Geometry Book

Geomet r y
Mat hemat i c s
Cur r i c ul um Fr amew or k

Revi sed 2004
Amended 2006

Course Title: Geometry
Course/Unit Credit: 1
Course Number:
Teacher Licensure: Secondary Mathematics
Grades: 9-12

Geometry

This course will help students develop communication skills, enhance reasoning, and make connections within mathematics to other disciplines
and the real world. Students will use physical models and appropriate technology to investigate geometric concepts in problem solving situations.
In this course, students are engaged in problematic situations in which they form conjectures, determine the validity of these conjectures, and
defend their conclusions to classmates.

Strand Standard
Language of Geometry
1. Students will develop the language of geometry including specialized vocabulary, reasoning, and application of
theorems, properties, and postulates.
Triangles
2. Students will identify and describe types of triangles and their special segments. They will use logic to apply the
properties of congruence, similarity, and inequalities. The students will apply the Pythagorean Theorem and
trigonometric ratios to solve problems in real world situations.
Measurement
3. Students will measure and compare, while using appropriate formulas, tools, and technology to solve problems
dealing with length, perimeter, area and volume.
Relationships between
two- and three-
dimensions

4. Students will analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships.
Coordinate Geometry
and Transformations

5. Students will specify locations, apply transformations and describe relationships using coordinate geometry.

* denotes amended changes to the framework
Geometry
Mathematics Curriculum Framework Revision 2004 Amended 2006
Arkansas Department of Education

Language of Geometry

Content Standard 1. Students will develop the language of geometry including specialized vocabulary, reasoning, and application
of theorems, properties, and postulates.

LG.1.G.1 Define, compare and contrast inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning for making predictions based on real world
situations
venn diagrams
matrix logic
conditional statements (statement, inverse, converse, and contrapositive)
*figural patterns

LG.1.G.2 Represent points, lines, and planes pictorially with proper identification, as well as basic concepts derived from these
undefined terms, such as segments, rays, and angles

LG.1.G.3 Describe relationships derived from geometric figures or figural patterns

LG.1.G.4 Apply, with and without appropriate technology, definitions, theorems, properties, and postulates related to such topics
as complementary, supplementary, vertical angles, linear pairs, and angles formed by perpendicular lines

LG.1.G.5 Explore, with and without appropriate technology, the relationship between angles formed by two lines cut by a
transversal to justify when lines are parallel

LG.1.G.6 Give justification for conclusions reached by deductive reasoning
*State and prove key basic theorems in geometry (i.e., the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the measures of the angles
of a triangle is 180, and the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half its
length
2
Geometry: Language of Geometry

Key: LG.1.G.1 = Language of Geometry. Standard 1. Geometry. 1st Student Learning Expectation

Triangles

Content Standard 2. Students will identify and describe types of triangles and their special segments. They will use logic to apply the
properties of congruence, similarity, and inequalities. The students will apply the Pythagorean Theorem and
trigonometric ratios to solve problems in real world situations.

T.2.G.1 Apply congruence (SSS ) and similarity (AA ...) correspondences and properties of figures to find missing parts of
geometric figures and provide logical justification

T.2.G.2 Investigate the measures of segments to determine the existence of triangles (triangle inequality theorem)

T.2.G.3 Identify and use the special segments of triangles (altitude, median, angle bisector, perpendicular bisector, and
midsegment) to solve problems

T.2.G.4 Apply the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse in solving practical problems

T.2.G.5 Use the special right triangle relationships (30-60-90 and 45-45-90) to solve problems

T.2.G.6 Use trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, tangent) to determine lengths of sides and measures of angles in right triangles
including angles of elevation and angles of depression

T.2.G.7 *Use similarity of right triangles to express the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle in a right triangle as a ratio of given
lengths of sides
3
Geometry: Triangles

Key: T.2.G.1 = Triangles. Standard 2. Geometry. 1st Student Learning Expectation

Measurement

Content Standard 3. Students will measure and compare, while using appropriate formulas, tools, and technology to solve problems
dealing with length, perimeter, area and volume.

M.3.G.1 Calculate probabilities arising in geometric contexts (Ex. Find the probability of hitting a particular ring on a dartboard.)

M.3.G.2 Apply, using appropriate units, appropriate formulas (area, perimeter, surface area, volume) to solve application
problems involving polygons, prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders, spheres as well as composite figures, expressing
solutions in both exact and approximate forms

M.3.G.3 Relate changes in the measurement of one attribute of an object to changes in other attributes (Ex. How does changing
the radius or height of a cylinder affect its surface area or volume?)

M.3.G.4 Use (given similar geometric objects) proportional reasoning to solve practical problems (including scale drawings)

M.3.G.5 *Identify and apply properties of and theorems about parallel and perpendicular lines to prove other theorems and
perform basic Euclidean constructions

4
Geometry: Measurement

Key: M.3.G.1 = Measurement. Standard 3. Geometry. 1st Student Learning Expectation

Relationships between two- and three- dimensions

Content Standard 4. Students will analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop
mathematical arguments about geometric relationships.

R.4.G.1 Explore and verify the properties of quadrilaterals

R.4.G.2 Solve problems using properties of polygons:
sum of the measures of the interior angles of a polygon
interior and exterior angle measure of a regular polygon or irregular polygon
number of sides or angles of a polygon

R.4.G.3 Identify and explain why figures tessellate

R.4.G.4 Identify the attributes of the five Platonic Solids

R.4.G.5 Investigate and use the properties of angles (central and inscribed) arcs, chords, tangents, and secants to solve
problems involving circles

R.4.G.6 Solve problems using inscribed and circumscribed figures

R.4.G.7 Use orthographic drawings ( top, front, side) and isometric drawings (corner) to represent three-dimensional objects

R.4.G.8 Draw, examine, and classify cross-sections of three-dimensional objects

R.4.G.9 *Explore non-Euclidean geometries, such as spherical geometry and identify its unique properties which result from a
change in the parallel postulate

5
Geometry: Relationships between two- and three- dimensions

Key: R.4.G.1 = Relationships between two- and three- dimensions. Standard 4. Geometry. 1st Student Learning Expectation

Coordinate Geometry and Transformations

Content Standard 5. Students will specify locations, apply transformations and describe relationships using coordinate geometry.

CGT.5.G.1 Use coordinate geometry to find the distance between two points, the midpoint of a segment, and the slopes of parallel,
perpendicular, horizontal, and vertical lines

CGT.5.G.2 *Write the equation of a line parallel to a line through a given point not on the line
CGT.5.G.3 *Write the equation of a line perpendicular to a line through a given point
CGT.5.G.4 *Write the equation of the perpendicular bisector of a line segment
CGT.5.G.5 Determine, given a set of points, the type of figure based on its properties (parallelogram, isosceles triangle, trapezoid)

CGT.5.G.6 Write, in standard form, the equation of a circle given a graph on a coordinate plane or the center and radius of a circle

CGT.5.G.7 Draw and interpret the results of transformations and successive transformations on figures in the coordinate plane
translations
reflections
rotations (90, 180, clockwise and counterclockwise about the origin)
dilations (scale factor)

6
Geometry: Coordinate Geometry and Transformations

Key: CGT.5.G.1 = Coordinate Geometry and Transformations. Standard 5. Geometry. 1st Student Learning Expectation

GEOMETRY Glossary

Adjacent angles
Two coplanar angles that share a vertex and a side but do not overlap
Alternate interior angles

Two angles that lie on opposite sides of a transversal between two lines that the transversal intersects

Altitude of a triangle
A perpendicular segment from a vertex of a triangle to the line that contains the opposite side
Angle
Two non-collinear rays having the same vertex
Angle of depression

When a point is viewed from a higher point, the angle that the persons line of sight makes with the horizontal

Angle of elevation

When a point is viewed from a lower point, the angle that the persons line of sight makes with the horizontal

7
Geometry Glossary

Apothem The distance from the center of a regular polygon to a side

Arc
An unbroken part of a circle
Area
The number of square units needed to cover a two-dimensional space.
Attributes
A quality, property, or characteristic that describes an item or a person (Ex. color, size, etc.)
Biconditional

A statement that contains the words if and only if (This single statement is equivalent to writing both
if p, then q and its converse if q then p.)
Bisector
A segment, ray or line that divides into two congruent parts
Center of a circle
The point equal distance from all points on the circle
Central angle

An angle whose vertex is the center of a circle (Its measure is equal to the measure of its intercepted arc.)

8
Geometry Glossary

Centroid The centroid of the triangle is the point of congruency of the medians of the triangle.

Chords
A segment whose endpoints lie on the circle
Circle The set of all points in a plane that are an equal distance (radius) from a given point (the center) which is also in the
plane
Circumcenter A circumcenter is the point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle.

Circumference
The distance around a circle
Circumscribed

A circle is circumscribed about a polygon when each vertex of the polygon lies on the circle.
(The polygon is I inscribed in the circle.)

Collinear points
Points that lie on the same line
Complementary angles
Two angles whose measures add up to 90 degrees
Concentric circles
Concentric circles lie in the same plane and have the same center
9
Geometry Glossary

Conditional statements

A statement that can be written in the form if p, then q
(Statement p is the hypothesis and statement q is the conclusion.)
Cone

A three dimensional figure with one circle base and a vertex

Congruent
Having the same measure for angles and segments. Having the same measure and shape for shapes
Conjecture
Something believed to be true but not yet proven (an educated guess)
Consecutive angles

In a polygon, two angles that share a side

Consecutive sides
In a polygon, two sides that share a vertex
Contrapositive
The contrapositive of a conditional statement (if p, then q is the statement if not q, then not p)
Converse

The converse of the conditional statement interchanges the hypothesis and conclusion
(if p, then q, becomes if q, then p)
Convex polygon
A polygon in which no segment that connects two vertices can be drawn outside the polygon
Coordinate geometry
Geometry based on the coordinate system
10
Geometry Glossary

Coordinate plane
A grid formed by two axes that intersect at the origin (The axes divide the plane into 4 equal quadrants.)
Coplanar points
Points that lie in the same plane
Corollary
A corollary of a theorem is a statement that can easily be proven by using the theorem.
Corresponding parts

A side (or angle) of a polygon that is matched up with a side (or angle) of a congruent or similar polygon

Cosine
In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the leg adjacent to the angle to the length of the hypotenuse
Cross-section
A cross-section is the intersection of a solid and a plane.
Cylinder

A three-dimensional figure whose bases are circles of the same size

Deductive reasoning

Using facts, definitions, and accepted properties in a logical order to reach a conclusion or to show that a conjecture
is true
Dilations
Transformations producing similar but not necessarily congruent figures
11
Geometry Glossary

Exterior angle of a polygon

An angle formed when one side of the polygon is extended
(The angle is adjacent to an interior angle of the polygon.)

Geometric mean
If a, b, and x are positive numbers, and a/x = x/b, then x is the geometric mean of a and b.
Incenter The incenter of a triangle is the point of congruency of the angle bisectors of the triangle.

Inductive reasoning
A type of reasoning in which a prediction or conclusion is based on an observed pattern
Inscribed angle

An angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose sides are chords of the circle

12
Geometry Glossary

Inscribed circle A circle is inscribed in a polygon if the sides of the polygon are tangent to the circle.

Inscribed polygon A polygon is inscribed in a circle if the vertices of the polygon are on the circle.

Interior angles of a polygon
The inside angle of a polygon formed by two adjacent sides
Inverse statement
The inverse of the conditional statement (if p, then q is the statement if not p, then not q)
Irregular polygon
A polygon with at least two non-congruent sides or angles
Isometric drawings
Drawings on isometric dot paper used to show 3-dimensional objects
Isosceles triangle
A triangle with at least two sides congruent
Line of symmetry

The line over which a figure is reflected resulting in a figure that coincides exactly with the original figure

Linear pair of angles

Two adjacent angles form a linear pair if their non-shared rays form a straight angle.

Matrix logic
Using a matrix to solve logic problems
13
Geometry Glossary

Median of a triangle

A segment that has as its endpoints a vertex of the triangle and the midpoint of the opposite side

Midpoint of a segment
The point that divides a segment into two congruent segments
Midsegment

A segment whose endpoints are the midpoints of two sides of a polygon

Orthocenter The orthocenter is the point of concurrency of the altitudes of a triangle.

Orthographic drawings
An orthographic drawing is the top view, front view and right side view of a three-dimensional figure.
Parallel lines
Lines in a plane that do not intersect
Parallelogram
A quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel
14
Geometry Glossary

Perimeter
The distance around a polygon
Perpendicular bisector

The perpendicular bisector of a segment is a line, segment or ray that is perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint.

Perpendicular
Two lines, segments, rays, or planes that intersect to form right angles
Planes
A flat surface having no boundaries
Platonic solid

A polyhedron all of whose faces are congruent regular polygons, with the same number of faces meeting at every
vertex

Point
A specific location in space
Polygon

A closed plane figure whose sides are segments that intersect only at their endpoints, with each segment
intersecting exactly two other segments
Postulates
A mathematical statement that is accepted without proof
15
Geometry Glossary

Prism

A three-dimensional figure with two congruent faces called bases--that lie in parallel planes
(The other faces called lateral faces are rectangles that connect corresponding sides of the bases.)

Pyramid

A three-dimensional figure with one base that is a polygon
(The other faces, called lateral faces, are triangles that connect each side of the base to the vertex.)

Quadrilateral
A four-sided polygon
Radius
A line segment having one endpoint at the center of the circle and the other endpoint on the circle
Reflections
Mirror images of a figure (Objects stay the same shape, but their positions change through a flip.)
Regular heptagon
A heptagon with all sides and angles congruent
Regular octagon
A octagon with all sides and angles congruent
Regular octagon
An octagon with all sides and angles congruent
Regular pentagon
A pentagon with all sides and angles congruent
Regular polygon
A polygon with all sides and angles congruent
Rotations
A transformation in which every point moves along a circular path around a fixed point called the center of rotation
Scale drawings
Pictures that show relative sizes of real objects
16
Geometry Glossary

Secant

A line, ray or segment that intersects a circle at two points

Similarity
The property of being similar
Similar polygons

Two polygons are similar if corresponding angles are congruent and the lengths of corresponding sides are in
proportion.

Sine

In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the leg opposite the angle to the length of the hypotenuse

Slope
The ratio of the vertical change to the horizontal change
Slope-intercept form
A linear equation in the form y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the graph of the equation and b is the y intercept
Special right triangles

A triangle whose angles are either 30-60-90 degrees or 45-45-90 degrees

17
Geometry Glossary

Sphere

The set of all points in space equal distance from a given point

Standard form of a linear
equation

The form of a linear equation Ax + By = C where A, B, and C are real numbers and A and B are not both zero
Ex. 6x + 2y = 10
Supplementary angles
Two angles whose measures add up to 180 degrees
Surface area
The area of a net for a three-dimensional figure
Tangent
In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the leg opposite the angle to the length of the leg adjacent to the angle
Tangent to a circle

A line in the plane of the circle that intersects the circle in only one point

Tessellate

To cover a plane with a pattern of polygons without gaps or overlaps

Theorem
A conjecture that can be proven to be true
Transformation
A change made to the size or position of a figure
Translation
A transformation that slides each point of a figure the same distance in the same direction
18
Geometry Glossary

Transversal

A line that intersects two or more other lines in the same plane at different points

Triangle Inequality Theorem
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the lengths of the third side.
Trigonometric ratios
The sine, cosine and tangent ratios
Venn diagram
A display that pictures unions and intersections of sets
Vertical angles
Non-adjacent, non-overlapping congruent angles formed by two intersecting lines (They share a common vertex.)

