Modelling Multi Phase Flow

23-1 c Flue nt Inc.
Septe mber 29,

2006
Chapter23. ModelingMultiphaseFlows
This chapter discusses the general multiphase models that are available in FLUENT.
Section 23.1: Introduction provides a brief introduction to multiphase modeling, Chap-
ter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase discusses the Lagrangian dispersed phase model, and
Chapter 24: Modeling Solidification and Melting describes FLUENTs model for solidifi-
cation and melting.
Section 23.1: Introduction
Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model
Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory
Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory
Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory
Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory
Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows
Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows
Section 23.9: Steps for Using a Multiphase Model
Section 23.10: Setting Up the VOF Model
Section 23.11: Setting Up the Mixture Model
Section 23.12: Setting Up the Eulerian Model
Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model
Section 23.14: Solution Strategies for Multiphase Modeling
Section 23.15: Postprocessing for Multiphase Modeling
ModelingMultiphaseFlows
23-2 c Flue nt Inc. Septe mber 29,
2006
23.1 In troduction
A large number of flows encountered in nature and technology are a mixture of phases.
Physical phases of matter are gas, liquid, and solid, but the concept of phase in a mul-
tiphase flow system is applied in a broader sense. In multiphase flow, a phase can be
defined as an identifiable class of material that has a particular inertial response to and
interaction with the flow and the potential field in which it is immersed. For example,
different-sized solid particles of the same material can be treated as different phases be-
cause each collection of particles with the same size will have a similar dynamical response
to the flow field.
23.1.1 MultiphaseFlow Regimes
Multiphase flow regimes can be grouped into four categories: gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
flows; gas-solid flows; liquid-solid flows; and three-phase flows.
Gas-Liquidor Liquid-LiquidFlows
The following regimes are gas-liquid or liquid-liquid flows:
Bubbly flow: This is the flow of discrete gaseous or fluid bubbles in a
continuous fluid.
Droplet flow: This is the flow of discrete fluid droplets in a continuous gas.
Slug flow: This is the flow of large bubbles in a continuous fluid.
Stratified/free-surface flow: This is the flow of immiscible fluids separated
by a clearly-defined interface.
See Figure 23.1.1 for illustrations of these regimes.
Gas-SolidFlows
The following regimes are gas-solid flows:
Particle-laden flow: This is flow of discrete particles in a continuous gas.
Pneumatic trans port: This is a flow pattern that depends on factors such as
solid loading, Reynolds numbers, and particle properties. Typical patterns are
dune flow, slug flow, packed beds, and homogeneous flow.
Fluidized bed: This consists of a vertical cylinder containing particles, into
which a gas is introduced through a distributor. The gas rising through the bed
suspends the particles. Depending on the gas flow rate, bubbles appear and rise
through the bed, intensifying the mixing within the bed.
2006
23.1 In t r oduction
Liquid-SolidFlows
The following regimes are liquid-solid flows:
Slurry flow: This flow is the trans port of particles in liquids. The
fundame ntal behavior of liquid-solid flows varies with the properties of the solid
particles relati ve to those of the liquid. In slurry flows, the Stokes number (see
Equation 23.2-4) is normally less than 1. When the Stokes number is larger than
1, the characteristic of the flow is liquid-solid fluidization.
Hydrotrans port: This describes densely-distributed solid particles in a
continuous liquid
Sedimentation: This describes a tall column initially containing a uniform
dispersed mixture of particles. At the bottom, the particles will slow down and
form a sludge layer. At the top, a clear interface will appear, and in the middle a
constant settling zone will exist.
Three-Phase Flows
Three-phase flows are combinations of the other flow regimes listed in the previous sec-
tions.
2006
slug flow
bubbl y, droplet, or
particle-laden flow
stratified/f ree-surface flow pneumatic transport,
hydrotransport, or slurry flow
sedimentation fluidized bed
Figure 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes
23.2 Choosinga GeneralMultiphaseModel
2006
23.1.2 Examplesof MultiphaseSystems
Specific examples of each regime described in Section 23.1.1: Multiphase Flow Regimes
are listed below:
Bubbly flow examples include absorbers, aeration, air lift pumps, cavitation,
evap- orators, flotation, and scrubbers.
Droplet flow examples include absorbers, atomizers, combustors, cryogenic
pump- ing, dryers, evaporation, gas cooling, and scrubbers.
Slug flow examples include large bubble motion in pipes or tanks.
Stratified/free-surface flow examples include sloshing in offshore separator
devices and boiling and condensation in nuclear reactors.
Particle-laden flow examples include cyclone separators, air classifiers, dust
collec- tors, and dust-laden environme ntal flows.
Pneumatic trans port examples include trans port of cement, grains, and metal
pow- ders.
Fluidized bed examples include fluidized bed reactors and circulating fluidized
beds.
Slurry flow examples include slurry trans port and mineral processing
Hydrotrans port examples include mineral processing and biomedical and
physio- chemical fluid systems
Sedimentation examples include mineral processing.
23.2 Choosing a GeneralMultiphaseModel
The first step in solving any multiphase problem is to determine which of the regimes
provides some broad guidelines for determining appropriate models for each regime, and
how to determine the degree of interphase coupling for flows involving bubbles, droplets,
or particles, and the appropriate model for different amounts of coupling.
2006
23.2.1 Approaches to MultiphaseModeling
Advances in computational fluid mechanics have provided the basis for further insight
into the dynamics of multiphase flows. Currently there are two approaches for the nu-
merical calculation of multiphase flows: the Euler-Lagrange approach (discussed in Sec-
tion 22.1.1: Overview) and the Euler-Euler approach (discussed in the following section).
The Euler-EulerApproach
In the Euler-Euler approach, the different phases are treated mathematically as inter-
penetrating continua. Since the volume of a phase cannot be occupied by the other
phases, the concept of phasic volume fraction is introduced. These volume fractions are
assumed to be continuous functions of space and time and their sum is equal to one.
Conservation equations for each phase are derived to obtain a set of equations, which
have similar structure for all phases. These equations are closed by providing constituti ve
relations that are obtained from empirical information, or, in the case of granular flows,
by application of kinetic theor y.
In FLUENT, three different Euler-Euler multiphase models are available: the volume
of fluid (VOF) model, the mixture model, and the Eulerian model.
TheVOFModel
The VOF model (described in Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory) is
