relatively easy to detect and to identify the radiation even when two or three kinds are present at once.
All three kinds of radiation ionize the molecules of matter along their paths. The detection device used, called
a “probe”, is simply a gas-filled chamber in which molecules of a gas are ionized by radiation. The ionized gas con-
ducts an electric current which is measured by the meter to which the probe is connected; the greater the degree
of ionization the greater the current reading. Full-scale deflection reads 1500.
When no radioactive source is held in front of the probe the meter does not go to zero; it only falls to 100.
Some radiation is still being detected. Cosmic rays and very tiny amounts of radioactivity in the surroundings, far
too little to be a health hazard, are being detected constantly by this sensitive instrument. Such constant radiation
is called “background” and must be subtracted from the meter reading before you compare one meter reading with
another. Since we are only interested in comparing readings with one another, the actual units on the meter scale
are not important.
The alpha source emits a stream of particles that Rutherford showed to consist of the nuclei of helium atoms.
Notice that the source has to be held close to the probe since the range of alpha particles in air is only a few cen-
timeters. (Q1) What subatomic particles are helium nuclei made of? (Q2) From what you have seen do you think
alpha particles will penetrate through your skin? Why do you think so?
The beta source emits a stream of electrons. (Q3) How does the penetrating power of beta particles (electrons)
compare with that of alpha particles? (Q4) Can beta particles penetrate the roll of lead sheet? Why do you think
so? (Q5) How does a magnetic field affect the path of beta particles? Support your answer with evidence from the
film.
Gamma radiation is a stream of electromagnetic waves. It is light of a short wavelength. As a wave it has prop-
erties that are quite different from those of alpha and beta particles. (Q6) Name one distinctive property of gamma
radiation illustrated in the film.
Neither alpha nor gamma rays are shown being bent by a magnet. (Q7) Why? From the properties of the three
kinds of radiation illustrated here you should now be able to identify the unknown radiation being detected at the
very end of the film. (Q8) What is it?
RADIOACTIVITY F+65+25
Film Loop: Radioactive Decay Length(min.):4:55
Color: No Sound: No
1. Assembly of scintillation detector. A 2-inch diameter NaI (T1) crystal mounted on a photomultiplier tube
is placed in a cylindrical steel shield which has an aluminum window. The window absorbs beta particles, but
allows gamma ray photons to penetrate to the crystal.
2. Samples of Cu64 and Mn56 are placed in position. The sources have been prepared by irradiating
17 mg of MnO and 130 mg of Cu metal for 30 minutes in the Ohio State University reactor at an indicated
power of 20 watts. The reactions are Mn55 + n = Mn56 and Cu63 + n = Cu64. 60% of the disintegrations of Mn56
are by beta emission of maximum energy 2.86 MeV, followed by a gamma-ray photon of 0.845 MeV as the
Fe56 nucleus falls to its ground state. The other 6 gamma rays from the decay of Mn56 have energies greater
than 1 MeV and do not appear on the screen of the analyzer. The nuclide Cu64 can decay to Ni64 in several
ways. 19% of the time the mass difference 1.68 MeV gives rise to a positron. When the positrons combine
with electrons in the scintillation crystal, they form two photons of annihilation radiation, each having energy
0.51 MeV (equal to the rest energy of an electron).