1 and 3 are vertical angles.
2 and 4 are vertical angles.

Volume
The number of cubic units needed to fill a three-dimensional space

19
Geometry Glossary

L. Marizza A. Bailey
Arkansas School of Mathematics, Sciences and the Arts
Hot Springs, Arkansas
baileym@asmsa.org

Summer Workshop
Outline
Content Standard 1
1. Teac hi ng St udent s How t o Ar gue.
a. The l anguage of l ogi c . (LG.1.G.1)
1. I dent i f yi ng hypot heses and c onc l usi ons
2. I dent i f yi ng Condi t i onal st at ement s
3. Tr ansl at i ng i nt o l ogi c al l anguage
c . The Law of Det ac hment
1. Whi c h st at ement s ar e l ogi c al l y equi val ent ?
2. How t o c hec k t he val i di t y of a st at ement ,
d. How t o ar gue and al w ays w i n (LG.1.G.6)
1. St udent s w i l l f ol l ow ar gument s t o t hei r c onc l usi on
2. I dent i f yi ng val i d ar gument s and i dent i f yi ng f l aw s i n
w eak ar gument s.
3. Const r uc t i ng val i d ar gument s.

2. What i s a pr oof ? The ax i omat i c appr oac h t o
mat hemat i c s.
a. Euc l i ds Ax i omat i c Appr oac h t o Geomet r y r evol ut i oni zed
mat hemat i c s. (10:45 11:45)
1. A hi st or y
2. Def i ni t i ons
3. Ax i oms (Common Not i ons)
4. Post ul at es
b. How i s a pr oof di f f er ent t han an answ er or sol ut i on?
c . Teac hi ng st udent s t o c onj ec t ur e and pr ove.
d. Tw o-Col umn Pr oof s and Par agr aphs
1. Pyt hagor ean Theor em Di sc over y and Pr oof
(Geomet r y Sk et c hpad i n Bool e Lab (LG1.G.6)
2. Sum of Angl es of a Tr i angl e (LG.1.G.6)
3. Tr i angl e Mi dsegment Theor em

Introduction to Arguments

Learning how to argue well is essential for any occupation. We all use
conditional statements when we speak of a cause, an effect, or an
implication. Below is an example of an argument one might use in everyday
language.

The clouds cause the rain.
The rain causes the grass to grow.
The grass needs to grow to feed the cows.

This language we usually use for arguing is imprecise and can be confusing.
People who do not understand logic well will be unclear of whether a cause
is a necessary condition, or a sufficient condition.

A necessary condition is one that is required for the effect, but not
necessarily the only required ingredient.

Example:
Flour is a necessary ingredient for cake but not the only ingredient
necessary. Therefore, flour is not sufficient for cake.

A sufficient condition is one that is enough to make the effect happen.

Example:
If it is raining, there must be clouds in the sky to make the rain. Therefore,
the knowledge of rain is sufficient to deduce that clouds are in the sky.
However, it is not necessary that it rain for there to be clouds.

If we can make this language precise, we not only will be able to argue more
efficiently, but will be able to find the error in the arguments of others.

The precise language for a conditional statement requires a hypothesis and a
conclusion. It is of the form:

If (hypothesis), then (conclusion.

Example:
A) If there is a fire, then the fire alarm will sound.
This is a true statement. However
B) If the fire alarm sounds, then there is a fire.
is not a true statement.

Write the letter corresponding to the statement above which is logically
equivalent?

1) Fire alarm means fire. _____
2) Fire is needed for fire alarms. _____
3) Fire is the only thing needed for fire alarms._____

Here are some more examples of conditional statements in laymans terms.
Lets see if we can translate them into the more refined language of logic.

1. Only women have babies.
2. Joe needs at least a C on the test to pass the class.
3. All Joe need is a B on the test to pass the class.
4. Give me $10 and Ill baby-sit for you.
5. Ill take out the garbage when pigs fly.
6. All babies wear diapers.
7. All squares are rectangles.
8. Hard work means success.
9. All bubble blowing babies shall be beaten senseless by all patrons in
the bar. (Sponge Bob the Movie)
10. To get an A for the day, you must finish this worksheet.

Logic Activity

Title of Lesson: Translating Conditional Statements into the Language of
Logic (LG.1.G.1)

Activity : (15 points)
1. Assign each person in the group one of the jobs:
Recorder, Timekeeper, Facilitator, and Presenter.
2. Translate each of the statements into If-Then form. (5 pts)
3. Identify hypothesis and conclusion. (5 points)
4. Assess validity of statement (5 points)
4. Present findings to class (5 pts)

Purpose of Activity:
This activity is designed to help you analyze conditional statements and to
use the more precise language of logic.

1. There are always clouds when its raining outside.
2. We need to study to get good grades.
3. A good nights sleep is needed for me to be energetic tomorrow.
4. Clouds are sufficient for rain.
5. Organization leads to success.
6. All rectangles are squares.
7. The world will be at peace in 50 years
8. Teachers will be millionaires when pigs fly.
9. Only furry monkeys go to school.
10. When I am Albert Einstein, all triangles will have three sides .

Hypothesis T/F Conclusion T/F Statement
T/F
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Hands on Conditional Statements

Lesson: Students will compare, contrast conditional statements (inverse,
converse and contrapositive). (SLE LG.1.G.1)

Purpose: Students will kinesthetically identify and construct the above
conditional statements. By assigning a truth value to the hypothesis and
conclusion, they can assess the validity of each statement. Using their
previous knowledge of the Law of Detachment, they will investigate its
implications on the truth value of the converse, contrapositive and inverse.

Materials:

1. Scissors
2. Construction
Paper
3. Glue or tape
4. Writing Utensil

Activity:
1. Students will work in groups of two.
2. They will cut all of the copies on the hypothesis and conclusion and
the word not.
3. They will construct the inverse, converse, and contrapositive on the
construction paper given. Each one will be labeled and glued (or
taped) to the construction paper.
4. They will identify the truth value of the hypothesis, conclusion, and
statement.
5. They will write a short reflection as to their conjecture on a
generalized relationship between these truth values.

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

Not I finish my
work
I will leave
early

LAW OF DETACHMENT AND COROLLARIES
L. MARIZZA A. BAILEY
Now that we are familiar with construction of conditional statements in the
language of logic, we can begin to identify which conditional statements are
logically equivalent. The If, then statements we have been working on are
called conditional statements , or implications. The reason why they are called
implications, is because the hypothesis implies the conclusion. Let us look at
an example.
Example 1. *If you are 30, then you are too old to party.
The hypothesis is you are 30
The conclusion is you are too old to party
Another way to say this is:
You are 30 implies that you are too old to party.
In symbolic logic, we try to condense the notation, so we can see in general,
when two logical statements are equivalent.
Let
p = You are 30.
q = You are too old to party.
Then the statement, *, above is written
p = q
In the previous activity, we started to study the correlation between the truth
value of the hypothesis, conclusion and the entire statement. In order to assess
the validity of any arbitrary logical statement, it is necessary that we create a
rule for this relation.
0.1. Law of Detachment. The Law of detachment says that
if the hypothesis is true,
then the only way that an implication can be true,
is if the conclusion is also true.
A false hypothesis has no bearing on the truth value of the implication.
In symbolic logic, the above statement is as follows:
Date: June 4, 2007.
1
2
Hyp: p Conc: q Implication: p = q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
From this table we see if the hypothesis is true, then the conclusion has to be
true, or the whole implication is false.
Example 2. Let us look at a simple mathematical statement:
If you multiply two negatives together, their product will be positive.
Suppose I give you the numbers 1 and 2.
Do they satisfy the hypothesis?
Is their product positive?
Do they satisfy the hypothesis? Is their product positive?
Do they satisfy the hypothesis? IS their product positive?
Now let us look at an example which fails the truth table.
Example 3. If a number is odd, then it is prime.
Suppose I gave you the number 3.
Does it satisfy the hypothesis?
Is it prime?
Is it prime?
Is it prime?
This last number is a counterexample to the statement and therefore shows
that the statement is not true for all numbers, and therefore, is not a true
statement.
0.2. Converse. Let p = It is raining.
Let q = There are clouds in the sky.
We have already discussed the validity of p = q, rain does imply clouds.
However, if I switch the hypothesis and conclusion, does the statement remain
true?
3
There are clouds in the sky implies there is rain.
or
q = p
is not necessarily a true statement because there have been cloudy days where
no rain has fallen.
If we look at the truth value of this particular statement compared to the truth
of p and q, we will see why:
Hyp: p Conc: q Implication: p = q Converse: q = p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
As you can see, in the cases where the hypothesis and conclusion have dif-
ferent truth values, the original implication and its converse also have dierent
truth values.
It is a common mistake to think that the converse of an implication is always
true.
Here are some examples of implications and their converse. Write the converse
for those implications where one is not already written.
(1) If it doesnt snow, the Saints win.
If the Saints win, it didnt snow on Sunday.
(2) If you keep the int in one drawer and the steel in the other, youll never
make a re.(The Music Man)
If you never make a re, you kept the int in one drawer and the steel
in the other.
(3) If you lay down with your dog, you wake up with ticks.
(4) If wishes were shes, I could start a tuna company.
(5) If I had a nickel for every time someone said AYP, I would be a
millionaire.
4
0.3. Contrapositive. If you, rst, negate the hypothesis and conclusion before
switching them, you get the contrapositive.
Let p = It is raining.
Let q = There are clouds in the sky.
q = p
If there are no clouds in the sky, it is not raining.
This seems to be a true statement, so let us look at the truth table to verify.
Hyp: p Conc: q Implication: p = q q p q = p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
As you can see the column under the implication p = q and q = p
are the same. Therefore, the two statements are logically equivalent.
Below are the same implications, with the contrapositive written below. Write
the contrapositive for those implications where there is not one written.
(1) If it doesnt snow, the Saints win.
If the Saints dont win, it snowed on Sunday.
(2) If you keep the int in one drawer and the steel in the other, youll never
make a re.(The Music Man) If you make a re, you did not keep the
int in one drawer and the steel in the other.
(3) If you lay down with your dog, you wake up with ticks.
(4) If wishes were shes, I could start a tuna company.
(5) If I had a nickel for every time someone said AYP, I would be a
millionaire.
Here are some examples of statements you may see in the business world of
scams. (I got them o the internet) Translate them into formal logic.
(a) Every time We Close Your Sale, You Make Money!
(B) So, If youre like me, frustrated and tired of searching for the right op-
portunity. Sick of all the false hopes and unkept promises. Well look no
further.
(C) IF YOU ARE ONE OF THE 95% WHO HATE SELLING... THEN
THIS IS THE PERFECT BUSINESS FOR YOU!
(D) When you refer friends and family, you can earn bonus cash when they
are approved.
(E) With a MoneyGram location just around the corner from you, returning
customers now have another option from MyCashNow to receive their
loan. Have your loan sent to you in minutes!
E-mail address: baileym@asmsa.org
LAW OF SYLLOGISM
0.1. Law of Syllogism. Now we know the ins and outs of logic. Lets see if
we can make a good argument. We need to make a string of implications, so
that they tie all together to make a conclusion.
In the book, they describe it like this:
p = q
and
q = r
then
p = r
Let us look at an example
Example 1. If I am over 30, then I am too old to party.
If I am too old to party, then I am boring.
If I assume both statements to be true, then I can conclude that
If I am over 30, then I am boring is a true statement.
Now using the Law of Syllogism, we can conclude that since Mrs. Bailey is
over 30, then she is boring.
Here are some more examples, that illustrate the use of the Law of Syllogism.
Example 2. If we nd his ngerprints on the counter, then he was at the mur-
der scene.
If he was at the murder scene, he is our prime suspect.
From these two sentences I can conclude that:
We found his nger prints on the counter. What can you conclude?
We found someone elses nger prints on the counter. What can you conclude?
We didnt nd his ngerprints? What can you conclude?
Here is a trickier one:
If he is fails the lie detector test, then the lawyer will not defend him.
If he hears that his mother is in the hospital, he will fail his lie detector test.
What can you conclude from the sentence above?
Date: June 4, 2007.
1
2
Another tricky one:
If we go to the store, we will spend too much money.
If we dont spend too much money, we will go on vacation.
I went to the store. What can you conclude from this?
Below are some famous logical fallicies. See if you can nd the error in the
argument. This is for fun.
Example 3. Proof that 1 = 1.
1 = 1 By reexivity of equality
1
1
=
1
1
Converting into fractions
1
1
=
1
1
Taking square root of both sides
1
=
1
Distributing square roots
1 =
1 Clearing Fractions
1 = 1 Square root is inverse of square
Example 4. Proof that 2 = 1.
Let x = y.
Then
2x = x + y
2x 2y = x y
2(x y) = x y
2 =
x y
x y
2 = 1

Geometry Quiz
Law of Syllogism

Study the following statements.

If you are a geometry student, you must take an End of Course Geometry
exam.

If you are a geometry student, you must learn how to prove.

If you learn how to prove, you will win every argument.

1. If Susie has to take an End of Course Geometry Exam, what can
you conclude about her?

2. If Leo is a geometry student, what can you conclude about him?

3. If Dana wins every argument, what can you conclude about her?

4. If Paul learns how to prove, what can you conclude about him?

The Process of Proof The Process of Proof
A Heuristic Approach A Heuristic Approach
Triangle Sum Theorem Triangle Sum Theorem Triangle Sum Theorem Triangle Sum Theorem
Identify Hypothesis Identify Hypothesis Identify Hypothesis. Identify Hypothesis.
Identify Conclusion. Identify Conclusion.
Fi d d fi iti f ll th ti l t Fi d d fi iti f ll th ti l t Find definitions of all mathematical terms Find definitions of all mathematical terms
associated with theorem. associated with theorem.
Construct any other necessary figures. Construct any other necessary figures.
The maze The maze
A figure is a triangle
A
C
A
B
The sum of the
m
ABC +m
BCA + m
CAB = 180
The sum of the

interior angles is 180
The maze The maze
The Fifth Postulate
A
C
m
n D
A
B
AC // m and AB // n Consecutive
Interior Angles
Alternate Exterior
Interior Angles
Theorem
Angles Theorem
Alternate Interior
Angles Theorem
Corresponding
Angles Theorem
The sum of the
m
ABC +m
BCA + m
CAB = 180
The sum of the

The maze The maze
The Fifth Postulate
A
C
m
n D
A
B
AC // m and AB // n
Angle Sum Postulate
m
ACB + m

BCD = m

ACD
m
ACD + m

CAB = 180

Consecutive
Interior Angles
Theorem
m
ACB + m

BCD + m

CAB =180

The sum of the
m
ABC +m
BCA + m
CAB = 180
The sum of the

The maze The maze
C
The Fifth Postulate
A
C
m
n D
A
B
AC // m and AB // n
Angle Sum Postulate
m
ACB + m

BCD = m

ACD
m
ACD + m

CAB = 180

Consecutive
Interior Angles
Theorem
m
ACB + m

BCD + m

CAB =180

The sum of the
m
BCD = m
ABC
Alternate Interior Angles Thm
The sum of the
m
ACB + m
ABC + m
CAB = 180
Proof Activity

Attached to this sheet are three conditional statements. Identify the
hypothesis and write it next to the word Given. Write the conclusion next
to the word Prove. For each proof you will be given a set of statements
and a set of reasons. Find the given statement(s) and glue them on the first
row. The conclusion must be glued to the last row under the statement
column. Place them in order on the labeled spaces so that the Law of
Syllogism applies. If you have done the activity correctly you should have a
coherent proof in the end. Most of the time, you will need to draw a picture
to see what is going on.