a surface-tracking technique applied to a fixed Eulerian mesh. It is designed for two or
more immiscible fluids where the position of the interface between the fluids is of interest.
In the VOF model, a single set of momentum equations is shared by the fluids, and the
volume fraction of each of the fluids in each computational cell is tracked throughout the
domain. Applications of the VOF model include stratified flows, free-surface flows,
filling, sloshing, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam
break, the prediction of jet breakup (surface tension), and the steady or transie nt
tracking of any liquid-gas interface.
TheMixtureModel
The mixture model (described in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) is designed for two
or more phases (fluid or particulate). As in the Eulerian model, the phases are treated as
interpenetrating continua. The mixture model solves for the mixture momentum
equation and prescribes relative velocities to describe the dispersed phases.
Applications of the mixture model include particle-laden flows with low loading, bubbly
flows, sedimentation, and cyclone separators. The mixture model can also be used
without relative velocities for the dispersed phases to model homogeneous multiphase
flow.
2006
TheEulerianModel
The Eulerian model (described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory) is the most com-
plex of the multiphase models in FLUENT. It solves a set of n momentum and continuity
equations for each phase. Coupling is achieved through the pressure and interphase ex-
change coefficients. The manner in which this coupling is handled depends upon the type
of phases involved; granular (fluid-solid) flows are handled differently than nongranular
(fluid-fluid) flows. For granular flows, the properties are obtained from application of ki-
netic theory. Momentum exchange between the phases is also dependent upon the type
of mixture being modeled. FLUENTsuser-defined functions allow you to customize the
calculation of the momentum exchange. Applications of the Eulerian multiphase model
include bubble columns, risers, particle suspension, and fluidized beds.
23.2.2 ModelComparisons
In general, once you have determined the flow regime that best represents your multiphase
system, you can select the appropriate model based on the following guidelines:
For bubbly, droplet, and particle-laden flows in which the phases mix
and/or dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%, use either the mixture
model (described in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model
(descri bed in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
For slug flows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF)
Model
Theory for more information about the VOF model.
For stratified/free-surface flows, use the VOF model. See Section 23.3: Volume
of
Fluid (VOF) Model Theory for more information about the VOF model.
For pneumatic trans port, use the mixture model for homogeneous flow
(descri bed in Section 23.4: Mixture Model Theory) or the Eulerian model for
granular flow (described in Section 23.5: Eulerian Model Theory).
For fluidized beds, use the Eulerian model for granular flow. See Section 23.5:
Eu- lerian Model Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
For slurry flows and hydrotrans port, use the mixture or Eulerian model
(descri bed, respectively, in Sections 23.4 and 23.5).
For sedimentation, use the Eulerian model. See Section 23.5: Eulerian
Model
Theory for more information about the Eulerian model.
For general, complex multiphase flows that involve multiple flow regimes,
select the aspect of the flow that is of most interest, and choose the model that
is most appropriate for that aspect of the flow. Note that the accuracy of results
will not be as good as for flows that involve just one flow regime, since the model
you use will be valid for only part of the flow you are modeling.
2006
As discussed in this section, the VOF model is appropriate for stratified or free-surface
flows, and the mixture and Eulerian models are appropriate for flows in which the phases
mix or separate and/or dispersed-phase volume fractions exceed 10%. (Flows in which
the dispersed-phase volume fractions are less than or equal to 10% can be modeled using
the discrete phase model described in Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase.)
To choose between the mixture model and the Eulerian model, you should consider the
following guidelines:
If there is a wide distribution of the dispersed phases (i.e., if the particles
vary in size and the largest particles do not separate from the primary flow
field), the mixture model may be preferable (i.e., less computationally
expensive). If the
dispersed phases are concentrated just in portions of the domain, you should use
the Eulerian model instead.
If interphase drag laws that are applicable to your system are available
(either within FLUENT or through a user-defined function), the Eulerian model can
usually provide more accurate results than the mixture model. Even though you
can apply the same drag laws to the mixture model, as you can for a nongranular
Eulerian simulation, if the interphase drag laws are unknown or their applicability
to your system is questionable, the mixture model may be a better choice. For
most cases with spherical particles, then the Schiller-Naumann law is more than
adequate. For cases with nonspherical particles, then a user-defined function can
be used.
If you want to solve a simpler problem, which requires less computational effort,
the mixture model may be a better option, since it solves a smaller number of
equations than the Eulerian model. If accuracy is more important than
computational effort, the Eulerian model is a better choice. Keep in mind,
however, that the complexi ty of the Eulerian model can make it less
computationally stable than the mixture model.
FLUENTs multiphase models are compatible with FLUENTs dynamic mesh modeling
feature. For more information on the dynamic mesh feature, see Section 11: Modeling
Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes. For more information about how other FLU-
ENT models are compatible with FLUENTs multiphase models, see Appendix A: FLUENT
Model Compatibili ty.
DetailedGuidelines
For stratified and slug flows, the choice of the VOF model, as indicated in Section 23.2.2:
Model Comparisons, is straightforward. Choosing a model for the other types of flows is
less straightforward. As a general guide, there are some parameters that help to identify the
appropriate multiphase model for these other flows: the particulate loading, , and the
Stokes number, St. (Note that the word particle is used in this discussion to refer to
a particle, droplet, or bubble.)
d
2006
TheEffectof ParticulateLoading
Particulate loading has a major impact on phase interactions. The particulate loading is
defined as the mass density ratio of the dispersed phase (d) to that of the carrier phase
(c):
The material density ratio
=
c
(23.2-1)
=
c
(23.2-2)
is greater than 1000 for gas-solid flows, about 1 for liquid-solid flows, and less than 0.001
for gas-liquid flows.
Using these parameters it is possible to estimate the average distance between the indi-
vidual particles of the particulate phase. An estimate of this distance has been given by
Crowe et al. [68]:
L

