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TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION Power Transformer is one of the most important equipment in a power transmission and distribution system. Being static equipment, the design and construction is relatively simple, which makes the transformer a highly reliable piece of equipment. Providing adequate protections, besides proper maintenance can further enhance the reliability while in service. The choice of protection is influenced by several factors, the important ones being. i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) 2.0 Size and rating of the transformer Vector configuration Source and Neutral Earthing Type of transformer (2 winding / 3 winding Auto Transformer, Rectifier Transformer etc.) Infeed conditions (radial, parallel, interconnecting ). OL TC Range

NATURE AND EFFECT OF TRANSFORMER FAULTS The nature of faults against which the transformer is to be protected, can be broadly classified as : 2.1 External Faults : There are short circuits or earth faults on the supply net work outside the transformer. The infeeds through the transformer may be high, if the faults are electrically close and the leakage reactance of the transformer is low, the excessive fault current may cause enormous electromechanical forces causing displacement, damage to the winding and overheating / hot spot generation inside the transformer. 2.2 Internal Faults : Primary protection of transformers is intended to protect the transformer against internal faults associated with the windings and connections. Internal faults can be classified as: a. Short circuits, Inter turn faults, earth faults duo to Insulation deterioration b. Incipient faults c. Regulation faults a. Short Circuits, Inter turn faults, earth faults : These faults are of serious nature causing immediate damage, but are generally detectable due to unbalance /over shooting of current at the transformer terminals. b. Incipient Faults : These are initially minor faults causing slowly developing damage. These are not
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detectable at winding terminals in the absence of any unbalance in current or voltage. Incipient faults Include i) Limited arcing in the oil, say due to failure of interlamination or core bolt insulation or accidental damage or poor electrical connection causing hot spots in windings / connections. ii) Cooling system failure: This may be due to low oil content clogged oil flow due to sludge formation, failure of oil pump or fans or blocking of radiator valves

c.

Regulator faults : These include faults associated with the tap changer / tap change controls. Operation on unequal taps for parallel transformers may cause overheating due to circulating currents. 2.3 Abnormal Operating Conditions : The abnormal operating conditions include overloads and over excitation of transformers.

3.0

ROTECTION AGAINST EXTERNAL FAULTS : Fuses often protect small distribution transformers with no control breakers. The fuse ratings are chosen well above the maximum loads and should be adequate to over ride any transient over current conditions such as magnetizing in rush or DOL starting of a motor feeder. While a fuse can provide adequate protection against short circuits, it cannot provide effective protection against earth faults, in view of possible low infeeds. For larger transformers, controlled by circuit breakers, IDMT overcurrent relays are more commonly used as phase and earth fault backups. The overcurrent relay provides a twofold advantage. i) It avoids delay at lower amplitudes of fault currents as would happen in case of fuses. ii) It provides a sensitive earth fault protection largely independent of the full load rating of the transformer.

The IDMT overcurrent relays are often supplemented by highest instantaneous overcurrent elements on the primary side of the transformers. The highest elements are set over and above the maximum through fault current and are primarily intended to ensure high-speed clearance of terminal short circuits on the primary side. The choice of over current / earth fault backup is greatly influenced by the vector configuration, type of earthing and infeed conditions. Some of the typical applications are discussed below. 3.1 Delta /Star Transformers (Delta winding connected to Grounded Source) The delta winding provides zero sequence isolation between the star winding and the source. Consequently, a residually connected earthfault relay on the delta side will not respond to earthfaults on the star side and hence its operation remains restricted to earth faults in the delta winding. A sensitive instantaneous earth fault relay (in high impedance mode) can therefore be provided on the delta side without requiring any time co-ordination with the star side backup protection. This will be evident from the current distribution shown in fig. 3.1 a.
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Fig. 3.1 (a)

In case of a delta / star transformer, a phase to phase faults on the star side produces 2:1:1 current distribution on the delta side. It is therefore, advantageous to provide 3-0/C elements on delta side (as against 2 elements) to enable faster clearance, through the phase element sensing highest current in backup mode. Fig. 3.1 b) below shows the current distribution for phase to phase fault on star side to illustrate the above.