Here is a sample:

Conditional Statement: If ABD EBC, then EBD ABC.

Given: ABD EBC

Prove: EBD ABC

Statement Reason
ABD EBC

Given
ABC + CBD ABD

Angle Addition Postulate
EBD + DBC EBC

CBD DBC

Reflexive property of congruence
CBD ABD - ABC
CBD EBC - EBD
ABD - ABC EBC - EBD

Transitive Property of Congruence
EBC - ABC EBC - EBD Substitution

ABC EBD

A
B
D
E
C
Assume X,Y and Z are collinear and Q,R, and S are collinear.
Conditional Statement: If XZ QS and XY RS, then YZ RS.

Given:

Prove:

Statement
Reason

If AB and CD intersect at point O, then AOD BOC.

Statement Reason

Proof 1

XY + YZ = QR + RS Substitution

XY RS GIVEN

XZ QS GIVEN

YZ QR Segment Subtraction Postulate

XY + YZ = XZ and QR + RS = QS Segment Addition Postulate

XY + YZ = QR + XY Substitution from Given

Proof 2

m AOD + m DOD = 180 AOD and DOB are linear pairs

m DOB + m BOC = 180 DOB and BOC are linear pairs

m BOD = 180 - m BOC Subtraction property of equality
m BOD = 180 - m AOD

180 - m BOC = 180 - m AOD Transitive property of equality

m BOC = m AOD Subtraction Property of Equality

BOC AOD Definition of Angle Congruence

PARALLEL LINES
1. Definitions
Denition 1 (Corresponding Angles). Two angles are called corresponding an-
gles if they lie on the same side of two lines and a transversal.
Ex. 1 and 5 are corresponding angles
Denition 2 (Alternate Interior Angles). Two angles are called alternate in-
terior angles if they lie in between two lines lines and on alternate sides of the
transversal.
Ex. 4 and 6 are alternate interior angles
Denition 3 (Alternate Exterior Angles). Two angles are called alternate ex-
terior angles if they lie outside two lines lines and on alternate sides of the
transversal.
Ex. 1 and 7 are alternate exterior angles
Denition 4 (Consecutive Angles). Two angles are called consecutive angles
if they are on the interior of the parallel lines, and on the same side of the
transversal
Ex. 4 and 5 are consecutive angles
2. Theorems about parallel lines
Theorem 1 (Corresponding Angle Theorem). If the two lines are parallel, then
their corresponding angles are congruent.
Theorem 2 (Alternate Interior Angle Theorem). If the two lines are parallel,
then their alternate interior angles are congruent.
Theorem 3 (Alternate Exterior Angle Theorem). If the two lines are parallel,
then their alternate exterior angles are congruent.
1
1
2
3 4
5
6
7 8
2
Theorem 4 (Consecutive Angle Theorem). If the two lines are parallel, then
their consecutive angles are supplementary.
3. Theorems to prove lines are parallel
Theorem 5 (Corresponding Angle Converse). If the two corresponding angles
are congruent, then their lines are parallel.
Theorem 6 (Alternate Interior Angle Theorem). If the two lines alternate in-
terior angles are congruent, then their are parallel.
Theorem 7 (Alternate Exterior Angle Theorem). If the two lines alternate
exterior angles are congruent , then their are parallel.
Theorem 8 (Consecutive Angle Theorem). If the two consecutive angles are
supplementary , then their lines are parallel.
4. Proofs
Problem 1. Show that if l
1
is parallel to l
2
, then 1 is supplementary to 8
Proof:
Statement Reasons
1. 1
= 5 1.
2. 2. Linear Pairs are Supplementary
3. 1 is supplementary to 8 3.
Problem 2. Show that if 2 supplementary 5, then l
1
is parallel to l
2
Proof:
Statement Reasons
1. m2 +5 = 180
o
1.
2. 2. Denition of Linear Pair
3. 3. Substitution
4. 4. Corresponding Angle Converse.
Can you nd another way to prove the claim? Find one other proof for each
of the Problems above.
The less the number of lines one requires to prove a claim, the more elegant the
proof.
3$57 ,,, 5HOHDVHG 2SHQ5HVSRQVH ,WHPV *HRPHWU\
29
RELEASED MATERIALS. MAY BE DUPLICATED.
GEOMETRY OPEN-RESPONSE ITEM D
' Tyrone, Karl, and Iuke bought gifts for each other. The gifts were a CD, a cap, and a T-shirt.
Determine who bought each gift and who received each gift, based on the following statements.
1. No person bought a gift for himself.
2. Karl received a T-shirt.
3. Iuke did not give a gift to Tyrone.
4. The person who gave a gift to Iuke received the CD.
Show all of your work and explain the details of your reasoning. You may use a table or matrix in
your explanation.

A History of Geometry
Marizza Bailey

Euclid is one of the most revered mathematicians of all time, and
sometimes known as the Father of Mathematics. His greatest work was the
creation of Euclids Elements, an immense collection of 13 books and 465
propositions (Journey Through Genius, William Dunham). His legacy is not the
creation of new mathematics in these books, but rather, his thorough and
organized attempt to present mathematics in a logical fashion. His attempt
succeeded and revolutionized mathematics around the world. He began the
Elements with 23 definitions, 5 postulates and 5 axioms (and a partridge in a pear
tree). These were givens of mathematics; the framework for the mathematical
model given by these assumptions gave way to Euclidean Geometry.

The beauty and significance of this approach was that he could only prove
the first propositions with those axioms, postulates and definitions that were
already given. Once he had proved a proposition, he could use it in his next proof,
thereby building the mathematics on a solid but growing foundation. This
eliminated circular reasoning and assigning to each proposition an unambiguous
string of predecessor leading back to the original axioms. (Journey Through
Genius, William Dunham)

It is the fifth postulate, known as the parallel postulate that has been the object of
much discussion throughout the centuries. A generalization of this postulate has
led to the creation of a new geometry known as Non-Euclidean geometry. The
fathers of this new field are Lobachevski (1829) and Bolyai (1832), who founded
Hyperbolic and Elliptical Geometry; Euclidean geometry is now known as
parabolic geometry.

Proofs are not Answers

We have discovered the ease in which someone can fall prey to a
fallacious argument, and hopefully this has motivated you to want to prove
all claims that are made. It is important, then, for use to distinguish when an
answer with justification is necessary, and when a proof is necessary.

The following activity is designed to motivate students to identify the
difference between an answer and a proof.

Activity 1:

Add the following sequence of number pairs:

1+1 = 1+2 = 1+3 = 1+4 =

2+2= 2+3= 2+4= 2+5=

3+3= 3+4= 3+5= 3+6=

From the answers above, what can you conjecture about the sum of two
odd numbers? Two even numbers? One odd number and one even number?

Odd + Odd =

Even + Even =

Even + Odd =

Now Prove Your Conjecture:

Let a,b be odd numbers. Then a = 2n+1 and b = 2m+1, by definition of
odd.

By substitution,
a + b = 2n + 1 + 2m + 1 = 2n + 2m + 2 = 2( n + m + 1)
is even.
Now construct a similar proof for the other cases.

Activity 2: I used this activity in my Algebra 2 and Pre-Calculus course the first week of
class to instill a healthy skepticism in my students. It can be used in any course, and will
probably have the same effect.

Students are already familiar with the concept of probability. If |E| is the number of times
the even E can occur, and |O| is the number of possible outcomes, then the probability of
an event E occurring is

|E| = P(E)
|O|

We would like to find the probability of rolling a 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ..., 12 on a pair of dice.
In order to do this, we must count the number of possible ways to roll each value. Values
of Each

Dice Sum of values Number of Occurrences
(1,1) 2 1
(1,2), (2,1) 3 2
(1,3), (2,2), (3,1) 4 3
5 4
6 5

As you can see this is very exhausting, and we dont want to compute this for every
value. However, a pattern seems to be emerging on the very right column. As the sum of
the values increases, the number of occurrences is increasing.

Make a conjecture as to what the number of occurrences is for a given value of the pair of
die.

We can use the calculator to emulate this situation by asking the calculator to generate 30
random integers from 1 to 6 for L1 and L2.

Calculator Procedure

2
nd
Stat: EditCursor up to L1 until it is highlighted Enter

Math Prob 5: randomint(1,6,30) Enter

Repeat this process for L2. Highligh L3.
L3 should be the sum of the values of L1 and L2. To do this, type
2
nd
1 + 2
nd
2 enter

To analyze the outcome, create a STAT PLOT by going to 2
nd
Y =
A bar graph on the list L3 would be the most helpful

The best viewing window would be

X[1,13] and Y [0,10] because the value of the sum of the two die will be between 1
and 12, and the frequency should not be more than 10 if you have only 30 trials.

Then number of occurrences divided by the number of trials is called the experimental
probability. The experimental probability of 8 is 6/30 = 1/5. We can repeat this
simulation with 100 trials to get a more accurate analysis.

Note that the experimental probability of 8 is still the highest at 1/5. Does this graph
support your conjecture? Did you conjecture that the higher values would have the
highest probability? Why do you think that conjecture was erroneous? Let us finish the
chart and see we were mistaken.

Dice Sum of values Number of Occurrences
(1,1) 2 1
(1,2), (2,1) 3 2
(1,3), (2,2), (3,1) 4 3
(1,4), (2,3), (3,2) , (4,1) 5 4
(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1) 6 5
(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1) 7 6
(2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2) 8 5
(3,6), (4,5),(5,4), (6,3) 9 4
(4,6), (5,5), (6,4) 10 3
(5,6), (6,5) 11 2
(6,6) 12 1

The experimental probability of 8 is 1/5, but the theoretical probability is 5/36. The
highest outcome should be that of a 7. Why do you think this wasnt the case with the
simulation?

Hopefully, students will be more careful to generalize their answers to an all
encompassing umbrella statements without further investigation. Note also that even
analyzing 100 simulated trials can lead us to an incorrect conclusion. Mathematical truths
can only be achieved through proof. Once we have constructed a proof, it is a TRUTH
and cannot be made untrue. That is the beauty of mathematics.

Pythagorean Theorem Discovery Approach

We can use what is already known about Cartesian plane to correlate
geometry and algebra.

If we look at random points in the Cartesian plane, and then measure their distance to the
origin, we might notice a pattern.

We will use Geometry Sketchpad to construct some arbitrary points on the Cartesian
plane, and measure their distance to the origin.

Step 1: Graph: Define Coordinate System

Step 2: Click the point button on the left. (under the arrow) Construct two points
and a line between them.

Step 3: Construct points on this line. Repeat this process to your satisfaction.
Measure: Coordinates
Drag coordinates to corresponding labeled point.
Step 4: Click the line segment button (under the circle).
Click the origin and then one of your constructed points.
Do this repeatedly until you have exhausted all constructed points.

You can now enter all the data in the calculator in a table.

2
nd
Stat (List) Edit L1 x-coordinate
L2 distance to origin
L3 (L2)
2

Distance to origin Points on the line x=1.01
m HN= 2.06 cm
m HM = 1.42 cm
m HL = 2.25 cm
m HK = 3.18 cm
m HJ = 5.10 cm
m HI = 3.15 cm
I: (1.01, -2.99)
N: (1.01, -1.80)
O: (1.00, 0.00)
M: (1.01, 1.01)
L: (1.01, 2.01)
K: (1.01, 3.02)
J: (1.01, 5.00)

Stat Plot: Plot 1: xL1 , yL3

Quadratic Regression: L1, L3, Y1

It seems very close to the function
d
2
= (1.01)
2
+ x
2

Remember, y = 1.01 so we get
.
d
2
= y
2
+ x
2

This is not a proof, merely a conjecture!

A Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.

Here is one proof of the Pythagorean Theorem that is based on an algebraic approach to
the problem. Since most students have taken Algebra before Geometry, this might make
them more comfortable.

Have them cut out each of the figures below. They will see how the areas are related by
superimposing the squares on each other.

a
b
c
Solution:

(a + b)
2
= 2ab + c
2

a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= 2ab + c
2

a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

Notetoteacher:
Thesearethehypothesesfromwhichyoumayreadaloud.Youmaychangeanyofthem.
Youmayconstructapowerpointforeachstatement,transparencies,orjustreadthemaloud.
Yourchoiceshoulddependontheabilityofthestudents.
Theremaybemanyconclusionsimpliedbyonestatement.
Pleasemakealistofallthepossibleconclusionsimpliedbyeachstatementbelowsothatyoumayhave
akey.
Procedure:
1. Breakupyourstudentsinpairs.
2. Everytimeyoureadastatement,havetheeachstudentwriteitdown.
3. Theyshouldlistallstatementstheyfeelcanbeconcludedfromthehypothesis,andjustify
theirresponse.
4. Afterdiscussionamongstthepair,theycanplacethemarkersoncorrespondingsquares.
5. ThefirstpairtogetBingowins.
6. Havethemturnintheirworkforcredit.
Thismethodwillbetimeconsuming,butmoreeducational.Theywillbeforcedtocomeupwithsome
justificationfortheirresponse,ratherthanguessing.
Statements:
1.IfangleAandangleBarelinearpairsandangleAisobtuse,then w hat can you say about t he t hi r d angl e.
2.Ifline AB
HJJG
isperpendiculartolineCD
HJJG
and ACB ar e col l i near ,thenangleACD
3.Iftwolines, AB
HJJG
and CD
HJJG
,intersectatpointP,then APC and BPD
4.Iftwolinesintersectsothelinearpairsarecongruent,then
5.Ifalinebisectslinesegment AB atpointMtoformsegments con AM MB,the n..
6.Ifthesumoftwoanglesofatriangleislessthan90degree,thent he t hi r d angl e
7.Iftwocoplanarlinesarenotparallel,then
8.Iftwolineshavethesameslope,butdifferentyintercepts,then
9.Iffourpointsaretheverticesofatetrahedron,then
10.Ifonelinerepresentstheintersectionoftheceilingandawallandanotherlinerepresentsthe
intersectionoftheadjacentwallandthefloor,then
11.IftwolinesareparallelandangleAandangleBformconsecutiveinteriorangles,then
12.Iflinelisthegraphoftheequationy=2x+3andlinemisthegraphoftheequation4y8x=12,
then
LogicalConclusionBingo
Matcheachhypothesistheteacherreadsaloudwithastatementfromitwhichcanbe
concluded.
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thethree
pointsare
notcollinear
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
concluded.
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Thelinesare
thesame
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Theendpoints
areequidistant
tothepointP
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
concluded.
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thelinesare
thesame
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Theendpoints
areequidistant
tothepointP
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
concluded.
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Theendpoints
areequidistant
tothepointP
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefourpoints
arecoplanar
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
concluded.
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Theendpoints
areequidistant
tothepointP
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefourpoints
arecoplanar
concluded.
Theangleis
acute
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
obtuse
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Thelinesare
parallel
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
skew
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
The
endpointsare
equidistant
tothepointP
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thefourpoints
arecoplanar
The conclusion must not be stated in the hypothesis.