1 +

1/3
=
(23.2-3)
d
d
6
where =

. Information about these parameters is important for determining how the
dispersed phase should be treated. For example, for a gas-particle flow with a particulate
loading of 1, the interparticle space
L
d
is about 8; the particle can therefore be treated
as isolated (i.e., very low particulate loading).
Depending on the particulate loading, the degree of interaction between the phases can
be divided into the following three categories:
For very low loading, the coupling between the phases is one-way (i.e., the
fluid carrier influences the particles via drag and turbulence, but the particles
have no influence on the fluid carrier). The discrete phase (Chapter 22: Modeling
Discrete Phase), mixture, and Eulerian models can all handle this type of problem
correctl y. Since the Eulerian model is the most expensive, the discrete phase or
mixture model is recommended.
For intermediate loading, the coupling is two-way (i.e., the fluid carrier
influences the particulate phase via drag and turbulence, but the particles in turn
influence the carrier fluid via reduction in mean momentum and turbulence). The
discrete phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, and Eulerian
models are all applicable in this case, but you need to take into account other
factors in order to decide which model is more appropriate. See below for
information about using the Stokes number as a guide.
d
Vs
For high loading, there is two-way coupling plus particle pressure and
viscous stresses due to particles (four-way coupling). Only the Eulerian model will
handle this type of problem correctl y.
The Significanceof the Stokes Number
For systems with intermediate particulate loading, estimating the value of the Stokes
number can help you select the most appropriate model. The Stokes number can be
defined as the relation between the particle response time and the system response time:
d
St =
t
s
(23.2-4)
where
d
=

d
d
2
18
c
and t
s
is based on the characteristic length (L
s
) and the characteristic
velocity (V
s
) of the system under investigation: t
s
=
L
s
.
For St 1.0, the particle will follow the flow closely and any of the three models
(discrete phase(Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase) , mixture, or Eulerian) is
applicable; you can therefore choose the least expensive (the mixture model, in most
cases), or the most appropriate considering other factors. For St > 1.0, the particles will
move independently of the flow and either the discrete phase model (Chapter 22:
Modeling Discrete Phase) or the Eulerian model is applicable. For St 1.0, again
any of the three models is applicable; you can choose the least expensive or the most
appropriate considering other factors.
Examples
For a coal classifier with a characteristic length of 1 m and a characteristic velocity of
10 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.04 for particles with a diameter of 30 microns, but 4.0
for particles with a diameter of 300 microns. Clearly the mixture model will not be
applicable to the latter case.
For the case of mineral processing, in a system with a characteristic length of 0.2 m and a
characteristic velocity of 2 m/s, the Stokes number is 0.005 for particles with a diameter
of 300 microns. In this case, you can choose between the mixture and Eulerian models.
(The volume fractions are too high for the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling
Discrete Phase), as noted below.)
OtherConsiderations
Keep in mind that the use of the discrete phase model (Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete
Phase) is limited to low volume fractions. Also, the discrete phase model is the only mul-
tiphase model that allows you to specify the particle distribution or include combustion
modeling in your simulation.
t
23.2.3 TimeSchemes in MultiphaseFlow
In many multiphase applications, the process can vary spatially as well as temporally. In
order to accurately model multiphase flow, both higher-order spatial and time discretiza-
tion schemes are necessary. In addition to the first-order time scheme in FLUENT, the
second-order time scheme is available in the Mixture and Eulerian multiphase models,
and with the VOF Implicit Scheme.
i
The second-order time scheme cannot be used with the VOF Explicit
Schemes.
The second-order time scheme has been adapted to all the trans port equations, includ-
ing mixture phase momentum equations, energy equations, species trans port equations,
turbulence models, phase volume fraction equations, the pressure correction equation,
and the granular flow model. In multiphase flow, a general trans port equation (similar
to that of Equation 25.3-15) may be written as
()
t
+ (V
~
) = + S