Fig. 3.1 (b)

3.2

Star / Star Transformers : Star / Star transformers with grounded neutrals exchange zero sequence current between primary and secondary. The earthfault backup is therefore usually IDMT type, time co-ordinated with the downstream protections. Star/Star transformers with grounded neutrals have a comparatively low zero sequence impedance, particularly when these are provided with a delta connected tertiary. Even without a delta tertiary winding the zero sequence impedance of the primary winding is significantly low due to the tank effect. Consequently, the primary winding serves as a zero sequence shunt-bypassing substantial zero sequence current, in the event of an upstream earth faults causing non-selective tripping. It is therefore, preferable to provide a directional earth fault protection looking into the transformer on the primary side, to circumvent the above problem. In case the transformer is having infeeds on both sides (say grid supply on the primary and captive generation on the secondary), It would be desirable to have directional earth fault relays on both primary and secondary side, Fig. 3.1 c) below shows the zero sequence shunting effect of a star/star/delta transformer.
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Fig. 3.1 (c)

Since an upstream earth fault causes a current outflow from the transformer, a directional earthfault relay (67N) looking into the transformer would not respond for such faults and enable better co-ordination. The overcurrent relays (phase CT connected - not shown in the figure) will also face a similar situation. However, since they have a comparatively high setting (above full load) and see only 1/3rd current compared to earth fault relay, the problem is less pronounced. Over current relays need not therefore, be directional. In case of interconnecting transformers with infeeds on both sides, it is advantageous to go for directional overcurrent and earth fault relays on either side, to minimize grading problems. 3.3 The IDMT over current relays are often supplemented by highset instantaneous over current elements on the primary side, mainly to provide high speed clearance of severe terminals short circuits, overriding the IDMT elements. The highset elements should be set over and above the through fault current on secondary side and should preferably have low transient overreach to enable closer setting, in the presence of offset fault current. 4.0 PROTECTIONS AGAINST INTERNAL FAULTS : A high-speed unit type of protection such as differential /restricted earth fault protection is applied as a primary protection against internal faults. 4.1 Differential Protection : This is a complete phase and earth fault protection operating on Merz Price circulating currant principle. The differential relay compares the currents on the primary and secondary side of the transformer using C,Ts of matched ratio, such that the secondary currents are balanced in magnitude and phase for an external fault or load. While magnitude balance is achieved by a proper selection of CT ratio on primary and secondary side or by using interposing current transformers (ICTs). phase balance is achieved by appropriate vector connections of the associated CT / ICTs (for example star side CTs are connected in delta and vice versa ), Though theoretically it looks easier to achieve an amplitude and phasor balance, there are certain practical problems. These are discussed below as also the measures adopted to circumvent these problems in a practical differential scheme,
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4.1.1 Mismatch produced by On Load Tap Changer (OL TC) : On load tap changer, where provided, introduces a mismatch since it changes the turns ratio and consequently the current ratios of transformer. The CT ratio are normally matched for the mean ratio, corresponding to center tap of the transformer. Any deviation from the mid tap, therefore, produces an unbalance proportional to the ratio change and hence a differential current on load. The differential current will, however, be more pronounced on through fault and will not permit a sensitive selling to be adopted on the differential relay. In practical differential protection for transformers, this problem is over come by providing through current bias (or restraint). The bias, modifies the differential pickup and pegs It above the maximum expected differential current in the face of ratio mismatch produced by the tap changer and C. T. errors, thereby ensuring stability on through faults. A typical bias characteristic is shown in fig. 4.1.1 a below : Fig 4 1.1 a Typical Bias Characteristic

A practical biased differential scheme showing C.T. connections is illustrated in fig. 4.1.1 b) below for a delta / star (Dy 11) transformer. Following work out illustrates the choice of matching CTs/lCTs for a delta / star transformer, Transformers rating - 10 MVA, 66/33 KV, Dy11 Transtormer F. L. current : 66KV side : IFL = (10x 106)/(31/2x66x103) = 87.5A 33 KV side : IFL = (10x 106)/(31/2x33x103) = 175A
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Fig. 4.1.1 (b) Typical C.T. Connections for Blased Differential Protection