concluded.
Theangleis
acute
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
obtuse
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Thelinesare
parallel
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
skew
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
The
endpointsare
equidistant
tothepointP
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
concluded.
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
obtuse
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thefourpoints
arecoplanar
Thelinesare
parallel
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
skew
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
concluded.
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleis
obtuse
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thefourpoints
arecoplanar
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thethree
pointsarenot
collinear
Thelinesare
parallel
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
skew
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
InteriorAngles
arecongruent
concluded.
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thethree
pointsare
notcollinear
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
concluded.
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thethree
pointsare
notcollinear
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
concluded.
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thesegments
arecongruent
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thethree
pointsare
notcollinear
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point
Thelinesare
thesame
concluded.
Thesegments
arecongruent
Theangleisa
rightangle
Theangleis
obtuse
Theangleis
acute
Theanglesare
congruent
Thelinesare
perpendicular
Thelinesare
parallel
Thelinesare
skew
Thepointis
themidpoint
ofthe
segment
Theanglesare
supplementary
Theline
segmentsdo
notforma
triangle
Thethree
pointsare
collinear
Thefour
pointsare
coplanar
The
Corresponding
Anglesare
Congruent
Theline
segmentsform
atriangle
The
Consecutive
Anglesare
Supplementary
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAlternate
Interior
Anglesare
congruent
TheAngles
areVertical
Angles
The
Consecutive
anglesare
congruent
Thelinesare
thesame
The
endpointsare
equidistantto
thepointP
Thethree
pointsare
notcollinear
Thefour
pointsarenot
coplanar
Thelines
intersectat
exactlyone
point

baileym@asmsa.org

Summer Workshop
Outline

Content Standard 2

1. Tr i angl e Theor ems
a. Congr uent Tr i angl es (T.2.G.1)
1. Pr ovi ng t he c ongr uenc e t heor ems
2. Count er ex ampl es of AAA and SSA
3. Devel opi ng Lemmas f r om Congr uenc e Theor ems.
4. Usi ng Congr uenc e Theor ems t o Pr ove l emmas
b. Spec i al Segment s and assoc i at ed t heor ems (T.2.G.3)
1. Pr oof s f or i sosc el es t r i angl es and i nt er sec t i on
2. Cor ol l ar i es t o pr oper t i es
3. Geomet r y Sk et c hpad
c . Si mi l ar Fi gur es (AAA Thm) (T.2.G.1)
2. Tr i gonomet r i c Rat i os (Spaghet t i Tr i g) (T.2.G.7)

2. Real Wor l d Appl i c at i ons
a. Spec i al Segment s and t hei r Appl i c at i ons (T.2.G.2)
b. Ri ght Tr i angl e Geomet r y Appl i c at i ons (T.2.G.5)
c . Si mi l ar Fi gur es Appl i c at i ons (T.G.2.6)
d. Pyt hagor ean Theor em and i t s appl i c at i ons( T.2.G.4)

Congruence of Triangles

The fifth postulate states:

If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same
side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on
that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.
Since any two non parallel lines intersect at exactly one point, the third vertex is uniquely
determined.

If you consider, this further, you will see that if you are given a line segment and two
angles whose vertices are the endpoints of the line segment, they will be able to form a
triangle if and only if those angles add up to less than 180 (two right angles). By the
fifth postulate, the intersection of those two lines must be on this side of the transversal.
Since there is only one possible intersection point, the triangle is uniquely determined.

It is important to understand the difference between
1. Axioms: A starting assumption from which other statements are logically derived
2. Definitions: Assigns properties to a mathematical object
3. Postulates: The more modern word for axioms
4. Propositions, Theorems, Lemmas, Corollaries: A statement that can be proved
logically using previously proved statements:
5. Conjectures, Hypothesis: Claims yet to be proven

The following are propositions: SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS. We will work in geometry
sketchpad to illustrate the clarity of these propositions in Euclidean Space to the
students.
Definition: Two triangles are congruent if all their corresponding sides and angles
are congruent.
SAS Theorem:

Rather than show that two triangles are congruent if they have two sides which
are congruent and the angle between them congruent, we will show that given two
segments of fixed length and a fixed angle between them, there is only one triangle
which can be generated from these parts in the corresponding order.

This is a corollary from the first postulate which states that given any two points,
there exists a line between them. The third postulate states that given any point and
distance, there exists a circle with that center and radius equal to that distance.
Construct a circle with center A and radius AB. Using these two postulates, one can
conclude that given any two points, there exists a line segment with whose endpoints
are those two points. This uniquely determines the triangleABC.

A
B
C
SSS Theorem

Suppose DE = AB, EF = BC and DF =AC. Show the two triangles are congruent.
Without changing the geometry of these objects we can assume they are joined at
AB and EF.

Statement Reason

1. ABCD is a parallelogram 1. Opposite Sides Congruent
Converse
2. AB // FD and ED // AC 2. Definition of a parallelogram
3. DEF ACB 3. Alternate Interior Angle Theorem
DFE ABC
4. mA + m B + mC 4. Triangle Sum Theorem and
= mD + mE + m F Transitivity
5. mA = mD 5. Right Cancellation Law

A
D
E
B C
F
D
A
E = B
F = C
AAS Theorem:

Suppose A D
C E
AC = DE.
Show ABC DEF .

Proof:

Statement Reason
1. mA + mB + mC = 180 1.
2. 2. Triangle Sum Theorem
3. m A m B m C m D m E m F + + = + + 3.
4 4 Definition of Congruence
5. mB = mF 5.
6. 6. ASA Proposition

A
D
E
B C
F
A
May 22 2007.GWB - 1/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:16:35
In order to animate the point along the
path of the arc, it is necessary to
define the point as "a point on the
circle", rather than construct the
circle relative to the point.
In this case, the AB < AC sin(C), as you can see in the highlighted
text above, therefore, there cannot exist a triangle with the given
sides and angle
May 22 2007.GWB - 2/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:18:47
As you can see, CD is equal to AC sin(A) which means there is exactly one triangle
with given sides and angle.
May 22 2007.GWB - 3/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:20:18
I bet you can guess which case this is...
May 22 2007.GWB - 6/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:23:23
Does the sin(A) have anything to do with this?
Is it just the length of AC? Explain.
May 22 2007.GWB - 7/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:23:35
May 22 2007.GWB - 8/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:23:51
May 22 2007.GWB - 13/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:25:19
May 22 2007.GWB - 14/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:25:30
Angle Bisector

Angle Bisector of a segment AB

Definition: AD is the angle bisector of BAC if mBAD= mCAD

Lemma: Every point on the angle bisector of BAC is equidistant to sides BA and AC.

Let C be a point on the line MC. We can construct a triangle, ABC.

The distance from D to AB is the length of the segment perpendicular to AB through
D. A similar definition can be made for a distance from D to AC. Intuitively; we
define it this way because it is the shortest distance from D to the line AC.

Proof:

Statement Reason
1. m DBA = mDCA 1. Definition of perpendicular
2. m CAD = m BAD 2.
3. 3. Reflexive property of Congruence
4. ADC ADB 4.
5. DB = DC 5.

A
B
C
D
Theorem: The intersection of all angle bisectors of a triangle is the center of the
circumscribed circle.

The point D is the intersection of the angle bisectors of ABC, ACB and BAC.
By the lemma above, the point is equidistant to AC, CB, and AB. If we assume that
three points uniquely determine a circle, then D must be the center of the circle
tangent to the points AB, BC and AC. This is called the inscribed circle.

We can use Cabri Jr to illustrate. The following Activities will help the students use
Cabri to verify the above lemmas and theorems.

If Cabri Jr. is unavailable, or you would prefer hands on constructions, the following
activity will help students see the incenter.

A
C
B
D
Perpendicular Bisector

Perpendicular Bisector of a segment AB

Definition: Let M be the midpoint of AB. The perpendicular bisector of AB is the line
through M perpendicular to AB.

1) Passes through the midpoint of AB
2) Perpendicular to AB

Lemma : Every point on the perpendicular bisector of AB is equidistant to A and B

Let C be a point on the line MC. We can construct a triangle, ABC.

Proof:

Statement Reason
1. AM = MB 1.
2. m C = m BMC 2.
3. 3. Reflexive property of Congruence
4. AMC BMC 4.
5. 5. Corresponding Parts of Congruent
Triangles are Congruent (CPCTC)

A
B
C
M

Theorem: The intersection of all perpendicular bisectors of a triangle is the center
of the circumscribed circle.

The point D is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of AB, AC and BC.
By the lemma above, the point is equidistant to A, C, and B. If we assume that three
points uniquely determine a circle, then D must be the center of the circle through
points A, B and C. This is called the circumscribed circle.

We can use Cabri Jr to illustrate. The following Activities will help the students use
Cabri to verify the above lemmas and theorems.

If Cabri Jr. is unavailable, or you would prefer hands on constructions, the following
activity will help students see the circumcenter.

A
C
B
D
Special Segments Verbal Quiz Special Segments Verbal Quiz
Medians, Angle bisectors,
Perpendicual Bisectors p
and Altitudes
Median
Passes through
midpoint
A
Connects to opposite
corner
B
C
2
Passes through
midpoint
A
Is perpendicular to
side.
C
B
3
Which one is it
Passes through
midpoint
A
corner
Median
B
C
4
Angle Bisector
Cuts angle in half
A
B
C
5
Altit de Altitude
A
Is perpendicular
Connects to opposite pp
corner
Height of a vertex
B
C
6
Which one is it
Cuts angle in half
Angle bisector g
7
Which one is it
Passes through
midpoint
Is perpendicular
8
Which one is it
Passes through
midpoint
corner
Median
9
Which one is it
Perpendicular
Connects to opposite pp
corner
Altitude
10
Which one is the Median
Passes through
midpoint
C
corner
LB
L
M A B
11
Which one is the perpendicular Which one is the perpendicular
bisector
Passes through
midpoint
C
Is perpendicular
CM
L
M
A B
12
Which one is the Altitude
corner
C
Is perpendicular
LB, CM
L
M
A B
13
Identify the following segment
Is it the perpendicular Is it the perpendicular
bisector? Why or why
not.
C
Is it the altitude? Why
or why not y
Is it the median? Why
or why not.
L
60 60
Is it the angle
bisector? Why or why
M
A B
60 60
14
not.
Geometry Test
FORM A
Special Segments of a Triangle

Name:____________________

For each of the following pictures, identify whether the segment, is a
A. perpendicular bisector
B. angle bisector
C. median
D. altitude

There may be more than one answer to each triangle. You may write the letter
only, rather than the entire word

1

2
3

5
5
2
3
1

4

5

6

7

8
40
40
4

5
4
4
7
8
42 42
6
9

10

11) Which of the following represents a angle bisector of the triangle?

10
9
12) Which of the following represents the median of the triangle below?

13) Sketch the perpendicular bisector of AB.

14) Sketch the altitude of CA.

OPEN RESPONSE

Use the information given in the triangle below to prove the statements below.

a) Name the theorem that gives ABM is congruent to CBM.

b) Use part a) to show that ABM is congruent to CBM.
45 45
Proofs Worksheet
Vocabulary Properties
Angle Bisector


Median

Altitude

Midsegment

1. Let ABC DBC. Suppose mACB = 90.Prove BC is the
perpendicular bisector of ADB.

Statement Proof

1. ABC DBC 1.
m ACB = 90

2. 2. Definition of Linear
Pair

3. 3.

4. 4. CPCTC

5. BC is the perpendicular bisector 5.
of AB
A
C
D
B

2) Let AB be the perpendicular bisector of CDE.

Show AE AC .

Statement Reason

1. 1. Definition of segment
Bisector

2. 2. Def. of Perpendicular

3. 3.

4. 4. SAS Postulate

5. 5. CPCTC

D
E
B
C
A

3) Let AD be the angle bisector of CAB

Show CAD DAB if and only if ABC is isosceles. Write a
paragraph proof.

By definition of isosceles, then __________________________.

Furthermore, CAD BAD, by ____________________________

____________________________________________. By the

reflexive property of congruence, ___________________________.

Therefore, ____________________________by SAS Theorem.

Now suppose CAD DAB. Then ABC is isosceles, by _______
__________________________.

D
B
A
C

4) Let P be the center of the circle below. Show AP is the median of
ABC.

5) Show that the altitude, median and perpendicular bisector are all the same
segment of and isosceles triangle.

a) Altitude if and only if Angle Bisector

b) Angle bisector if and only if median

c) Median if and only if Perpendicular bisector

A
C
B
P
Geometry
Bisectors and stuff

Perpendicular Bisector of a segment AB

2) Perpendicular to AB
3) Every point on it is equidistant to A and B
4) The intersection of all perpendicular bisectors of a triangle is the center of the
circumscribed circle. (around)
5) The intersection of all the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle is the center of the
circle which touches each vertex exactly once.

Angle bisector of a vertex

1) Splits the angle in two
2) Every point on the angle bisector is equidistant to adjacent sides
3) The intersection of all angle bisectors of a triangle is the center of the inscribed
circle (inside).
4) The intersection of all angle bisectors of a triangle is the center of the circle inside
the triangle which touches each side exactly once.

Median of a segment AB with opposite vertex, C.

1) The median passes through the midpoint of AB
2) The median passes through the vertex , C, opposite of AB
3) The intersection of all the medians, M, of a triangle is called the centroid
4) The intersection of all the medians, M, of a triangle is the center of gravity of a
triangle with equally distributed mass.
5) The distance from the C to M is two thirds the length of the median.

Altitude of a segment AB with opposite vertex, C.

1) The altitude is perpendicular to AB
2) The altitude passes throught the vertex, C, opposite AB
3) The altitude measure the height of the triangle.

Midsegment of a segment AB with opposite vertex C.

2) Passes through the midpoint of the side, AC, opposite AB.
3) Is parallel to the third side, BC.
4) Is half the length of the third side, BC.
Problems

1) Let ABC be an equilateral triangle. Show that the perpendicular bisector is also
the angle bisector. (Draw a picture)
a) Is it also the altitude? Explain
b) Is it also the median? Explain.

2) A cellular company want to build a satellite receptor station which will service
Stephens, Camden and McNeil. Stephens is 25 miles away from Camden and 15
miles away from McNeil. McNeil is about 35 miles away from Camden. The
cellular company want to build it in a spot equidistant to all three cities. How
should it go about doing it? Explain and draw a diagram to illustrate your theory.