(23.2-5)
Where is either a mixture (for the mixture model) or a phase variable, is the phase
volume fraction (unity for the mixture equation), is the mixture phase density, V
~
is
the mixture or phase velocity (depending on the equations), is the diffusion term, and
S

is the source term.
As a fully implicit scheme, this second-order time-accurate scheme achieves its accuracy
by using an Euler backward approximation in time (see Equation 25.3-17). The general
trans port equation, Equation 23.2-5 is discretized as
3(
p
p
V ol)
n+1
4(
p
p
V ol)
n
+ (
p
p
)
n1
2t
= (23.2-6)
X
[A
nb
(
nb

p
)]
n+1
+ S
U
n+1
S
p
n+1
p
n+1
Equation 23.2-6 can be written in simpler form:
A
p
p
=
X
A
n
b
n
b + S

(23.2-7)
where
A
p
=
P
A
nb
n+1
+ S
p
n+1
+
1.5(p p V
ol)
n
n+1
n1
S

= S
U
n+1
+
2(
p
p
V
ol)
0.5(p p p V ol)
t
This scheme is easily implemented based on FLUENTsexisting first-order Euler scheme.
It is unconditionally stable, however, the negative coefficient at the time level t
n1
, of
the three-time level method, may produce oscillatory solutions if the time steps are
large.
This problem can be eliminated if a bounded second-order scheme is introduced. How-
ever, oscillating solutions are most likely seen in compressible liquid flows. Therefore,
in this version of FLUENT, a bounded second-order time scheme has been implemented
for compressible liquid flows only. For single phase and multiphase compressible liquid
flows, the second-order time scheme is, by default, the bounded scheme.
23.2.4 Stabilityand Convergence
The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently difficult, and you may encounter
some stability or convergence problems. If a time-dependent problem is being solved, and
patched fields are used for the initial conditions, it is recommended that you perform a
few iterations with a small time step, at least an order of magnitude smaller than the
characteristic time of the flow. You can increase the size of the time step after performing
a few time steps. For steady solutions it is recommended that you start with a small
under-relaxation factor for the volume fraction, it is also recommended not to start with
a patch of volume fraction equal to zero. Another option is to start with a mixture
multiphase calculation, and then switch to the Eulerian multiphase model.
Stratified flows of immiscible fluids should be solved with the VOF model (see Sec-
tion 23.3: Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory). Some problems involving small
volume fractions can be solved more efficiently with the Lagrangian discrete phase
model (see Chapter 22: Modeling Discrete Phase).
Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is taken during the
setup and solution processes (see Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model).
23.3 Volumeof Fluid(VOF)ModelTheory
23.3.1 Overviewand Limitationsof the VOFModel
Overview
The VOF model can model two or more immiscible fluids by solving a single set of
momentum equations and tracking the volume fraction of each of the fluids throughout
the domain. Typical applications include the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of
large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam break, and the steady or
transie nt tracking of any liquid-gas interface.
23.3Volumeof Fluid(VOF)ModelTheory
Limitations
The following restrictions apply to the VOF model in
FLUENT:
You must use the pressure-based solver. The VOF model is not available
with either of the density-based solvers.
All control volumes must be filled with either a single fluid phase or a
combination of phases. The VOF model does not allow for void regions where no
fluid of any type is present.
Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas. There is
no limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined functions.
Streamwise periodic flow (either specified mass flow rate or specified pressure
drop)
cannot be modeled when the VOF model is used.
The second-order implicit time-stepping formulation cannot be used with the
VOF
explicit scheme.
When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the
VOF model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel
Processing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing
option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibili ty of all multiphase flow
models with the DPM model.)
Steady-State and TransientVOFCalculations
The VOF formulation in FLUENTis generally used to compute a time-dependent solution,
but for problems in which you are concerned only with a steady-state solution, it is
possible to perform a steady-state calculation. A steady-state VOF calculation is sensible
only when your solution is independent of the initial conditions and there are distinct
inflow boundaries for the individual phases. For example, since the shape of the free
surface inside a rotating cup depends on the initial level of the fluid, such a problem
must be solved using the time-dependent formulation. On the other hand, the flow of
water in a channel with a region of air on top and a separate air inlet can be solved with
the steady-state formulation.
The VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more fluids (or phases) are not
interpenetrating. For each additional phase that you add to your model, a variable is
introduced: the volume fraction of the phase in the computational cell. In each control
volume, the volume fractions of all phases sum to unity. The fields for all variables and
properties are shared by the phases and represent volume-averaged values, as long as
the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at each location. Thus the variables
and properties in any given cell are either purely represe ntative of one of the phases, or
represe ntative of a mixture of the phases, depending upon the volume fraction values.
In other words, if the q
th
fluids volume fraction in the cell is denoted as
q
, then the
following three conditions are possible:

q
= 0: The cell is empty (of the q
th
fluid).

q
= 1: The cell is full (of the q
th
fluid).
0 <
q
< 1: The cell contains the interface between the q
th
fluid and one or
more other fluids.
Based on the local value of
q
, the appropriate properties and variables will be assigned
to each control volume within the domain.
23.3.2 VolumeFractionEquation
The tracking of the interface(s) between the phases is accomplished by the solution of a
continuity equation for the volume fraction of one (or more) of the phases. For the q
th
phase, this equation has the following form:
1