Equivalent secondary FL current, considering a matching CT ratio of 100/1A for 66 KV CTs and 200/1A for 33 KV CTs : IFL ( Sec ) = 87.5/100 = 0.875 A ( 66 KV side) IF L ( Sec ) = 175 I 200 = 0.875 A ( 33 KV side) Since the transformer is of Dy11 vector configuration, the 33 KV line current will be leading the 66KV side line currents by 30. To achieve phasor balance, the 33KV side C.T. secondary current will have to be phase retarded by 30 by connecting the interposing current transformers in star / delta ( Yd1 ) configuration as shown. The ICT ratio can be worked out as follows. ICT primary current (corresponding of F.L. condition) = 0.875A Line current on ICT secondary side to match in amplitude with the 66KV side CT secondary current of 0.875A. The ICT secondary current corresponding to the above line current :: 0.875 I ../3 A Hence, ICT ratio = 0.875 0.875/31/2 = 1.0 /1.0 31/2 A

= 1.0/0.58 Amps Alternatively, a CT ratio of 200/0.58 Amps can be selected on 33 side and the 33 KV CTs can he directly connected in delta to achieve both amplitude and phase without necessitating ICTs. 4.1.2 Magnatising Inrush Current : When the primary side of a transformer is switched on the supply with its secondary unloaded, it acts as a simple inductive reactor. The value of the voltage at the instant of switching can be any where between zero and the peak value.
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(a) Switching at Peak voltage with core initially damagnetized

At voltage maximum, the steady state value of the flux and hence the magnetizing current is zero. Hence the flux wave immediately assumes the normal shape for an inductive circuit with both the core flux and magnetising current rising from zero.

(b) Switching at Zero voltage with core initially damagnetized

Initial value of the flux in the core is zero as against the steady state value of m corresponding to voltage zero. Since the total steady state flux change during voltage half cycle is 2 m (i.e.- m to + m) the flux rises from zero to 2m. This is known as the doubling effect. Modern transformers operate at very low saturation level (around 1.1times the working flux level). The flux doubling, therefore, causes extreme saturation of the core and the transformer consequently draws heavy magnetising current from the supply source. While the normal steady state magnetising current may be less than 5% of full load current, the
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transient core saturation may raise it to several times the normal load current. The situation is even worse if there is remnant flux in the core, which happens to be in the direction in which the first peak occurs. Since the inrush current flows only in the primary winding it appears as an operating current to the differential relay, producing instability. The immunity to inrush current can be obtained either by delaying the protection or by providing a harmonic restraint. a) Time delay : Since the magnetising inrush is a transient phenomenon, a small time delay can be provided in the differential relay to override the same and ensure stability. Induction disc relays with an adjustable delay provided by the disc movement, is one of the earlier designs of biased differential protection. b) Harmonic Restraint : Time delay associated with the differential relay as explained before, would make the protection slower in operation and increase the fault damage. Modern high-speed differential relay, therefore employ a different approach to this problem. The inrush current is highly distorted and contains a fairly high proportion of 2nd harmonic component. Typical analysis of an Inrush current wave shows following harmonic contents. Harmonic Component Fundamental 2nd 3rd 4th 5th % of Fundamental 100 63 27 5 4

The proportion of 2nd harmonic generally varies between 30-60 % of the fundamental and is unique to the inrush current. This component is filtered from the operating circuit and is used to restrain the protection the same way as through current bias. The harmonic restraint is so proportioned that 15% of 2nd harmonic current will just balance the operating current of 100% of fundamental frequency denomination. While through current bias and 2nd harmonic bias ( restraint) is an essential feature of a modern high speed differential protection, following additional features are incorporated to enhance stability and maintain operating speed. 5th Harmonic bypass or restraint : This feature is provided to immunize the protection against over excited operation of the transformer, The magnetising current of an over excited transformer contains substantial proportion of 5th harmonic component. This component is filtered from the operating (differential) current and either bypassed or used to restrain the protection the same way as 2nd harmonic restraint. i)
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ii)

Unrestrained Differential Highset : The harmonic restraint may slow down the protection, on severe internal fault, if the associated CTs suffer transient saturation and produce a high degree of harmonic distortion. To ensure high speed operation under the above condition an unrestrained differential highest with high pick up threshold (usually 8-10 times) is incorporated in the differential relay. A typical circuit of a high speed, harmonic restraint biased differential relay is shown in fig. 4.1.2. a) below :
Through current bias Diode bridge comparator