3) You are a creative artist and want to create a unique mobile which does not hang,
but balances instead. You have a flat steel sheet in the shape of a traingle that you
want perfectly balanced on a steel pin. The dimensions of the traingle are 3
meters, 4 meters, and 5 meters. How would you find the point on which you need
to place the pin? Draw a diagram.

4) You are an engineer that is asked to build a new park. You need to build roads to
the park that will allow access to Stephens , McNeil, El Dorado, and Magnolia.
The Transportation Department tells you you can only build 3 roads. Highways
82, 57, and 79 all intersect to form a triangle. You are told the park has to be same
distance to all three highways. What do you do? Explain your answer and draw a
diagram.

May 22 2007.GWB - 9/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:24:09
May 22 2007.GWB - 10/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:24:26
May 22 2007.GWB - 11/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:24:46
May 22 2007.GWB - 12/14 - Tue May 22 2007 18:25:03
DilationandSimilarTriangles
Thetrianglesabovearesimilar.Theyhavethreecongruentangles.Wewouldliketodiscussthe
slopeofthehypotenuseswithouthavingtorelatethemtothexandycoordinates.Instead,we
wouldliketorelatetheslopewiththeanglethehypotenusemakeswiththepositivexaxis.
Calltheanglethehypotenusesmakewiththepositivexaxis,.Then,theslopeofthe
hypotenusewillbetan.Weknowthisiswelldefinedbecausethetrianglesaresimilar,
and,hence,theratioofytoxisthesame.
Now,letusdefine
cosxcoordinateofthepointontheunitcircledegreesfromthepositivexaxis.
sinycoordinateofthepointontheunitcircledegreesfromthepositivexaxis.
Thefollowingactivitywillhelpusseethisbetter.
5
4
3
2
1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
SpaghettiSineandCosineWave.
Steps:
1.Plotthepointswhichcorrespondtothedegreelistedinthetablebelow.
2.Findthexcoordinateusingtrianglesandfillinthetable
3.Findtheycoordinateusingtrianglesandfillinthetable
4.Cutalinguinethesamelengthasthexcoordinate.
a.Placeitonthecosinewaveonthecorrespondingangle.
b.Remembertotakeintoaccountitsdirection(positiveornegative)
c.Glueitdown.
5.Cutalinguinethesamelengthastheycoordinate.
a.Placeitonthesinewaveonthecorrespondingangle.
b.Remembertotakeintoaccountitsdirection(positiveornegative)
c.Glueitdown.
6.Repeatthisprocessuntilyouhavefinishedalloftheangles.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
Degree xcoordinate ycoordinate
0
30
45
60
90
120
135
150
180
210
225
240
270
300
330
345
Whatisthepattern?
Doyouseearelationshipbetweenthexandycoordinates?

Trigonometry Quiz 1
No Decimals !!

1)

Find y.

sin(25) cos(25)
tan(25) cot(25)
sec(25) csc(25)

25
5
5
2
y
2) A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle with center, C.
a) Find the radius of the circle.

b) Find the perimeter of the regular hexagon.

c) Find the area of the regular hexagon.

C
5

3)

Suppose sin() = .25. What is cos()?

Name___________________________

Right Triangle Trig

1. An observer standing 32 feet from a point directly below a hot air
balloon determines that the angle of elevation to the balloon is 24.
a. How high is the balloon at this time?
b. If the angle of elevation changes to 36, find the change in the
ACTUAL distance (not the distance along the ground) between the
balloon and the observer.

2. The pilot of a plane traveling at a constant altitude of 24,000 feet spots
his destination at an angle of depression of 12. Four minutes later, the
angle of depression to his destination is 53. Find the speed of the
plane in miles/hour.

PART III Released Open-Response Items Geometry
35
GEOMETRY OPEN-RESPONSE ITEM F
3.4 feet
1.5 feet
wing span
1 foot
(Not drawn to scale.)
F. Kyle is building a model airplane as shown in the diagram above. The wings are congruent.
1. Determine the length of the wing span of the model airplane. Show or explain all of your work
even if you use mental math or a calculator. Include units in your answer. (Round to the nearest
hundredth.)
2. Kyle wants to store his airplane in a box. The base of the box is 3
1
2
feet wide by 6
1
2
feet long.
Determine whether or not his airplane will fit in the box. Show or explain all of your work even
if you use mental math or a calculator. Include units in your answer.
BE SURE TO LABEL YOUR RESPONSES (1) AND (2).
0303--01160

baileym@asmsa.org

Euclid
Archimedes

Summer Workshop
Outline
Content Standard 3

1. Pol ygons and Pol yhedr a
a. Devel op f or mul a f or ar ea (M.3.G.2)
1. Di sc over i ng f or mul a f or ar ea of par al l el ogr am
2. Di sc over i ng f or mul a f or ar ea of t r apezoi d
3. Di sc over i ng f or mul a f or ar ea of r hombus
b. Devel op f or mul a f or ar ea of c i r c l e
1. Geomet r i c Pr obabi l i t y Ac t i vi t y(M.3.G.1)
2. Dat a Anal ysi s t o CONJ ECTURE ar ea of c i r c l e
3. Doubl e r educ t o ad abdsur di um
c . Devel op f or mul as f or vol ume and sur f ac e ar ea (M.3.G.2)
1. Pr i sms
2. Cyl i nder s and Spher es
3. Cones, Pyr ami ds and Tet r ahedr ons. Oh my!
2. Euc l i dean Const r uc t i on (M.3.G.5)
a. Mi dpoi nt
b. Par al l el t hr ough poi nt
c . Per pendi c ul ar l i ne t hr ough poi nt
d. Par al l el ogr am
e. Angl e Bi sec t or
f . Ref l ec t i on over a l i ne l
g. Angl e Bi sec t or

3. Usi ng Cabr i J r . t o c onst r uc t Euc l i dean
c onst r uc t i ons

Discovering Area Activity

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is for the students to discover the
formula for the area of various polygons
SLE

Materials:
1. Construction
2. Scissors
3. Tape or glue

Cut out the shapes below and make the parallelogram ABCD into
rectangle BEFC.

What is the relationship between the area of the two quadrilaterals?

What is the area of triangle ABE and triangle DCF?

A
B C
D E
F
Finish the proof that triangle ABE and DFC are congruent.

1. BE is the altitude of parallelogram ABCD 1. Definition of Altitude

2. 2. Definition of Altitude

3. BE CF 3.

4. AB DC 4. Corresponding Sides Thm

5. AEB DFC 5.

6. AEB DFC 6.

How does this prove that the areas of the quadrilaterals are congruent?

Can you generalize this to give a formula for the area of a parallelogram
with altitude, h, and base length, b?

Area of a Rhombus

Rhombus

To find the area of the rhombus, we add the area of both triangles. Since
both are congruent we need to multiply the area of one triangle by 2

Area of Triangle ABC =

Area of rhombus ABCD=
2 in
3 in
A
B C
D
Make a conjecture of a formula for the area of a rhombus:

Can you prove this conjecture?

Find another method to partition the rhombus which would yield the same
formula.
Discovering Area Activity

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is for the students to discover the
formula for the area of various polygons
SLE

Materials:
1. Construction
2. Scissors
3. Tape or glue

Cut out the shapes below and make the trapezoid ABCD into one
rectangle.

What theorem proves that EBC and DCB are right angles?

A
B C
D E F
b
1
b
2
h

What is the area of rectangle BCDE in terms of b
1
and h?

A
R
=

What is the area of ABE in terms of h and AE?

A
T1
=

What is the area of DCF in terms of h and DF?

A
T2
=

What is the area of the trapezoid in terms of A
R,
A
T1
and A
T2
?

Note that DF + b
1
+ AE = b
2
. Use this fact to find a formula for the area
of a trapezoid in terms of b
1
+ b
2
.

Is there another way to partition the trapezoid to yield this formula?
OPEN RESPONSE ITEM
GEOMETRY
Let

Let EF is the median of Isosceles Trapezoid ABCD.
Let MG be the perpendicular bisector of EF.

A. If AB = 12 and EF = 8, find DC.
B. If EM = 5, find MG.
C. Find the area of the trapezoid.
A B
D C
M
E F G
Geometric Probability
A Discovery Approach
A carnival game consists of throwing plastic balls into a square pool.
If the balls land in the center island, you win a prize. A diagram of the
game is illustrated below.

1 ft
6 ft
What is the probability of winning a prize?
To answer this question, let's model this problem in the calculator and use data analysis to make
a conjecture. A conjecture in this case will not lead us to a theorem, but a useful definition which
will model reality as accurately as possible.
First we must construct some equations or inequalities that model the figure above. In order to
find algebraic functions whose graphs fit the above picture we must choose a coordinate system

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
Points that land in the pool will be in the set of points P = {(x,y) | -3 < x < 3 and -3 < y < 3 }
Points that land in the island will be in the set of points I = {(x,y) | -.5 < x < .5 and -.5 < y < .5}
Create a list of 100 random integers between -3 and 3.
Open L1| L2 icon.
Double Click L1.
Enter "6rand(100) - 3". This will generate 100 random numbers between 0 and 1. Therefore
"6x+1" will translate and dilate so that we have 100 random numbers between -3 and 3.
Repeat this process in L2.
In order to count how many of the points land on the island, use the greatest integer function
translated to the right by 1/2.
L3 = int ( L1 + .5 ) L4 = int ( L2 + .5) will take all the values in the list, and 1/2 and truncate
the decimal portion. This will make all value between -.5 and .5 go to 0. So we need to count the
number of 0's.
Let L5 = abs(L3) + abs(L4) be the sum of the absolute values of L3 and L4. This will count how
many points land in the island because both have to be zero, in order for the point to land in the
square

1.23431 -2.0087 1 -2 3
2.72753 -2.6923 3 -3 6
0.44067 -1.2654 0 -1 1
-0.3063 -1.6888 0 -2 2
0.99979 -1.9309 1 -2 3
-2.446 1.51015 -2 2 4
-0.3029 0.2225 0 0 0
2.7866 -2.1359 3 -2 5
-1.6848 -2.7685 -2 -3 5
-0.5463 -1.9494 -1 -2 3
1.19586 1.62314 1 2 3
0.48945 -2.0612 0 -2 2
(0., 3.)
(1., 9.)
(2., 22.)
(3., 34.)
(4., 19.)
(5., 11.)
(6., 2.)
Which of the numbers represent the number of points which land on the island?
3 points satisfy both properties. Therefore, 3 out of 100 of the balls land on the island, or 3%
If we look at the area of the island, 1 square foot.
The area of the pool is 36 square feet.

1
36
= .027778
This is about 3%. It makes sense to model geometric probability of event, E, occuring as

P
=
Areaof EventOccuring
Areaof allPossibleOutcomes
Finding the Area of a Circle
Suppose the pool is a square with side length 2 yard and the area that will win a small prize is a
circle of radius 1 yard. By the definition above,

P
=
Areaof Circle
Areaof square
Therefore,

Areaof Circle = 4 P
Once again, we generate 100 random real numbers between 0 and 1. To get them to be in the
square, we must stretch them by a factor of 2 and translate down 1 unit.

.

-0.0667686462 0.601496935 0.605191387 0
0.2835254669 -0.71217525 0.766537851 0
-0.0159583092 0.385823131 0.386153021 0
-0.995085001 -0.03444695 0.995681049 0
0.440568924 -0.18997264 0.479781805 0
-0.5765093565 0.983042836 1.139621102 1
-0.5299412012 -0.42210555 0.677503338 0
0.2498081923 -0.0491395 0.254595411 0
-0.169580102 -0.9401387 0.955310516 0
0.01912176609 0.776006579 0.776242136 0
-0.8397688866 0.516974807 0.986141336 0
-0.2249773741 -0.49569345 0.544359082 0
To check if they are in the unit circle let L3 = (L1^{2} + L2^{2})^{.5} and L4 = int(L3)
Then if the length of the point is less than 1, the integral part will be zero.
Next, we will make a histogram of the information in List 4 to count how many balls landed in
the circle.

1 2
55
110
165
220
275
330
385
440
495
550
605
660
715
770
825
880
(0., 764.)
P(E) = .85 which implies the area of a circle is given by

.764
= 3.056
Therefore, the area of a circle is close to 3.056.
If we do this several times we should get that the average is approaching 3.14159.
Repeat this process with squares that have various lengths and inscribed circles.
Did you find a pattern?
Finding the Area of a Circle
Suppose the pool is a square with side length 2 yards and the area that you must hit to win a
small prize is a circle of radius 1 yard. By the definition above

-1 1
-1
1

P
=
Areaof Circle
Areaof Square
Therefore,

Areaof Circle = 4P
Once again, we generate 100 random real numbers between 0 and 1.