(
q
q
) + (
q
q
~v
q
) = S
q
+
n
Q
X
(m
pq
m
qp
)
\
(23.3-1)
q
-
t
p=1
where m
qp
is the mass transfer from phase q to phase p and m
pq
is the mass transfer
from phase p to phase q. By default, the source term on the right-hand side of Equation
23.3-1, S
q
, is zero, but you can specify a constant or user-defined mass source for each
phase. See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows for more
information on the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENTsgeneral multiphase models.
The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase; the primary-phase
volume fraction will be computed based on the following constrai nt:
n
X
q
= 1 (23.3-2)
q=1
The volume fraction equation may be solved either through implicit or explicit time
discretization.
TheImplicitScheme
When the implicit scheme is used for time discretization, FLUENTs standard finite-
difference interpolation schemes, QUICK, Second Order Upwind and First Order
Upwind, and the Modified HRIC schemes, are used to obtain the face fluxes for all cells,
including those near the interface.
n+1
n+1 n n

n
Q
q
q

q
q
V +
X
(
n+1 n+1 n+1
X
t
f
q
U
f
q,f
) =
-
S
q
+
p=1
(m
pq
m
qp
)
\
V (23.3-3)
Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current time step (rather
than at the previous step, as for the explicit scheme), a standard scalar trans port equation
is solved iteratively for each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.
The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-state calculations.
See Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation for details.
The ExplicitScheme
In the explicit approach, FLUENTs standard finite-difference interpolation schemes are
applied to the volume fraction values that were computed at the previous time step.
n+1
n+1 n n

n
Q
q
q

q
q
V +
X
( U
n
n
)
=
X
(
m
m ) + S V (23.3-4)
t
f
q
f q,f
-
p=1
pq

qp q
\
where n + 1
n
=
=
index for new (curre nt) time step
index for previous time step
q,f
= face value of the q
th
volume fraction, computed from the first-
or second-order upwind, QUICK, modified HRIC, or CICSAM scheme
V = volume of cell
U
f
= volume flux through the face, based on normal velocity
This formulation does not require iterative solution of the trans port equation during each
time step, as is needed for the implicit scheme.
i
When the explicit scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be
computed.
When the explicit scheme is used for time discretization, the face fluxes can be interpo-
lated either using interface reconstruction or using a finite volume discretization scheme
(Section 23.3.2: Interpolation near the Interface). The reconstruction based schemes
available in FLUENT are Geo-Reconstruct and Donor-Acceptor. The discretization schemes
available with explicit scheme for VOF are First Order Upwind, Second Order Upwind,
CICSAM,Modified HRIC, and QUICK.
Interpolationnear the Interface
FLUENTscontrol-volume formulation requires that convection and diffusion fluxes through
the control volume faces be computed and balanced with source terms within the control
volume itself.
In the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, FLUENT applies a spe-
cial interpolation treatme nt to the cells that lie near the interface between two phases.
Figure 23.3.1 shows an actual interface shape along with the interfaces assumed during
computation by these two methods.
actual interface shape
interface shape represented by
the geometric reconstruction
(piecewise-linear) scheme
interface shape represented by
the dono r-acceptor scheme
Figure 23.3.1: Interface Calculations
The explicit scheme and the implicit scheme treat these cells with the same interpo-
lation as the cells that are completely filled with one phase or the other (i.e., using
the standard upwind (Section 25.3.1: First-Order Upwind Scheme), second-order (Sec-
tion 25.3.1: Second-Order Upwind Scheme), QUICK (Section 25.3.1: QUICK Scheme,
modified HRIC (Section 25.3.1: Modified HRIC Scheme), or CICSAM scheme), rather
than applying a special treatme nt.
The GeometricReconstructionScheme
In the geometric reconstruction approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are
used in FLUENT are used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled
with one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, the
geometric reconstruction scheme is used.
The geometric reconstruction scheme represents the interface between fluids using a
piecewise-linear approach. In FLUENTthis scheme is the most accurate and is applicable
for general unstructured meshes. The geometric reconstruction scheme is generalized
for unstructured meshes from the work of Youngs [411]. It assumes that the interface
between two fluids has a linear slope within each cell, and uses this linear shape for
calculation of the advection of fluid through the cell faces. (See Figure 23.3.1.)
The first step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position of the linear in-
terface relative to the center of each partially-filled cell, based on information about
the volume fraction and its derivatives in the cell. The second step is calculating the
advecting amount of fluid through each face using the computed linear interface repre-
sentation and information about the normal and tangential velocity distribution on the
face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using the balance of
fluxes calculated during the previous step.
i
When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent
solution must be computed. Also, if you are using a conformal grid (i.e.,
if the
grid node locations are identical at the boundaries where two subdomains
meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls
within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit them, as described in
Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
TheDonor-AcceptorScheme
In the donor-acceptor approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are used in
FLUENT are used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled with
one phase or another. When the cell is near the interface between two phases, a donor-
acceptor scheme is used to determine the amount of fluid advected through the face
[144]. This scheme identifies one cell as a donor of an amount of fluid from one phase
and another (neighbor) cell as the acceptor of that same amount of fluid, and is
used to prevent numerical diffusion at the interface. The amount of fluid from one
phase that can be convected across a cell boundary is limited by the minimum of two
values: the filled volume in the donor cell or the free volume in the acceptor cell.
The orientation of the interface is also used in determining the face fluxes. The interface
orientation is either horizontal or vertical, depending on the direction of the volume
fraction gradient of the q
th
phase within the cell, and that of the neighbor cell that shares
the face in question. Depending on the interfaces orientation as well as its motion, flux
values are obtained by pure upwinding, pure downwinding, or some combination of the
two.
i
When the donor-acceptor scheme is used, a time-dependent solution
must be computed. Also, the donor-acceptor scheme can be used
only with
quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes. In addition, if you are using a con-
formal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the boundaries
where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided
(zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit
them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
The CompressiveInterfaceCapturingScheme for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM)
The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM), based on
the Ubbinks work [376], is a high resolution differencing scheme. The CICSAM scheme is
particularly suitable for flows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases. CICSAM
is implemented in FLUENT as an explicit scheme and offers the advantage of producing
an interface that is almost as sharp as the geometric reconstruction scheme.
t
23.3.3 Material Properties
The properties appearing in the trans port equations are determined by the presence of
the component phases in each control volume. In a two-phase system, for example,
if the phases are represented by the subscripts 1 and 2, and if the volume fraction of
the second of these is being tracked, the density in each cell is given by
=
2
2
+ (1
2
)
1
(23.3-5)
In general, for an n-phase system, the volume-fraction- averaged density takes on the
following form:
=
X
q
(23.3-6)
All other properties (e.g., viscosity) are computed in this manner.
23.3.4 MomentumEquation
A single momentum equation is solved throughout the domain, and the resulting velocity
field is shared among the phases. The momentum equation, shown below, is dependent
on the volume fractions of all phases through the properties and .