3. Gamma ray spectra are displayed. Considering both sources together, only two gamma rays are in the
range 0-1 MeV selected by the spectrometer. The strength of the samples is adjusted so that at the begin-
ning of the run (3 hours after the end of irradiation) the composite spectrum shows two peaks of equal height.
Because the Cu64 annihilation gamma ray is superposed on the Compton edge from the Mn56 peak, its initial
strength at t = 0 is 0.75 unit, and the initial strength of the Mn56 sample is 1.0 unit.
4. Radioactive decay of Cu64 (half life 12.84 hr) and Mn56 (half life 2.56 hr). Time-lapse photography of
the 400-channel analyzer display is performed as follows: (1) Counts are accumulated and displayed after
20 sec of “live time”; this requires more than 20 sec of real time because the “dead time” during the sorting
and storing operations in the spectrometer is automatically ignored. (2) The display of 20 seconds-worth of
counts is photographed twice, on two successive frames of film. (3) The storage registers are erased, and
exactly 40 sec after the start of (1) a new accumulation is initiated and photographed on the next two frames.
This process is continued for 12.84 hours, exposing at the rate of 2 frames per 40 sec. When projected at 18
frames/sec, the half life of Cu64 is compressed by a factor of 360, and 12.84 hr becomes 2.09 minutes.
5. Elapsed time 12.84 hr. Cu64 (1 half life): 1/2 X 0.75 = 0.38; Mn56 (5 half lives): 1/32 X 1.00 = 0.03. It
happens that the half life of Cu64 is almost exactly 5 times that of Mn56. In 5 half lives, Mn56 decays to 1/32 of
its initial value. The Cu64 in this same time has decayed to 1/2 of its initial value.
ACCELERATORS. F+70+0
Cycle 1
Large mechanical model of the cyclotron.
Switch
Cycle 2 Steel Balls Fig.1
Mechanical
Model of the Magnet
Coil Exit
Cyclotron Vacuum
(82x82x93 cm) B V
S
D1 D2
D1 D2 A
W
N
Cyclotron Top View Beam
Cross-section Fig. 2 of 'Dees'
The mechanical model of a cyclotron mimics the way a simple cyclotron works. See Fig.1. The top consists
of three aluminum parts: two 'D' shaped semi-circles that pivot on either side of a rectangular piece. A
machined groove starts in the center and spirals out. When the machine operates, there are two cycles. In
cycle 1, a steel ball pops up in the center, the left D lowers down while the right D raises up, the rectangular
piece tilts, and the ball rolls down the groove in the rectangle and around the beginning of the spiral. In
cycle 2, the left D raises up, the right D lowers down and the rectangular piece tilts in the opposite
direction, sending the ball down the groove in the rectangle, increasing its speed for the next part of the
spiral. Then everything repeats. The raising and lowering of the Ds is timed to match the motion of the balls
so that they speed up in the spiral and end up in the 'exit' hole. The force speeding up the balls is gravity.
See Fig.2. The cyclotron designed by Lawrence in 1930 used a magnetic field B perpendicular to two D
shaped evacuated cavities ('Dees') to insure that charged particles traveled in nearly circular orbits. A
voltage is placed across a gap between the Dees. Charged particles such as protons are introduced at A.
This device operates in two cycles. In cycle 1, D1 is charged positively and D2 is charged negatively, and
the protons are accelerated towards D2, spiraling clockwise in the magnetic field. In cycle 2, D1 is charged
negatively and D2 is charged positively, and the protons are accelerated again, moving into a spiral of
increasing radius. Then everything repeats. The alternating voltage on the gap is timed to match the motion
of the particles in the magnetic field, raising the particles to a high velocity to exit at W.