0.283616066 0.4612243176 0.5414480067 0
0.1300481558 0.7779903412 0.788784821 0
0.9437412024 -0.2904186249 0.9874160393 0
0.4931080341 0.02450764179 0.4937166777 0
0.3988467455 -0.2919644117 0.4942893324 0
0.5472661257 -0.4665930271 0.7191726255 0
0.4044573307 0.4967113733 0.6405528243 0
-0.8321408033 0.05377113819 0.8338762809 0
-0.2867639065 0.8924378157 0.9373786817 0
0.9134509563 0.2656451464 0.9512938523 0
-0.1912560463 0.005419850349 0.1913328253 0
-0.5026929379 -0.2440924644 0.5588213677 0
-0.9852180481 -0.8306866884 1.288679548 1
-0.5433630943 -0.3951821327 0.6718722872 0
0.4481358528 0.04461431503 0.4503511737 0
L1 and L2 = 2*rand(100)-1 L3 = ((L2)^2 + (L1)^2)^(.5) L4= int(L3)
Why did we define List 1 and List 2 in this way? Recall that rand(100) generates 100 random real
numbers between 0 and 1.
What is the geometric interpretation of the value in List 2?
Why did we take the integer part of List 2?
What is the geometric representation of all the points whose value is 0 in List 3?
What is the geometric representation of all the points whose value is 1 in List 3?
Make a Histogram of your data?
Which of the values represent the experimental geometric probability of landing in the circle.
Take the average experimental geometric probability of the class. What is this value? Estimate
the area of the circle?
Repeat this experiment with a circle of radius 3 inscribed in a square? What is the ratio of this
area to the area of the unit circle?
Do you see a pattern?Make a conjecture.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICAL TOPIC V
ARCHIMEDES ON CIRCLES AND SPHERES
PAUL L. BAILEY
Abstract. Disclaimer: some sections of this document were lifted from
the internet, but I no longer remember which ones.
1. Precursors of Archimedes
1.1. Pythagorean Irrational Numbers. The Pythagoreans (ca. 500 B.C.)
proved the existence of irrational numbers in the form of incommensurable
quantities. This tore at the fabric of their world view, based on the supremacy
of whole numbers, and it is legend that the demonstrator of irrational numbers
was thrown overboard at sea.
1.2. Zenos Paradoxes. Zeno (ca. 450 B.C.) developed his famous paradoxes
of motion.
1.2.1. The Dichotomy. The rst paradox asserts the non-existence of motion on
the grounds that which is in locomotion must arrive at the half-way stage before
it arrives at the goal.
1.2.2. Achilles and the Tortoise. The second paradox asserts that it is impossible
for Achilles to overtake the tortoise when pursuing it, for he must rst reach a
point where the tortoise had been, but the tortoise had in the meantime moved
forward.
1.2.3. The Arrow. The third paradox is that the ying arrow is at rest, which
result follows from the assumption that time is composed of moments.
1.2.4. The Stadium. The fourth paradox concerns bodies which move alongside
bodies in the stadium from opposite directions, from which it follows, according
to Zeno, that half the time is equal to its double.
1.3. Eudoxus Method of Exhaustion. Eudoxus (ca. 370 B.C.) is remem-
bered for two major mathematical contributions: the Theory of Proportion,
which lled the gaps in the Pythagorean theories created by the existence of
incommensurable quantities, and the Method of Exhaustion, which dealt with
Zenos Paradoxes. This method is based on the proposition: If from any magni-
tude there be subtracted a part not less than its half, from the remainder another
part not less than its half, and so on, there will at length remain a magnitude
less than any preassigned magnitude of the same kind.
Date: June 5, 2007.
1
2
Archimedes credits Eudoxus with applying this method to nd that the vol-
ume of any cone is on third part of the cylinder which has the same base with
the cone and equal height.
1.4. Euclids Elements. Euclid of Alexandria (ca. 300 B.C.) wrote The Ele-
ments, which may be the second most published book in history (after the Bible).
The work consists of thirteen books, summarizing much of the basic mathematics
of the time, spanning plane and solid geometry, number theory, and irrational
numbers.
2. Results from Euclid
Result 1. The circumferences of two circles are to each other as their diameters.
Using modern notation, this says that if we are given two circles with diame-
ters D
1
and D
2
, and circumferences C
1
and C
2
, then
C
1
C
2
=
D
1
D
2
, whence
C
1
D
1
=
C
2
D
2
.
From this, one may conclude that for any given circle, the ratio between the
circumference and the diameter is a constant:
C
D
= p, so C = pD.
We shall call p the circumference constant.
Result 2. The areas of two circles are to each other as the squares of their
diameters.
That is, if A
1
and A
2
represent the area of circles with diameters D
1
and D
2
,
then
A
1
A
2
=
D
2
1
D
2
2
, whence
A
1
D
2
1
=
A
2
D
2
2
,
which says that there is an area constant for any circle:
A
D
2
= k, so A = kD
2
.
However, Euclid doesnt mention, and possibly doesnt realize, that p and k are
related.
Result 3. The volumes of two spheres are to each other as the cubes of their
diameters.
Thus if V
1
and V
2
are the volumes of spheres of diameter D
1
and D
2
, then
V
1
V
2
=
D
3
1
D
3
2
, whence
V
1
D
3
1
=
V
2
D
3
2
;
again, one sees that, for again given sphere, there is a volume constant m such
that
V
D
3
= m, so V = mD
3
.
Note that in each of these three cases (circumference, area, volume), the
original statements by Euclid compare like units (e.g. length is to length as area
is to area), whereas the modern tendency is to compare aspects of the same
object (e.g. area is to length squared).
3
3. Measurement of a Circle
Proposition 1. The area of any circle is equal to a right-angled triangle in
which one of the sides about the right angle is equal to the radius, and the other
to the circumference, of the circle.
Let be C be the circumference, r the radius, and A the area of the circle. Let
T be the area of a right triangle with legs of length r and C. Then T =
1
2
rC.
Archimedes claims that A = T, so A =
1
2
rC.
Lemma 1. Let h be the apothem and let Q be the perimeter of a regular polygon.
Then the area of the polygon is
P =
1
2
hQ.
Proof. Suppose the polygon has n sides, each of length b. Clearly Q = nb. Then
the area is subdivided into n triangles of base b and height h, so
P = n(
1
2
hb) =
1
2
hQ.
Lemma 2. Consider a circle of area A and let > 0. Then there exists an
inscribed polygon with area P
1
and a circumscribed polygon with area P
2
such
that
A < P
1
< A < P
2
< A+.
Proof. Archimedes simply says: Inscribe a square, then bisect the arcs, then
bisect (if necessary) the halves and so on, until the sides of the inscribed polygon
whose angular points are the points of the division subtend segments whose sum
is less than the excess of the area of the circle over the triangle.
Proof of Proposition. By double reductio ad absurdum.
Suppose that A > T. Then A T > 0, so there exists an inscribed regular
polygon with area P such that A P < A T. Thus P > T. If Q is the
perimeter and h the apothem of the polygon, we have
P =
1
2
hQ <
1
2
rC = T,
a contradiction.
On the other hand, suppose that A < T. Then T A > 0, so there exists
a circumscribed polygon with area P such that P A < T A. Thus P < T.
However, if Q is the perimeter and h the apothem of the polygon, we have
P =
1
2
hQ >
1
2
rC = T,
a contradiction.
Therefore, as Archimedes writes, since then the area of the circle is neither
greater nor less than [the area of the triangle], it is equal to it.
4
Proposition 2. The ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter is
less the 3
1
7
but greater than 3
10
71
.
Proof. Inscribe a hexagon. Compute the area:
=
C
D
>
Q
D
=
6r
2r
= 3.
Archimedes next doubles the number of vertices to obtain a regular do-
decagon. The computation of its area requires accurate extraction of

3, which
Archimedes estimates as
1.732026
265
153
<
3 <
1351
780
1.732051
,
which is impressively close. The Archimedes continues with 24, 48, and nally
96 sides, at each stage extracting more sophisticated square roots.
Next circumscribe a hexagon and continue to 96 sides.
In decimal notation, my calculator says that
3
10
71
=
223
71
3.14085 < 3.14159 < 3
1
7
=
22
7
3.14286.
4. On the Sphere and the Cylinder
The two volume work entitled On the Sphere and the Cylinder is Archimedes
undisputed masterpiece, probably regarded by Archimedes himself as the apex
of his career. These two volumes are constructed in a manner similar to Euclids
Elements, in that it proceeds from basic denitions and assumptions, through
simpler known results, onto the new discoveries of Archimedes.
Among the results in this work are the following. This rst describes the
surface area of a sphere in terms of the area of a circle, thus comparing area to
area.
Proposition 3. The surface of any sphere is equal to four times the greatest
circle in it.
Technique of Proof. Double reductio ad absurdum: assumption that the area is
more leads to a contradiction, as does assumption that the area is less. One needs
to understand the area of a cone to accomplish these estimates (why?).
Let us translate this into modern notation. Let r be the radius of the sphere
and let S be its surface area. Then the radius of the greatest circle in it is r
2
.
Thus Archimedes shows that
S = 4r
2
.
The next proposition describes the volume of a sphere in terms of the volume
of a cone.
Proposition 4. Any sphere is equal to four times the cone which has its base
equal to the greatest circle in the sphere and its height equal to the radius of the
sphere.
Note that again, Archimedes has expressed the volume of the sphere in terms
of the volume of a known solid; this is because the Greeks did not have modern
algebraic notation. Using modern notation, we let r be the radius and let V be
5
the volume of the sphere. The volume of the cone of radius r and height r, as
determined by Eudoxus, is
1
3
r
3
. Thus
V =
4
3
r
3
.
6
In this way, Archimedes found the relationship between the circumference
constant p, the area constant k (in Measurement of a Circle), and the volume
constant m: We have
C = pD, A = kD
2
, , and V = mD
3
,
and Archimedes has shown (in modern notation) that
C = D (that is, p = )
A = r
2
=
D
2
2
=

4
D (so k =

4
)
V =
4
3
r
3
=
4
3
D
2
3
=

6
D
3
(so m =

6
)
From here, Archimedes now describes an astounding discovery.
Suppose we have a sphere of radius r, surface area S, and volume V . Inscribe
this sphere in a right circular cylinder, whose radius would also be r and whose
height would be 2r. Then the surface area A
cyl
of the cylinder is simply the
areas of the base and top circle, plus the area of the rectangle which forms the
tube of the cylinder:
A
cyl
= 2(r
2
) + (2r)(2r) = 6r
2
.
Thus
A
cyl
: A
sph
= (6r
2
) : (4r
2
) = 3 : 2.
Moreover, the volume of the cylinder is the area of the circular base times the
height:
V
cyl
= (r
2
)(2r) = 2r
3
.
Again, we have
V
cyl
: V
sph
= (2r
3
) : (
4
3
r
3
) = 3 : 2.
This so intrigued Archimedes that he requested that his tombstone be en-
graved with a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, together with the ratio 3 : 2. Appar-
ently, Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse, was so impressed with Archimedes,
that he granted this wish.
Department of Mathematics and CSci, Southern Arkansas University
E-mail address: plbailey@saumag.edu
May 23 2007.GWB - 1/4 - Wed May 23 2007 14:57:17
May 23 2007.GWB - 2/4 - Wed May 23 2007 14:57:40
May 23 2007.GWB - 3/4 - Wed May 23 2007 14:58:06
May 23 2007.GWB - 4/4 - Wed May 23 2007 14:58:30
Surface Area

This activity is rather simple, yet informative for the student. Using nets for various
polyhedra, they can formulate the surface area as the sum of the areas of the mutually
disjoint polygons that make up the net.

For example, below is the net for a cylinder. Find the area of each of the shapes that make
the net. Cut out the shape below and make the cylinder. The surface area of a solid is the
area of the surface enclosing it. What is the surface area of the cylinder?

Repeat this process for the nets you are given in class.

Can you devise anymore formulas? If so, write them below along with your reasons for
believing this.
Surface Area of a Sphere
Author: Laura Jewell

Grades: 6-12
Here is a concrete way to show students why the surface area of a sphere is derived from
the formula 4 pi x r
2
.
Students should already understand that the surface area of an object can be represented
by how much wrapping paper it would take to cover it. Ask them to then picture a sphere
(a balloon or ball) and a piece of paper that is cut as wide as its diameter and as long as
its circumference.

If you wrap the ball with the paper, you see that it would cover the entire sphere if it
weren't for all the overlaps (which would fit into the gaps if you cut them out).
The formula for the surface area of the paper is:
length x width = circumference x diameter
This is easily understood by looking at the picture above. Now substitute formulas we
know:
C = 2 pi x r and d = 2 r
C x d = 4 pi x r
2
= surface area

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Construction of Perpendicular Bisector (Whistler Alley Mathematics)
http://whistleralley.com/math.htm
Construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment.
Or, construct the midpoint of a line segment.
1. Begin with line segment XY.
2. Place the compass at point X. Adjust the compass radius
so that it is more than (1/2)XY. Draw two arcs as shown
here.
3. Without changing the compass radius, place the compass
on point Y. Draw two arcs intersecting the previously
drawn arcs. Label the intersection points A and B.
4. Using the straightedge, draw line AB. Label the
intersection point M. Point M is the midpoint of line
segment XY, and line AB is perpendicular to line segment
XY.

For each of the following steps, explain why the procedure works
and what it is accomplishing.

Given point P on line k, construct a line through P, perpendicular to k.
1. Begin with line k, containing point P.
2. Place the compass on point P. Using an arbitrary radius,
draw arcs intersecting line k at two points. Label the
intersection points X and Y.

so that it is more than (1/2)XY. Draw an arc as shown here.
on point Y. Draw an arc intersecting the previously drawn
arc. Label the intersection point A.
5. Use the straightedge to draw line AP. Line AP is
perpendicular to line k.

Given point R, not on line k, construct a line through R, perpendicular to k.
1. Begin with point line k and point R, not on the line.
2. Place the compass on point R. Using an arbitrary radius,
draw arcs intersecting line k at two points. Label the
intersection points X and Y.

so that it is more than (1/2)XY. Draw an arc as shown here.
on point Y. Draw an arc intersecting the previously drawn
arc. Label the intersection point B.
5. Use the straightedge to draw line RB. Line RB is
perpendicular to line k.

Construct the bisector of an angle.
1. Let point P be the vertex of the angle. Place the
compass on point P and draw an arc across both
sides of the angle. Label the intersection points Q
and R.

2. Place the compass on point Q and draw an arc
across the interior of the angle.

3. Without changing the radius of the compass, place
it on point R and draw an arc intersecting the one
drawn in the previous step. Label the intersection
point W.
4. Using the straightedge, draw ray PW. This is the
bisector of QPR.

Given a line and a point, construct a line through the point, parallel to the given line.
1. Begin with point P and line k.
2. Draw an arbitrary line through point P,
intersecting line k. Call the intersection point Q.
Now the task is to construct an angle with vertex P,
congruent to the angle of intersection.
3. Center the compass at point Q and draw an arc
intersecting both lines. Without changing the radius
of the compass, center it at point P and draw
another arc.
4. Set the compass radius to the distance between
the two intersection points of the first arc. Now
center the compass at the point where the second arc
intersects line PQ. Mark the arc intersection point
R.
5. Line PR is parallel to line k.

10-15 Minut e I nt eract ive Geomet ry Lessons Using
Cabri Jr on t he TI -84

3
T I nt ernat ional Conference
Chicago, I L
March 9-11, 2007

Present ers:

Leigh Heilemeier
Dakot a Jr/ Sr High School
Dakot a, I L
lheilemeier@dakota201.com

Cat herine St evens
Le-Win High School
Lena, I L
stevensc@le-win.net

Geomet ry: Parallel Lines and Angles

Using your graphing calculator, you will discover some of the properties of angles that
are created by parallel lines that are cut by a transversal.

Open the file prllines in Cabri Jr. Your screen should resemble the one below. Using
the picture label the angles as alternate interior, same-side interior, corresponding and
alternate exterior appropriately.

Alternate Interior Angles:

Same-Side Interior Angles:

Corresponding Angles:

Alternate Exterior Angles:

1. Use the measure tool, and measure two pairs of alternate interior angles. What
conjecture can you make about alternate interior angles?

2. Use the measure tool, and measure two pairs of same-side interior angles. What
conjecture can you make about alternate interior angles?

3. Use the measure tool, and measure two pairs of corresponding angles. What
conjecture can you make about corresponding angles?

4. Use the measure tool, and measure two pairs of alternate exterior angles. What
conjecture can you make about alternate exterior angles?

Geomet r y: Sum of I nt er i or / Ext er i or Angl es of Pol ygons

Partner 1:

You will be using the graphing calculator and the CabriJr application to complete this activity.
Follow the directions below.

1. Begin by pressing the APPS key, and then select CabriJr.
2. You will be opening several different files, all listed in the table below, and using the
measure tool measure all interior angles and exterior angles of the polygon.
3. Record the sum of both the interior and exterior angles in the table below.

Shape File Name
Number of
Sides
Sum of Interior
Angles
Sum of Exterior
Angles
Triangle Triangle 3
Quadrilateral Quad1
Pentagon Pent1
Hexagon Hex1
Heptagon Hept1
Octagon Oct1

Based on your findings, what conjecture can you make about the sum of the exterior angles of any
polygon?

Based on your findings, what conjecture can you make about the sum of the interior angles of any
polygon?

Collaborate with your partner. Together can you create a formula for finding the sum of the
interior angles of any polgyon?