(~v) + (~v~v) = p +
h

~v + ~v
T
i
+
~g + F
~
(23.3-7)
One limitation of the shared-fields approximation is that in cases where large velocity
differences exist between the phases, the accuracy of the velocities computed near the
interface can be adversely affected.
Note that if the viscosity ratio is more than 1x10
3
, this may lead to convergence diffi-
culties. The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM)
(Section 23.3.2: The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes
(CICSAM)) is suitable for flows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases, thus
solving the problem of poor convergence.
n
23.3.5 Energy Equation
The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.
t
(E) + (~v(E + p)) = (k
eff
T ) + S
h
(23.3-8)
The VOF model treats energy, E, and temperature, T , as mass-averaged variables:
n
X
q
E
q
E =
q=1
X
q
q=1
(23.3-9)
where E
q
for each phase is based on the specific heat of that phase and the shared
temperature.
The properties and k
eff
(effective thermal conductivi ty) are shared by the phases. The
source term, S
h
, contains contributions from radiation, as well as any other volumetric
heat sources.
As with the velocity field, the accuracy of the temperature near the interface is limited in
cases where large temperature differences exist between the phases. Such problems also
arise in cases where the properties vary by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a
model includes liquid metal in combination with air, the conductivities of the materials
can differ by as much as four orders of magnitude. Such large discrepancies in properties
lead to equation sets with anisotropic coefficients, which in turn can lead to convergence
and precision limitations.
23.3.6 Additional Scalar Equations
Depending upon your problem definition, additional scalar equations may be involved in
your solution. In the case of turbulence quantities, a single set of trans port equations is
solved, and the turbulence variables (e.g., k and or the Reynolds stresses) are shared
by the phases throughout the field.
23.3.7 TimeDependence
For time-dependent VOF calculations, Equation 23.3-1 is solved using an explicit time-
marching scheme. FLUENTautomatically refines the time step for the integration of the
volume fraction equation, but you can influence this time step calculation by modifying
the Courant number. You can choose to update the volume fraction once for each time
step, or once for each iteration within each time step. These options are discussed in
more detail in Section 23.10.4: Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the VOF Model.
R R
23.3.8 Surface Tension and Wall
Adhesion
The VOF model can also include the effects of surface tension along the interface between
each pair of phases. The model can be augmented by the additional specification of the
contact angles between the phases and the walls. You can specify a surface tension
coefficient as a consta nt, as a function of temperature, or through a UDF. The solver
will include the additional tangential stress terms (causing what is termed as Marangoni
convection) that arise due to the variation in surface tension coefficient. Variable surface
tension coefficient effects are usually important only in zero/near-zero gravity conditions.
SurfaceTension
Surface tension arises as a result of attracti ve forces between molecules in a fluid. Con-
sider an air bubble in water, for example. Within the bubble, the net force on a molecule
due to its neighbors is zero. At the surface, however, the net force is radially inward, and
the combined effect of the radial components of force across the entire spherical surface
is to make the surface contract, thereby increasing the pressure on the concave side of
the surface. The surface tension is a force, acting only at the surface, that is required
to maintain equilibrium in such instances. It acts to balance the radially inward inter-
molecular attracti ve force with the radially outward pressure gradient force across the
surface. In regions where two fluids are separated, but one of them is not in the form
of spherical bubbles, the surface tension acts to minimize free energy by decreasing the
area of the interface.
The surface tension model in FLUENT is the continuum surface force (CSF) model pro-
posed by Brackbill et al. [39]. With this model, the addition of surface tension to the
VOF calculation results in a source term in the momentum equation. To understand the
origin of the source term, consider the special case where the surface tension is constant
along the surface, and where only the forces normal to the interface are considered. It can
be shown that the pressure drop across the surface depends upon the surface tension co-
efficient, , and the surface curvature as measured by two radii in orthogonal directions,
R
1
and R
2
:

1 1
p
2
p
1
= +
1 2
(23.3-10)
where p
1
and p
2
are the pressures in the two fluids on either side of the interface.
In FLUENT, a formulation of the CSF model is used, where the surface curvature is
computed from local gradients in the surface normal at the interface. Let n be the
surface normal, defined as the gradient of
q
, the volume fraction of the q
th
phase.
n =
q
(23.3-11)
1
The curvature, , is defined in terms of the divergence of the unit normal, n [39]:
= n (23.3-12)
where
n =
n
|n|
(23.3-13)
The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across the surface. The
force at the surface can be expressed as a volume force using the divergence theorem. It
is this volume force that is the source term which is added to the momentum equation.
It has the following form:
F
vol
=
X
pairs ij, i<j
ij
j
+
j
i
2
(
i
+
j
)
(23.3-14)
This expression allows for a smooth superposition of forces near cells where more than
two phases are present. If only two phases are present in a cell, then
i
=
j
and
i
=
j
, and Equation 23.3-14 simplifies to
i
F
vol
=
ij
1
2
(
i
+
j
)
(23.3-15)
where is the volume-averaged density computed using Equation 23.3-6. Equation 23.3-15
shows that the surface tension source term for a cell is proportional to the average densi ty
in the cell.
Note that the calculation of surface tension effects on triangular and tetrahedral meshes
is not as accurate as on quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes. The region where surface
tension effects are most important should therefore be meshed with quadrilaterals or
hexahedra.
WhenSurfaceTension EffectsAreImportant
The importance of surface tension effects is determined based on the value of two di-
mensionless quantities: the Reynolds number, Re, and the capillary number, Ca; or the
Reynolds number, Re, and the Weber number, We. For Re 1, the quantity of
interest is the capillary number:
U
Ca =
(23.3-16)
and for Re 1, the quantity of interest is the Weber number:
We =
LU
2
(23.3-17)
where U is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension effects can be neglected if Ca 1
or We 1.
Several surface tension options are provided through the text user interface (TUI) using
the solve/set/surface-tension command:
solve set surface-tension
The surface-tension command prompts you for the following information:
whether you require node-based smoothing
The default value is no indicating that cell-based smoothing will be used for the
VOF calculations.
the number of smoothings
The default value is 1. A higher value can be used in case of tetrahedral
and triangular meshes in order to reduce any spurious velocities.
the smoothing relaxation factor
The default is 1. This is useful in the cases where VOF smoothing causes a problem
(e.g., liquid enters through the inlet with wall adhesion on).
whether you want to use VOF gradients at the nodes for curvature calculations
With this option, FLUENTuses VOF gradients directly from the nodes to calculate
the curvature for surface tension forces. The default is yes which produces better
results with surface tension compared to gradients that are calculated at the cell
centers.
Wall Adhesion
An option to specify a wall adhesion angle in conjunction with the surface tension model
is also available in the VOF model. The model is taken from work done by Brackbill et
al. [39]. Rather than impose this boundary condition at the wall itself, the contact angle
that the fluid is assumed to make with the wall is used to adjust the surface normal in
cells near the wall. This so-called dynamic boundary condition results in the adjustme nt
of the curvature of the surface near the wall.
If
w
is the contact angle at the wall, then the surface normal at the live cell next to the
wall is
n = n
w
cos
w
+ t
w
sin
w
(23.3-18)
where n
w
and t
w
are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall,
respectively. The combination of this contact angle with the normally calculated
surface normal one cell away from the wall determine the local curvature of the surface,
and this curvature is used to adjust the body force term in the surface tension
calculation.
The contact angle
w
is the angle between the wall and the tangent to the interface
at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the left column under Wall Adhesion in
the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For example, if you are setting the contact angle
between the oil and air phases in the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.3.2,
w
is measured
inside the oil phase, as seen in Figure 23.3.3.
Figure 23.3.2: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with Wall
Adhesion
o
interface
AIR
OIL
OR
W
= 30
AIR
= 30
o
interface
OIL
wall
W
wall
Figure 23.3.3: Measuring the Contact Angle
23.3.9 OpenChannelFlow
FLUENT can model the effects of open channel flow (e.g., rivers, dams, and surface-
piercing structures in unbounded stream) using the VOF formulation and the open chan-
nel boundary condition. These flows involve the existence of a free surface between the
flowing fluid and fluid above it (generally the atmosphere). In such cases, the wave prop-
agation and free surface behavior becomes important. Flow is generally governed by the
forces of gravity and inertia. This feature is mostly applicable to marine applications
and the analysis of flows through drainage systems.
Open channel flows are characterized by the dimensionless Froude Number, which is
defined as the ratio of inertia force and hydrostatic force.
V
F r =
gy
(23.3-19)
where V is the velocity magnitude, g is gravity, and y is a length scale, in this case,
the distance from the bottom of the channel to the free surface. The denominator in
Equation 23.3-19 is the propagation speed of the wave. The wave speed as seen by the
fixed observer is defined as
V
w
= V
gy (23.3-20)
Based on the Froude number, open channel flows can be classified in the following three
categories:
When F r < 1, i.e., V <
gy (thus V
w
< 0 or V
w
> 0), the flow is known to
be subcritical where disturbances can travel upstream as well as downstream. In
this case, downstream conditions might affect the flow upstream.
When F r = 1 (thus V
w
= 0), the flow is known to be critical, where
upstream propagating waves remain stationar y. In this case, the character of the
flow changes.
When F r > 1, i.e., V >
gy (thus V
w
> 0), the flow is known to be
supercriti cal where disturbances cannot travel upstream. In this case,
downstream conditions do not affect the flow upstream.
UpstreamBoundaryConditions
There are two options available for the upstream boundary condition for open channel
flows:
pressure inlet
mass flow rate
PressureInlet
The total pressure p
0
at the inlet can be given as
1
2
p
0
=
2
(
0
)V
+ (
0
)|
g |(g (
a )) (23.3-
21)
where
b and
a are the position vectors of the face centroid and any point on
the free
surface, respectively, Here, free surface is assumed to be horizontal and normal to the
direction of gravity.
g is the gravity vector, |
g | is the gravity magnitude, g is