Fig. 4.1.2 (a) Typical Harmonic Restrained Biased Differential Relay

There are alternative designs, which do not use harmonic bias (restraint) to achieve immunity against magnetising inrush or over excited operation of the transformer. One such design distinguishes between the above conditions and an internal fault by verifying the zero periods in the differential current waveform over a cycle. The magnetizing current waveform during switching inrush or over excited condition has substantial zero periods (in excess of cycle over one cycle period), unlike in the case of an internal fault. This method enables high speed of operation for internal fault in the absence of any harmonic restraint. Numerical versions of differential protections are also now available which use suitable algorithm for measurement. The ratio and phase angle correction is a software function in these relays which eliminate the need for matched CTs/lCTs. The numerical versions are usually multifunction and provide additional protection elements (such as REF / overfluxing etc.). Besides, several diagnostic non -protection functions such as event logging, fault recording, instrumentation & continuous self monitoring are provided. 4.2 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection : This is a circulating current earth fault differential system, usually applied to the star windinng of a transformer, by balancing the residual current of the three line current
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transformers with the output current of a CT in the neutral earth connection. The protetlion arrangement is shown in fig. 4.2 a) below.
Transformer

Source

64 - REF Relay RST - Stabilizing Resistor

Fig. 4.2 (a) Typical REF C. T. Connections

For an external earth fault, the associated phase and neutral C. T, see same fault current (IF) but of different polarity. While the phase C, T. sees an outflow of current, the neutral C.T, sees an inflow with respect to the transformer. The phase and neutral C. T., therefore, form a series connection between them with no differential current through the relay, if the C.Ts are assumed to be ideal with no errors. For an internal fault, either the neutral C.T. alone sees the fault current (for radial feeding transformer) or both the neutral and phase C.T see an inflow because of infeed reversal through the latter (in case of parallel transformers). This produces a differential current through the relay corresponding to the summated infeeds at the fault point, there by causing operation. In practice, however, the associated C.T.s may experience unequal saturation say due to the remnant flux in the core or dissimilarities in their magnetizing characteristics, particularly when the through fault current has large D.C offsets with slow decay rate. The worst condition would occur when one C. T. completely saturates while the other remains fully active during a severe external fault. The REF protection is invariably high impedance and is calibrated either in terms of voltage or current. In case of voltage relay, a setting voltage above to Vs can be set. In case of current operated relay, a series stabilizing resistance is added to make the relay branch high impedance such that the current through the relay will not exceed its current setting (Is). The external stabilizing resistor value can be worked out. Protection against Incipient Faults : One or the commonly used protection against incipient (developing) faults is Buchholz relay. The relay has two floats actuating mercury switches and is placed in the pipe connecting the transformer tank to the conservator. A slow generation of gas due to a minor fault causes a stream of bubbles which pass towards the conservator and in the process get trapped into the Buchholz chamber lowering its oil level. Consequently the Alarm float lowers down actuating the mercury switch giving an alarm.
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A heavy internal fault gives rise to an explosive generation of gas causing a surge travelling towards the conservator. The surge impinges on the lower (trip) float, tilting the mercury switch and closing the trip contact. While mounting the relay, care should be taken to ensure that the arrow on its case should point to the conservator and the connecting pipe should have an upward slant of about 5. Besides Buchholz relay, temperatures monitoring devices such as oil and winding temperature indicators are provided for transformers. These can also give fairly good indication of an incipient failure such as generation of hot spot. failure of cooling system etc. The winding temperature is measured by thermal image technique. In this technique a temperature sensing device (usually a silistor - silicon resister) is placed in the transformer oil at the top of the transformer tank. The Silistor is encapsulated with a heater element in a thermal molded material.the latter being fed from the load current, through a bushing C.T. The combination thus forms a thermal replica of the transformer winding. The silistor is used as an arm of a resistance bridge supplied from stabilized d.c. supply. An indicating instrument calibrated in terms of temperature is energized from the out of balance voltage of the bridge. 5.0 PROTECTION AGAINST ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS 5.1 Overload Protection : The winding temperature indicator described under 4.0 above can effectively detect over loading. Thermal image overcurrent relays with exponential or i2t time / current characteristics are also used for protection against overload. This protection detects overload but does not detect failure of cooling system unlike the temperature indicating devices. Definite time over current relays are also used to provide pretrip alarm, if the overload exceeds permissible limit. Such relays are required to have high reset ratio and continuously adjustable current setting to match permissible overload rating of the transformer. 5.2 Overfluxlng Protections : Increase in input voltage causes increase in working flux levels, thereby increasing the iron losses and magnetising current. The core and core bolt get heated and the inter-lamination insulation and core bolt insulation is weakened. The reduction in supply frequency also increases the core flux and has similar effect as that due to over voltage. The generator transformers are more prone for overfluxing as these may be subjected to an uncomfortable combination of over voltage and under frequency during start up or coasting down due to AVR / Governor malfunctioning. The expression for induced voltage in a transformer is given by V *f*T Where is core flux f is frequency T is number of turns (constant) Thus V/f
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The ratio of V/f is therefore an index of overfluxing and is used as a measure of overfluxing level. V/f relays are therefore, used to detect overfluxing in a transformer. Typical setting range for the relay is 1.0-1.30 on 110 V/50Hz basis. The overfluxing condition does not warrant immediate isolation of transformer and hence the relay is provided with adjustable time delays, which also helps to prevent transient operation due to momentary disturbances. The practical overfluxing relays are either definite time of inverse time versions with a pretrip alarm. ANNEXTURE 1 Typical setting workout for REF / Highset Instantaneous o /c protection. DATA: Transformer rating 66/33KV, 10MVA, Dy11, CT Ratio HV side 100/1A, 5 P10/15VA LV side 200/1 A , VK = 60 volts, RCT = 2 Ohms. Im = 30mA at VK/2 Z1 = 8%,