Partner 2:

Below are five different polygons. One polygon at a time, pick one vertex and draw all possible
diagonals. Knowing that a triangles interior angles have a sum of 180 degrees, determine the sum
of the interior angles for each polygon.

Quadrilateral Pentagon

Sum of Interior Angles = _______ Sum of Interior Angles = _______

Hexagon Heptagon

Sum of Interior Angles = _______ Sum of Interior Angles = _______

Octagon

Sum of Interior Angles = _______

Based on your findings, what conjecture can you make about the sum of the interior angles of any
polygon?

Collaborate with your partner. Together can you create a formula for finding the sum of the
interior angles of any polgyon?

Transformations
Compositions of Reflections

Reflection of a figure over intersecting lines.

Steps

1. Draw two intersecting lines. F2:Line.
2. Label the point of intersection O. F5:Alph-Num.
3. Measure O. F5: Measure Angle.
4. Draw a triangle above the two lines. F2:Triangle.
5. Reflect the triangle over the first line. F4:Reflect
6. Reflect the image of the triangle over the second line. F4:Reflect.

Make a sketch of your screen

Q1. Is the third triangle a reflection of the first? _______________________________

If not, what transformation would map the first triangle onto the third?

____________________________________

Q2: What is the center of rotation? ________________________________________

Investigation
What is the degree of rotation that will map the first triangle onto the third?

Using the calculator draw segments (F2:Segments) from O to a vertex of the first
triangle and from O to the corresponding image point of the third triangle.

Measure the angle form.

Q3: How does the angle of the rotated figures compare to the measure of the angle
formed by the intersecting lines. ____________________________________

Reflection of a figure over Parallel lines.
Due of the complexity in constructing the parallel lines and finding the distance between
them. This activity may be best done as a demo.

Steps

1. Draw two Parallel lines. F2:Line
2. Measure distance between parallel lines. F5: Measure D & Length
3. Draw a triangle on the left side of the first line. F2:Triangle
4. Reflect the triangle over the first line. F4:Reflection
5. Reflect the image of the triangle over the second line. F4:Reflection

Make a sketch of your screen.

Q1. Is the third triangle a reflection of the first? _______________________________

If not, what transformation would map the first triangle onto the third?

____________________________________

Investigation

Using the calculator draw a segment (F2:Segment) from a vertex of the first triangle to
the corresponding image point of the third triangle.

Measure the length of the segment. F5:Measure D & Length

Q3: How does the length of the segment from first triangle to the third triangle compare
to the distance between the parallel lines?

________________________________

Centers of a Triangle

Medians of a triangle

Q1: What is the definition of a median in a triangle?
________________________________________________________________
Using the TI-84 and Cabri App, construct a triangle and its medians, use the steps below.

Steps
1. Start with a new sketch F1: New.
2. Make a triangle, F2: Triangle.
3. Find the midpoint of each side of the triangle, F3: Midpoint.
4. Draw a segment from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side,
creating the median, F2: Segment.
5. Draw in the other two medians.
6. Put a point at the intersection of the medians, F2: Point, Intersection.
This point of concurrency is called the centroid.
7. Make a sketch of your screen.

Q3: Does the centroid ever go outside of the triangle? _________________________
Investigation
1. Measure the length from the vertex to the centroid, F5: Measure, D. & Length
_________
2. Measure the length of the median. F5: Measure, D. & Length _________
Q4: Make a conjecture about the length from the vertex to the centroid
and the length of the entire median.
________________________________________________________________
3. Use F5: Calculate to check your conjecture.
Centers of a Triangle (part 2)

Perpendicular Bisectors of a triangle
Q1: What is the definition of a perpendicular bisector of a triangle?
_______________________________________________________________
Using the TI-84, Cabri Apps, use the steps below to construct the perpendicular bisectors
of a triangle.

Steps
1. Start with a new sketch F1: New.
2. Make a triangle, F2: Triangle.
3. Construct the perpendicular bisector of one side of the triangle. F3: Perp. Bis.
4. Repeat this step for the other two sides.
5. Put a point at the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors, F2: Point,
Intersection. This point of concurrency is called the circumcenter.
6. Make a sketch of the screen.

Q2: Does the circumcenter ever go outside of the triangle? ___________________
If so, when? ______________________________________________________

Q3: When is the circumcenter on the triangle? ______________________________

Investigation

Draw a circle with center, C, and one of the vertices of the triangle. F2: Circle.

Q4: What do you observe about the circle and the triangle?
_______________________________________________________________

Q5: What can you say about the circumcenter and its relationship to the vertices of the
triangle? _____________________________________________________
Cent ral & I nscribed Angles

Using a graphing calculator you will investigate two types of angles within a circle.
Using your books definitions, identify the central angle and the inscribed angle in the
circle below.

The central angle is

The inscribed angle is

Using Cabri Jr, create a drawing of a circle similar to the one above. Use the CIRCLE
command, and then use POINT ON to place points A, C and D on the circle. By
selecting the SEGEMENT tool, create an inscribed and central angle within your circle
using points A, C and D.

Measure each angle and record the measurements here:

Central Angle __________ Inscribed Angle __________

Drag the sides of both angles to create a new central and inscribed angles. Record the
new measurements here:


Create on more new set of angles as you did above, and record the new measurements
here:


By looking at your angle measurements, what conjecture can you make about an
Inscribed angle?

Midsegment s of Triangles

The midsegment of a triangle is a segment that joins
two sides of a triangle through the midpoints. See
the diagram to the left.

Complete this investigation by following the steps
below:

* Using Cabri Jr, create a new file and draw a
TRIANGLE from the construct menu.

* Select F3, to construct the midpoint on two sides of the triangle.
Then select the SEGMENT tool and construct a segment
between the two midpoints.

* From the measure menu, F5, select D&LENGTH from the MEASURE submenu and
measure the length of the midsegment. Using the same tools, measure the length of the
base of the triangle.

* Select the measure menu again, this time use SLOPE from the MEASURE submenu.
Determine the slope of both the midsegment and the base of the triangle.

Do you see any relationships between the lengths and between the slopes?

Grab a vertex of one of the base angles, and drag the triangle around. How are the
measures changing? Do they still follow the same relationship?

Use what youve discovered to write a conjecture about the midsegment of a triangle.
Midsegment
Activity

1. Use Geometry Sketchpad to construct a square of area 2. Explain your construction
and give a procedure.

2. Use Geometry sketchpad to construct a square of area 3. . Explain your construction
and give a procedure.

3. Use Geometry Sketchpad to construct a line of length
2
5 1+
. . Explain your
construction and give a procedure.

\

Multiple Choice
and and
Constructed Response
Writing an EOC comparable Writing an EOC comparable
Question or Problem.
Multiple Choice Multiple Choice
zAligned with Arkansas Frameworks
M i l t zMeasures single concept
zClear and concise
zG d i t l zGrade appropriate language
zWell-defined answer
zPlausible Distractors in numerical or alphabetical zPlausible Distractors in numerical or alphabetical
order
zCorrect (grammatically and mathematically) Correct (grammatically and mathematically)
zAvoids negatives, determiners, All/None of
above
zRepeat words from stem
Open Response Open Response
zIs aligned with the Arkansas Frameworks zIs aligned with the Arkansas Frameworks
zRequires higher level cognitive skills
zIs written clearly and concisely zIs written clearly and concisely
zIs appropriate difficulty level
zH t th t l t t h th zHas parts that relate to each other
zIs relevant to the life of a typical student*
zIs complex enough to support a 4-scoring
rubric
Example Multiple Choice Example Multiple Choice
B C
D A
Which of the following could be used to justify ?
DAB +
ABC = 180

a. Alternate Exterior Angles
Theorem
b. Alternate Interior Angles
Theorem
c. Consecutive Interior Angle
Theorem
d. Corresponding Angles Theorem
Joe drew three noncollinear points on a p
piece of paper. He would like to construct
the circle through these points. Which of g p
the following should he construct to find
the center of the circle? the center of the circle?
A. The Angle Bisectors
B. The Altitudes
C The Medians C. The Medians
D. The Perpendicular Bisectors
x
B C
A
D
B bb M d i l d H th id
E
F
Bobby sees a Merry-go-round in a playground. He measures the sides
of the Merry-go-round and finds that it is a regular hexagon and
sees that it spins on the intersection of all its diagonals. There are
seats at each of the six vertices that are labeled as above.
1. At what angle would Bobby have to spin the Merry-go-round to
ensure seat A inhabits the location previously occupied by seat B?
2 Assume that all the diagonals bisect each other Use this information 2. Assume that all the diagonals bisect each other. Use this information
to find x.
3. Prove the triangles in the figure above are all congruent.
Suppose Plane A is traveling from Pheonix
represented by P on the figure below, to Lima, Peru,
Represented by L. The radius of the earth is 6377km.
1. Let C be the center of the Earth. Find the shortest
distance the plane can fly to travel from P to T.
2. Plane A wants to continue to Hawaii, represented by H.
Fuel costs $3.00 a gallon and it the plane can travel three
miles to every gallon. The plane had 300 gallons of fuel in
its tank went it landed in Lima. How much fuel does the
plane need to make it to Hawaii, if the central angle from plane need to make it to Hawaii, if the central angle from
Lima to Hawaii is 83.
P
56
r
H
LL
PART III Released Open-Response Items Geometry
32
GEOMETRY OPEN-RESPONSE ITEM E
E. Carol is a school crossing guard standing in front of the school. At 9:00 A.M., the school casts a
40-foot shadow. Carol is 5.5 feet tall and her shadow at 9:00 A.M. is 8.8 feet long.
1. Determine the height of the school. Show or explain all of your work even if you use mental
math or a calculator. Include units in your answer.
2. On some days, Donna helps Carol. Donna is 5.25 feet tall and at 9:00 A.M. she stands completely
in the schools shadow. Determine how far away from the school Donna can stand and still be
completely in the schools shadow. Show or explain all of your work even if you use mental
math or a calculator. Include units in your answer.
BE SURE TO LABEL YOUR RESPONSES (1) AND (2).
0303--01161

baileym@asmsa.org

Summer Workshop
Outline
Content Standard 4

1. Pr oper t i es of Quadr i l at er al s PPT (R.4.G.1)

2. Pol ygons I nt er i or and Ex t er i or Angl es(R.4.G.2)

3. Tessel at e(R.4.G.3)

4. Ci r c l es and Ar c s(R.4.G.5)
a. Tangent s, Sec ant s and Theor ems
b. Ar c s and Ar c Lengt h

5. Or t hogr aphi c Dr aw i ng Ac t i vi t y(R.4.G.7)
a. Const r uc t i on w i t h Bl oc k s
b. Dr aw i ng usi ng Par al l el Li nes

4. What i s Euc l i dean Geomet r y?(R.4.G.8)
a. What i s Non-Euc l i dean Geomet r y?
b. Why i s i t Non-Euc l i dean Geomet r y nec essar y?
c . Lobac hevsk ys negat i on of t he f i f t h post ul at e.

5. Ex pl or i ng non-Euc l i dean Geomet r y
a. Di st anc e geodesi c s (Li nes) ar e gr eat c i r c l es
b. St er eogr aphi c Pr oj ec t i on and I nf i ni t y .
c . Met r i c s on Spher es.

6. Hyper bol i c and El l i pt i c Geomet r y
Q d il t l Quadrilaterals
Classificat ion
T id Trapezoid
D fi i i A Definit ion: A
t rapezoid is a
quadrilat eral wit h quadrilat eral wit h
one set of parallel
lines
P ll l Parallelogram
D fi i i A Definit ion: A
parallelogram is a
quadrilat eral quadrilat eral
whose opposit e
sides are parallel.
PARALLELOGRAMS PARALLELOGRAMS
i Propert ies:
{ Opposit e Angles
are Congruent are Congruent
i Propert ies:
{ Opposit e Angles
Corresponding Angle Thm
Alt ernat e I nt erior Angle Thm
P i Propert ies:
{ Consecut ive
Angles are Angles are
Supplement ary
A corollary t o
Consecut ive
I t i A l I nt erior Angle
P i Propert ies:
{ Opposit e Sides are
Congruent Congruent
Rh b Rhombus
Definit ion: Definit ion:
A rhombus is a parallelogram
whose sides are all
congruent g
Properties:
Diagonals are perpendicular
Rh b Rhombus
P i { Propert ies:
Diagonals Bisect
Angles Angles
KITES KITES
D fi i A ki i Defint ion: A kit e is a
quadrilat eral whose
adj acent adj acent
( neighboring) sides
are congruent
Propert ies: Diagonals
are perpendicular are perpendicular
R t l Rectangle
D fi i i Definit ion:
{ A r ect angl e is a
parallelogram wit h parallelogram wit h
four right angles
Propert ies:
Diagonals are
t congruent
SSquare
D fi i i Definit ion:
{ A squar e is a
rect angle wit h four rect angle wit h four
congruent sides
Cl ifi ti Q d il t l Classification Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals Trapezoid
Isosceles
Trapezoid
Kites
Parallelograms
Trapezoid
Rectangles
Rhombuses Rhombuses
Square
P i Propert ies:
{ Opposit e Angles
{ Consecut ive
Angles are g
Supplement ary
{ Opposit e Sides are
C t Congruent
{ Diagonals Bisect
each ot her each ot her
Geometry Proof

Show if the opposite angles are supplementary then ABCD is rectangle.

REMEMBER: You are only given that ABCD is a parallelogram.
Statements Reasons
0. m 1 + m 4 = 180 0.
1. m 1 + m 2 = 180 1.
2. m 4 + m 2 = 180 2.
3. m 1 = m 4 3.
4. m. 1 = 90 = m 4 4.
5. m 3 + m 1 = 180 5.
6. m 1 + m 2 = 180 6.
7. m 3 = m 2 7.
8. m. 3 = 90 = m 2 8.

6. Let M be the midpoint of AD and N be the midpoint of BC. Show that MN bisects the
diagonals, AC and BD.

1 2

3 4
A B
C D
N M
Polygon:Aclosedfiguremadeupbyanumberoflinesegmentswhichintersectonlyattheendpoints.
EXAMPLES:
NONEXAMPLES:
Convex:Apolygonisconvexifanytwopointsintheinteriorofthepolygonandthelinesegment
betweenliescompletelywithintheinterior.
Whichoftheexamplesofpolygonsareconvex?
Tryit.Pickanytwopointsinsidethepolygon,andimaginethelinesegmentbetweenthem,doesitstay
insidethepolygon,orventureout?
RegularPolygonsandAngles
Numberof
Sides
Name Sumof
InteriorAngles
Measureof
InteriorAngle
Measureof
ExteriorAngle
3
10
11
12
Geometry
Practice Test Name:
Problem 1. Circle the answer which completes the sentence best.
(a) The sum of the angles of an pentagon is { 5(180) , 3(180), 3(360) }.
(b) A regular triangle is also called { isosceles, right, equilateral } triangle.
(c) The { median , altitude, base } of a trapezoid goes from the midpoint
of one leg to the midpoint of the other.
(d) The exterior angles of a polygon is { always, never, sometimes } 360
o
.
(e) The { base, leg, altitude } is one of the parallel sides of the trapezoid.
Problem 2. Show that if the opposite angles of a parallelogram are supplemen-
tary, then the parallelogram is a rectangle.
Write a paragraph proof.
Problem 3. Which of the following is not a polygon?
Problem 4. How many sides does a regular convex polygon have if its exterior
angle measures 60
o
.
1
a)
b)
c)
d)
2
Problem 5. Suppose an irregular hexagon has four angles which measure 115
o
,
112
o
, 130
o
and 125
o
. If two sides adjacent to the missing angles are congruent.
What are the measurements of the last two sides.
Problem 6. What is the measure of the interior angle of a regular convex 12-
gon.
Tesselation Activity

A tessellation is a pattern in which shapes fit together to cover a plane without
overlaps, or gaps. Sometimes it is called a tiling. There are conditions which these shapes
must satisfy in order to fit into such pattern. We will investigate what these conditions are
and which shapes satisfy these conditions.