FISSION AND FUSION. F+80+0
U235
Mousetrap chain reaction experiment. Fission Fig.1
Product
n
Cork Switch Corks

Solenoid
1
Mousetrap
Fig.2
START
Mousetrap Chain Reaction Demo (50x60x115 cm) 2
See Fig.1. When a uranium 235 atom (or plutonium 239 atom) is hit by a neutron, it can absorb the neutron; then the
whole nucleus can split or fission into roughly two equal pieces and in the process two or three neutrons can be
released. If the uranium 235 metal is sufficiently purified, the two or three neutrons released can go on to cause
additional fissions, so the process multiplies into what can be a self-sustaining chain reaction. The mousetrap chain
reaction demonstration mimics with corks what happens in a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. A single cork
dropped onto an assembly of cocked mousetraps loaded with corks starts a chain reaction that is over in a 6-7
seconds. This demo is now 'electronic'. It can be set up quickly ahead of time, without fear that the chain reaction will
accidentally go off .
See Fig.2. There are 49 modified mousetraps mounted to a board. (The trigger wire and catch of each mousetrap
have been removed.) Each mousetrap is manually cocked with the metal striking piece held in place by the flange on a
steel rod that fits into an electric solenoid. Two rubber corks are set on top of the striking piece of each mousetrap, and
a Plexiglas cover with a cork-sized hole in the center of the top is lowered over the assembly. Each mousetrap has an
associated 'touch-switch' that becomes sensitive when the assembly is turned on. If a switch is touched, the rod in the
solenoid retracts, and the mousetrap fires, launching two corks. A cork dropped through the hole in the Plexiglas
triggers one mousetrap which launches two corks which hit two other switches which launch four corks and so
on...Procedure: Set the traps with the corks. Plug the mousetrap demo into a 120 VAC outlet. Push the 'Start' button.
You now have 2 minutes to drop a cork through a hole in the Plexiglas cover to complete the chain reaction.
FISSION AND FUSION. F+80+5
Control
Model of the Uranium Pile. Rods
Carbon
Blocks
Model of
Uranium Pile
(40x52x52 cm)
Neutron Uranium
Counter Containers
Water Samples
Cooling to be
Pipe Irradiated
This model is a representation of a simple nuclear reactor, formally called an atomic pile. The first one
was built at University of Chicago in 1942. The cubes represent carbon blocks (cement casing not
shown). The movable rods on the top are 'control' rods. The rods on the front represent mainly uranium
fuel containers, but also samples to be irradiated, detecting devices and water-cooling pipes.
The model represents an apparatus where nuclear fission can be maintained (and hopefully
controlled) in a self-sustaining chain reaction. In other words, the rate of neutron production is at least
equal to the rate of neutron disappearance. Uranium is the fuel that captures neutrons and then fissions,
creating in the process heat, more neutrons, and radioactive isotopes. Carbon blocks, called
'moderators', are used to slow down 'fast' neutrons. Fast neutrons collide with carbon atoms and lose
energy, becoming 'thermal' neutrons which are more easily captured by uranium atoms. The control
rods are strong neutron absorbers, containing substances like boron or cadmium. They are raised or
lowered to control reaction intensity.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY. F+85+0
Meissner effect: Magnet levitates over cooled ceramic superconductor.
A black superconductor ceramic disk is placed in a
shallow styrofoam dish. A small but strong neodymium T.V. Monitor
magnet is set on top of the disk. Liquid nitrogen is then
poured into the dish. The disk is placed so that its top is
flush with the surface of the liquid. When the disk is
sufficiently cool, the magnet lifts up several millimeters
above the superconductor surface due to the Meissner
effect. Touching the magnet lightly with the plastic tongs
will set the magnet spinning in place.
NOTE: For other
applications, see
accompanying
manual.
Plastic Magnet levitating over

Tongs Liquid liquid-nitrogen-cooled Small
Nitrogen ceramic superconductor Monitor
Dewar
YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 Styrofoam
ON/OFF
Ceramic dish
Superconductor Neodymium
Disk Magnet Lab Small Power
Jack IR TV Supply
Camera
120
V.A.C.
Ref.: Experiments in Modern Physics, A.C. Melissinos, 1966, p. 309-339
ZEEMAN EFFECT F+90+0
A magnetic field applied to a cadmium tube splits the spectral lines.
Cadmium 20 cm
Power Supply
Lamp 220 V.A.C. Monitor
Showing
29 cm 120 Split
TV Camera
Etrans
VAC Lines
Electro-
magnet
JVC
8 cm
24 cm
A.C.-D.C. VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY
LO HI
VOLTAGE
Lens
f.l. 4.5" Polaroid Green
D.C. A.C.
OUTPUT
D.C./A.C.
CREASE
ON IN
OFF
Filter Fabry-Perot
Power
6.3V. 4A
Interferometer
0-22 V.D.C. 0-22 V.A.C. 0-350 V.D.C.
4. 4A 200 MA
- + Com + - +
Supply using
-
No Mag. Field
WELCH SCIENTIFIC CO.
0-22 VDC Mag. Field Applied