66 KV side S.C. Level - 1000 MVA HV side Highset o/c relay (50) -5 -20A LV side REF Relay(64) -0.1 - 0.4 A . Burden 1 VA at setting current. Lead Resistance between C.T. & Relay (2RL) = 1.0.ohm (to & fro) 1.0 REF PROTECTION ON LV SIDE

Max. through fault current ( IF) Source impedance ( 66KV base) Zs = 662 /1000 = 4.356 Ohms. Transformer leakage impedance ZT = ZT % /100 X KV2/ MVA = 8 / 100 X 662 /10 = 34.85 Ohms. Total Impedance ( Zs + ZT ) = 4.356 + 34.85 = 39.20 Ohms. ( 66KV Base) = 39.2 x (33/66) 2 = 9.8 Ohms. (33 KV Base) Max. Through fault current (33KV side) = 33000 / 3 x 9.8 = 1944 A (66 KV side) = 972A
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Setting Voltage for REF protection (Vs) = IF /n ( RCT + 2RL ) = 1944 / 200 (2 + 1) = 29.0 volts. say 30 volts REF Relay setting adopted (Is) = 0.1A REF Relay Ohmic burden ( Pr) = (VA)R / (Is)2 = 1.0/(0.1) 2 = 100 Ohms. Stabilising Resistor ( RST ) = Vs/Is - Rr = [ 30.0/0.10] - 100 = 200 Ohms. Primary operating current (POC)= n ( Is + N x Im ) Where n = CT Ratio ( 200/1 A ) N = No. of CTs for REF protection ( 4 ) Im = 30 mA at 30 volts ( i.e. at setting voltages) POC = 200/1 ( 0.1 + 4 x 0.03)= 44 Amps

HIGH SET O/C ELEMENT ON HV SIDE Max. through fault current referred to HV side If = 972 A (Primary) = 972/100 = 9.72 A (Secondary) H. S. Setting = 1.3 x If = 1.3 x 9.72 = 12.60A = 13 Amps (Instantaneous)

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ANNEXURE - 3 Typical C.T. Circuits for Combined Differential / REF Protection of a Star / Delta Transformer having Zigzag Earthing Transfor Delta Side within Diff. / REF Zone

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Current Distribution for External s / f shows balance

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