You are given numerous polygons. For each of the polygons below, test whether or not
the figure tessellates. Record it into the table below. Then fill out the remaining
information. Do you see a pattern? Make a conjecture.

Name of
Polygon
Number
of Sides
Tessellate
(Y/N)
Measure of
Interior Angle
Measure of
Exterior Angle
Triangle

3

Y

60 120
Isosceles
Triangle

Equilateral
Triangle

Trapezoid

Square

Rectangle

Parallelogram

Pentagon

Hexagon

Octagon

Conjecture:

What kind of transformation is a tessellation? Is it a translation? A reflection? Or a
rotation?

Tessellation by translation

In order for this tessellation to work, the measure of angle a and b must be
supplementary. Since this is a translation, it is necessary that horizontally consecutive
angles be supplementary.

Tesselation by rotation

As you can see, the interior angles of this polygon must be able to rotate about a vertex
and create one entire revolution. Therefore, it is necessary for the interior angles to divide
360.

Tesselation by reflection

For a polygon to tessellate by reflection, the vertically consecutive interior angles must be
supplementary.
a b
Circles

Vocabulary

A circle is a set of point equidistant to a given point, the center.

A chord is a segment whose endpoints are on the circle.

A diameter is a chord which passes through the center

A radius is a segment from the radius to the center.

A tangent line to a circle is a line which intersects the circle at only one point

A secant line of a circle is a line which intersects the circle at two points.

r
Theorem 1: A line is tangent to a circle if and only if it is perpendicular to the radius at
the point of tangency (the intersection of the tangent line and the circle).
Let D be the point of tangency.
Let A be the center of the
circle.
Let B be the point on the line
whose distance to A is
minimal.
Then AB is perpendicular to
BD and AB r = AD.
But B is on the exterior of the
circle because the tangent line
intersects the circle only once.
Therefore, AB AD = r.
Hence AB = r, and B = D.
A
B
D

Central Arcs

A central angle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle.

A minor arc is an arc subtended by a central angle of less than 180.

A major arc is an arc subtended by a central angle of greater than 180.

The measure of an Arc

The measure of an arc is the measure of the central angle subtending it.

We know the circumference of a circle of radius, r, is C = 2r.

a
D
C
A
B

Theorem: If an angle is inscribed in a circle, then its measure is half the measure of the
intercepted arc.
The following is not a proof, but an idea. Where does it fail?
r
mCD = mCAD
CD = 2r(
mCAD
360
)
On the other hand, CD is also an
arc on the large circle with radius
BC = 2r.
CD = 2(2r)(
mCBD
360
)
F
EB A
D
C

Then if angle a is 2/k in
radians. Then the arc
subtended by angle a is a
1/kth portion of the circle,
and therefore, the length of
the arc is 1/k(2r).
Proof:

Since the red triangle has two sides which are the radius of the circle, then it must be
isosceles. This is why it has two angles with measure y.

Since we also get a right triangle ACD, then

( 90 ) 90 180
2 180 180
2 0
2
y y x
y x
y x
y x
+ + + =
+ =
=
=

y
90 - x
D
0
90
x 180 - x
y
A
C
Orthographic Construction

Class: Geometry

Title of Lesson: Construction of Orthographic Drawings

Purpose of Lesson: Students will be able to construct top, front
and side view of a three dimensional object.

Timed Activity: 15 minutes

1. Split the class into pairs.

2. Each pair gets 12 blocks and two pieces of large graph
paper.

3. Have one person in the group construct a three dimensional
block structure.

4. The other person in the group draws the top, front and side
view.

5. When you believe you are done, raise your hand. One point
will be awarded for each correct viewpoint, and one if the
structure is creative.

6. Have group members switch roles and try again.

SCORE:

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 TOTAL

Orthographic Construction

Class: Geometry

Title of Lesson: Construction given Orthographic Drawings

Purpose of Lesson: Students will be able to construct a three
dimensional object given top, front and side view.

Timed Activity: 15 - 20 minutes

1. Split the class into pairs.

2. Each pair gets 12 blocks.

3. Look at the attached sheet of paper

4. Build a three dimensional block structure that has the
specified top, front and side view. Your team member must be
at desk level making sure that the structure satisfies the given
views.

5. When you have finished with one structure, call your
instructor to verify your construction has the specified views.
(1 point is granted per correct view)

6. Once your structure has been graded, move on to the next
one.

TOP FRONT RIGHT SIDE POINTS

EUCLIDEAN AND NON-EUCLIDEAN
Euclidean Geometry refers to the geometry imposed on planes, spaces
and generalizations of such. Note, that to dene a point on the real
plane, we need only an ordered pair of real numbers. Real space, then,
is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers, and n-dimensional real
space is the set of all ordered n-tuples of real numbers. However, this
method of constructing Euclidean Space came from DesCartes in the late
1500s, and is called Cartesian Space. A distance function was dened by
a generalization of the pythagorean theorem,
d((x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
), (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
)) =
(x
1
y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
+ . . . (x
n
y
n
)
2
Euclid did not have the real numbers or algebra at his disposal. For
example, in the cartesian plane, we can dene parallel lines to be distinct
lines with the same slope because we have so much algebraic structure
imposed on the plane by the cartesian coordinate system. In Euclidean
Geometry, we dene parallel lines to be those which do not intersect. The
algebraic denition of parallel lines was constructed to be equivalent to
the geometric denition.
He still, however, attempted to impose structure on the accumulation
of geometric knowledge by creating a hierarchy of assumptions and truths
called an axiomatic approach to mathematics. We can categorize all of
his mathematical statements into two categories.
(A) assumptions: denitions, axioms and postulates
(B) truths logically deduced by the assumptions: Corollaries, Propo-
sitions, Lemmas and Theorems
Date: June 4, 2007.
1
2
Euclidean Geometry, which is dened by 5 postulates, was the only ge-
ometry which mathematicians acknowledged for several centuries. These
postulates are:
(1) A straight line can be drawn from any point to any point.
(2) A nite straight line can be produced continuously in a straight
line.
(3) A circle may be described with any point as center and any dis-
tance as a radius.
(4) All right angles are equal to one another.
(5) If a transversal falls on two line in such a way that the interior
angles on one side of the transversal are less than two right angles,
then the lines meet on the side on which the angles are less than
two right angles.
The contrapositive of the last postulate is the following statement:
If a transversal falls on two lines and the lines do not meet on one side,
then the interior angles on that side of the transversal are greater than or
equal to two right angles.
Later, Playfair, found an equivalent statement to the parallel postulate:
Given a line, and a noncolinear point, there exists exactly one line
through that point parallel to the given line.
Therefore, if one can construct a geometric space in which these pos-
tulates do not hold, then this space would be a Non-Euclidean Geometry.
We will study many dierent modications of the parallel postulate,
each of which yield a dierent Non-Euclidean Geometry. We will start
with spherical geometry, which is the most elementary, easy to visualize,
and whose distance metric can be computed with some basic arithmetic.
The Geometry of a Sphere
Although, we believe Euclidean Space is a universal model for all
surfaces we need to simulate. Locally, it is a useful and relatively accurate
model, but globally, the surface of the earth cannot be modeled by a plane.
We can see that the earths surface is two-dimensional, and, hence needs to
be modeled by a two dimensional surface. It would be very useful to impose
a geometry on the earths surface so that we can find an accurate model for
the distance between two points.

If a plane is traveling over the surface of the earth, it must stay within
a spherical shell around the earth. In the interest of economics and time
efficiency, it would be practical to find the shortest route required for the
plane to travel from point A to point B. In Euclidean space, this would be the
line segment starting at point A and ending at point B. However, the line
segment would go through the sphere, and if it were a plane, it might crash
into the earth. Not a good idea. We need a path on the sphere itself.

Stereographic Projection
Let the figure below represent the unit sphere in three dimensional space.
We can construct a one-to-one continuous function from the punctured
sphere to the xy-plane, called stereographic projection.

Let L
p
be the line through the point p on the xy-plane, and the point (0, 0, 1).
This line will intersect the sphere at exactly one other point. This is a well-
defined one-to-one continuous function from the xy-plane to the unit sphere
punctured at the North Pole.

An algebraic equation for this function is attached to the end of this
document. The question is, why this is a one-to-one function to the
punctured unit sphere? Note there is no point which yields a line whose
intersection with the sphere only occurs at the point (0, 0, 1). If we add the
point at infinity, however, that would correspond to the North Pole. The
South Pole corresponds to the origin. Another way to view this
transformation is to fold the plane so that points that correspond to infinity
around the plane actually are identified as one point.

(0, 0, 1)
p
q
Geodesics
However, we are mainly interested in the path which yields the
shortest distance between two points on the sphere. This would be the
analogy to a line on the sphere. Therefore, it makes sense to find where lines
on the plane get mapped onto the sphere. We will start with lines through the
origin.

In general, a line is called a geodesic. By distance geodesic, one
means, a path with minimal length on the surface. Clearly, in Euclidean
Space, the distance geodesic between points A and B is the line segment
connecting them. One can see that line segments through the origin will get
mapped to great circles through the North Pole () and South Pole (origin).
If this is not clear, recall that to each point on the plane, we correspond a line
through infinity. The union of all these lines is a plane containing the line
segment and through the point . The intersection of this plane with the
sphere is the image of the line segment, and is therefore a geodesic between
the image of the endpoints of the line segment.

Distance Metric on the Sphere

Computing the distance metric on the sphere is rather simple since all
the lines are great circles of radius equal to that of the sphere.

For example, if we are given the angle between the points on the
sphere, we can compute the arclength of the arc of the great circle between
them.

Suppose the sphere below is of radius r.
Let A and B be points on the sphere.
Suppose the central angle between the points is given in radians, .
Then the distance between A and B is
D(A,B) = r

A
B
r
How This Fails the Parallel Postulate

Recall there are two equivalent versions of the parallel postulate.

Given a line, and a noncolinear point, there exists exactly one line
through that point parallel to the given line.

Below is a picture of a sphere and a line on the sphere. Note q is a point
not on the line.

As you can see, there is no line (great circle) through q that does not
intersect ( is parallel to ) the line l.

Also, rather than there being only one line between two points, there are
infinitely many. Clearly, each of the longitude lines on the globe are great
circles (lines) between the North and South poles.

Also, note that the illustration below is an example of a 270 triangle. And
there are two transversals who are perpendicular to the same line, and they
intersect.

q
l
Variations
Of the
Fifth Postulate
` Given a line, and a non-collinear point, there
exists one line through the point parallel to
the given line.
does not exist a line through the point
parallel to the given line.
` Principal Curvatures have same sign
` Both are concave up or concave down
exist infinitely many lines through the point
parallel to the given line.
` Below is a crocheted example of a hyperbolic
surface with and illustration of a violation of
the original fifth postulate.
` Principal Curvatures are opposite signs
` Concave down negative ` Concave down negative
` Concave up - positive
Curvature?
Hot Springs, AR
baileym@asmsa.org

Summer Workshop
Outline

Content Standard 5

1. Li near Equat i ons
a. Fi ndi ng sl opes of l i nes.(CG.5.2.G.2)
b. Wr i t i ng equat i ons i n sl ope i nt er c ept
f or m.(CGT.5.G.3)
c . Wr i t i ng equat i ons i n st andar d f or m.(CGT.5.G.4)

2. Usi ng TI -i nt er ac t i ve t o vi sual i ze
t r ansl at i on.(CGT.5.G.5)

SlopesofLines
Supposeyouandyourfriendareridingabicycleupahill.Youarefasterthanyourfriend,soyougetto
theothersideofthehillfarbeforeheevenreachesthehill.Hecallsyouonyourcellphoneandasksyou
howsteepthehillis.Yourespond,100feethight.Whatiswrongwithyouranswer?
Both of the hills above are 100 feet high, but one is steeper than the other. Which one would you
considersteeper?
Ifyouansweredtheoneontheleft,askyourselfwhyyouthinkthisisso.
Onthefirsthill,youonlytravel40feethorizontally,butyourelevationchangesby100feet!
Onthesecondhill,youtravel150feethorizontallybeforeyoureachthetopat100feet.
Therefore,inordertoexpresssteepnessofahill,youneedtodiscussthechangeinhorizontaldistance
ANDthechangeinheight.
Theslopeofthefirsthillis100feetover40feet,or
100 5
2.5
40 2
= =
Theslopeofthesecondhillis100feetover150feet,or
100 2
.667
150 3
=
Theslopeis,therefore,theratioofverticalchangeoverhorizontalchange.
100
40ft
150ft
Howdowerelatethistolinesontheplane?
If we want to find the slope of this line, we need to find the ratio of the vertical change over the
horizontalchange.FirstIneedtopicktwopoints.
Notethatthepointsthatareclearlyonthelineare(1,1),(0,4),(1,7).
Findtheratiooftheverticalchangeoverthehorizontalchangefor(1,1)and(0,4).
Theverticalchangeis3units,andisderivedby41=3
Thehorizontalchangeis1unit,andisderivedby01=1.
Therefore,theslopeis
4 1
3
0 1
=

Ifwepicktwootherpoints,(1,1)and(1,7)weget
7 1 6
3
1 1 2
= =

RegardlessofwhichtwopointsIchoose,wealwaysgetthesameslope.
(0,4),(1,7)willgiveslope
7 4
3
1 0

Whyisthis?
Ifwedrawtherighttrianglesgeneratedbythesepoints,drawnliketheoneabove,wewillseethatthey
are all similar. If two polygons are similar, the ratios of their corresponding sides are equal. Since the
slopeistheratioofthelengthofthelegsoftherighttriangles,theywillalwaysbethesame.Therefore,
theslopeisindependentofyourchoiceofpoints.
Findtheslopeofeachline.
Solidline:
Dashedline:
Dottedline:
Whatistherelationshipbetweentheirslopes?
Isitexpected.
Ingeneral,if
1 1 2 2
, ) and ( , ) ( y y x x areonaline,thentheformulafortheslope,m,is
2 1
2 1
y y
x
m
x
Practice:
1)Findtheslopeofeachline:
a) b)
c) d)

2)Findtheslopeofthelinethroughthesepoints
a)(2,3)and(1,5) b)(1,4)and(5,2) c)(,2)and(,5) d)(.53,6)and(1.37,6.7)

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