Electron transitions between different energy levels in atoms or molecules produce light. When a cadmium
lamp is turned on, a characteristic set of spectral lines is produced. If a magnetic field is applied to the
lamp, the energy levels are split, and electron transitions between split energy levels cause a splitting of
spectral lines. In this demonstration, the green spectral line is observed splitting in the presence of a
magnetic field of up to 10,000 gauss. Looking through a Fabry-Perot interferometer, one sees a single set
of green concentric rings that splits into twice as many rings when the magnetic field is gradually applied.
In this set-up, the lens is used only to increase the visible brightness of the rings. The green filter
selects only the green line from the cadmium spectra. The Polaroid (polarization vector set to vertical)
eliminates the � spectral lines which do not split, and leaves the � spectral lines which do split. The FP
interferometer is used because an ordinary spectrometer does not have enough resolution to show the
lines splitting. The TV camera (JVC) must be set to focus at � to clearly show the rings.
Notes: To align the FP interferometer, look through the FP (eyes focused at �) at a sodium lamp.
Adjust the rings so that they are circular and centered in the device. The center of all the optical
components should be at the same height as the center of the tips of the pole pieces of the electromagnet.
For more physics information, review our copy of the Zeeman video by Dr. Sumner Davis.

LASER. F+95+0
Working He-Ne laser displayed in a clear Plexiglas mounting.
Laser in Plexiglas Case Partially
Silvered
Mirror
Mirror
Fig.1
Collision
Helium Neon
E1 E 3' (metastable)
1.96 eV E 2'
20.61 eV 20.66 eV
Power
Supply 120 VAC
E0 E 0' Fig.2
An older model laser tube is mounted inside a clear Plexiglas case. When the power is turned on, one
can see the glowing tube in operation. Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
This he-ne laser is a tube 35 cm in length filled with 15% helium and 85% neon. A high voltage is
placed across the tube so that more of the gas atoms are excited into a 'metastable' higher-energy state
than are atoms in a lower energy state. See Fig.1. An atom can spontaneously jump to a lower state,
emitting a photon. The photon can then hit another excited atom which will drop to a lower state, emitting
another photon, until the number of photons multiplies in a process called 'stimulated emission'. These
photons are all in phase, the same frequency, and moving in the same direction. The ends of the tube are
mirrors, one of which is partially transparent (about 2 percent.) The photons bounce back and forth
between the tube ends, with some of the light escaping through the partially transparent mirror in a
narrow coherent beam. (Some light does escape from the sides of the tube also.)
See Fig.2. When voltage is applied to the tube, many of the helium atoms are excited to the
long-lasting metastable energy state E1, a jump of 20.61 eV. An excited helium atom will stay in this state
for awhile and collide with a neon atom. In the collision, the helium atom transfers its energy to the neon
atom, knocking the neon atom into an excited metastable state of 20.66 eV, labeled E'3. The He atom
then drops to the ground state. Stimulated emission takes place with atoms of neon going from the E'3
state to the E'2 state. The strongest visible line produced is red, 6328 Angstroms.
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL CAR. F+100+0
Fuel Cell car runs off hydrogen and oxygen. For more complete information, see articles
Fig.1 HyRunner Fig.2 = electron

= hydrogen ion (proton)
Electrolysis Electrolyzer
= oxygen
PEM Fuel Cell
Car Jacks Sequence
- +
Sequence
Hydrogen Reversible 2 V.D.C. Motor
tank fuel cell hydrogen oxygen hydrogen oxygen
Oxygen Inlet
tank
electron flow
electron flow
electron flow
electron flow
Socket
catalyst
catalyst
catalyst
catalyst
hydrogen hydrogen
A ions ions
- water water
B
+ hydrogen PEM oxygen hydrogen PEM oxygen
- electrode Exchange electrode
(anode) Membrane (cathode)
electrode Exchange electrode
O2
(anode) Membrane (cathode)
+
Power Supply Distilled Anode Reactions: 4H + 4e-=> 2H 2

+
+
Cathode Reactions: 2H 2O => O2 + 4H + 4e-
Anode Reactions: 2H 2 => 4H++ 4e -
+
Cathode Reactions: O 2+ 4H + 4e -=> 2H2 O
(1.6-2V.D.C.) Water Overall Cell Reaction: 2H 2O => 2H 2 + O 2 Overall Cell Reaction: 2H + O 2 => 2H 2 O
2
The HyRunner car is a reversible PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell car. When the car is filled with distilled water,
an external D.C. power supply electrolyzes the water into hydrogen and oxygen (in 2 minutes), stored in separate tanks on
the car. After electrolysis is complete, a switch on the car is turned on and the hydrogen and oxygen mix in the fuel cell to
supply electrical power to a small electric motor, driving the car. The car moves about 2 inches a second, and will run for 8
minutes. Note: There is a danger of explosion in the presence of sparks or flames. The manual advises using goggles…
Operating Instructions: See Fig.1. The car has 2 Plexiglas tanks that are filled with distilled water. On the oxygen tank
side of the car, uncap the black rubber Inlet Socket cap, and attach the distilled water bottle. Fill the cylinder up to mark A;
then suck back some of the water until it reaches mark B; then put the rubber cap back on. Now, do the same for the
hydrogen tank side. When the tanks are filled and the car electrical switch is OFF, plug the D.C. power supply plugs into
the Electrolysis Jacks (red into red, black into black). In 2 minutes, the Hydrogen tank will be full, and the Oxygen tank will
be half full. Unplug the power supply. The car will run when the switch is moved to ON.
See Fig.2. The fuel cell consists of several parts: an anode, a thin sheet of catalyst, a PEM (proton exchange
membrane), another sheet of catalyst, and a cathode. The hydrogen anode, or negative terminal, conducts electrons
liberated from the hydrogen, and also has channels that disperse the hydrogen over the surface of the catalyst. The
catalyst is platinum powder thinly coated onto cloth or carbon paper. The PEM is a thin, semi-porous polymer sheet
somewhat like plastic wrap that only allows the transfer of small hydrogen ions, and blocks electrons. The oxygen cathode,
or negative terminal, conducts electrons, and has channels that disperse oxygen over the surface of the catalyst. Fig.2
shows both the Electrolyzer Sequence (water is converted into hydrogen and oxygen) and the Fuel Cell Sequence (oxygen
and hydrogen combine, liberating electrical power that drives the car).

Notebook F - Modern Physics

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Notebook 'F':

Crooke's Tube Cloud

Radioactive Decay Model

Intensity Focus Vert. Horiz. AC On

Cathode and Canal Rays Popularity Rating

Quantum Mechanical Barrier Penetration

Range of Alpha Particles

Fission and Fusion

16mm Film List

Super 8mm Film Loops

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 624-627

Metal Cross Shadow

CATHODE AND CANAL RAYS. F+0+15

D.C. OUTPUT D.C. OUTPUT Gnd

Bear with Cu Wire Skeleton

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 768

D.C. Power Supply

(For Clearing Field)

Lead Plastic Windows

Focus Vert. Horiz. AC On Fig.2

ELECTRON DIFFRACTION F+10+5

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 650-652

Battery Projection Colored

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT. F+15+15

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 600-601

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT. F+15+35

He-Ne Laser Hooded

Tube With A Light

MODE MAG MODE

Output Black Cloth Covers Light

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 663

ATOMIC STRUCTURE F+20+10

There are many similarities between a pendulum

Steel Ball Diameters: 3/8,1/2,5/8,3/4,7/8,1"

Ref.:Modern College Physics by Harvey White, 6th ed., p. 664-683

ATOMIC STRUCTURE. F+20+30

1 Periodic Table of the 2

that have the same number of neutrons, lie on a 45°

line rising to the left. Isobars, nuclides that have the

have different masses. These different forms, called

isotopes, are due to different numbers of neutrons in

the nucleus. Some of these isotopes are stable, but

some of them are unstable and decay into other

specified by the term 'half-life'.

There are three types of radioactive decay: �

decay (emits a helium nucleus), � decay (1] emits an

electron and antineutrino, or 2] emits a positron and

neutrino, or 3] captures a K orbital electron and emits

a neutrino), and � decay (emits a high energy

angular momentum, electric charge, and nucleon

number: (number of nucleons A = number of

neutrons plus protons = constant, even though

neutrons can change into protons and vice versus.)

1] A particle is scattered from a square potential well.

2} A particle is scattered from a square potential barrier.

CENCO 3 CM (X-BAND) MICROWAVE

KLYSTRON INTERNAL EXT.

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES. F+35+0

muon xxx charm xxx

muon xxx -1 strange xxx -1/3

PROPERTIES OF THE INTERACTIONS Sample Bosonic Hadrons

CLOUD CHAMBERS. F+45+5

Slide Projector Cloud -

Light Source Chamber