the unit
vector of gravity, V is the velocity magnitude, is the density of the mixture in the cell,
and
0
is the reference densi ty.
From this, the dynamic pressure q is
and the static pressure p
s
is
q =

0
2
V
2
(23.3-22)
p
s
= (
0
)|
g |(g (
a )) (23.3-23)
which can be further expanded to
p
s
= (
0
)|
g |((g
b ) + y
local
) (23.3-24)
where the distance from the free surface to the reference position, y
local
, is
y
local
= (
a g) (23.3-25)
MassFlow Rate
The mass flow rate for each phase associated with the open channel flow is defined by
m
phase
=
phase
(Area
phase
)(V elocity) (23.3-26)
VolumeFractionSpecification
In open channel flows, FLUENT internally calculates the volume fraction based on the
input parameters specified in the Boundary Conditions panel, therefore this option has
been disabled.
For subcritical inlet flows (Fr < 1), FLUENTreconstructs the volume fraction values on
the boundary by using the values from the neighboring cells. This can be accomplished
using the following procedure:
Calculate the node values of volume fraction at the boundary using the cell
values.
Calculate the volume fraction at the each face of boundary using the
interpolated node values.
For supercritical inlet flows (Fr > 1), the volume fraction value on the boundary can
be calculated using the fixed height of the free surface from the bottom.
DownstreamBoundaryConditions
PressureOutlet
Determining the static pressure is dependent on the Pressure Specification Method. Using
the Free Surface Level, the static pressure is dictated by Equation 23.3-23 and Equa-
tion 23.3-25, otherwise you must specify the static pressure as the Gauge Pressure.
For subcritical outlet flows (Fr < 1), if there are only two phases, then the pressure is
taken from the pressure profile specified over the boundary, otherwise the pressure is
taken from the neighboring cell. For supercritical flows (Fr >1), the pressure is always
taken from the neighboring cell.
23.4 MixtureModelTheory
Outfl ow Boundary
Outflow boundary conditions can be used at the outlet of open channel flows to model
flow exits where the details of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to
solving the flow problem. If the conditions are unknown at the outflow boundaries, then
FLUENTwill extrapolate the required information from the interior.
It is important, however, to understand the limitations of this boundary type:
You can only use single outflow boundaries at the outlet, which is achieved by
setting the flow rate weighting to 1. In other words, outflow splitting is not
permitted
in open channel flows with outflow boundaries.
There should be an initial flow field in the simulation to avoid convergence
issues due to flow reversal at the outflow, which will result in an unreliable
solution.
An outflow boundary condition can only be used with mass flow inlets. It is
not compatible with pressure inlets and pressure outlets. For example, if you
choose the inlet as pressure-inlet, then you can only use pressure-outlet at the outlet.
If you choose the inlet as mass-flow-inlet, then you can use either outflow or
pressure-outlet boundary conditions at the outlet. Note that this only holds true
for open channel flow.
Note that the outflow boundary condition assumes that flow is fully
developed in the direction perpendicular to the outflow boundary surface.
Therefore, such surfaces should be placed accordingly.
Backflow VolumeFractionSpecification
FLUENTinternally calculates the volume fraction values on the outlet boundary by using
the neighboring cell values, therefore, this option is disabled.
23.4.1 Overviewand Limitationsof the MixtureModel
Overview
The mixture model is a simplified multiphase model that can be used to model multiphase
flows where the phases move at different velocities, but assume local equilibrium
over short spatial length scales. The coupling between the phases should be strong. It
can also be used to model homogeneous multiphase flows with very strong coupling and
the phases moving at the same velocity. In addition, the mixture model can be
used to calculate non-Newtonian viscosity.
The mixture model can model n phases (fluid or particulate) by solving the momentum,
continuity, and energy equations for the mixture, the volume fraction equations for the
secondary phases, and algebraic expressions for the relative velocities. Typical applica-
tions include sedimentation, cyclone separators, particle-laden flows with low loading,
and bubbly flows where the gas volume fraction remains low.
The mixture model is a good substitute for the full Eulerian multiphase model in several
cases. A full multiphase model may not be feasible when there is a wide distribution of
the particulate phase or when the interphase laws are unknown or their reliability can
be questioned. A simpler model like the mixture model can perform as well as a full
multiphase model while solving a smaller number of variables than the full multiphase
model.
The mixture model allows you to select granular phases and calculates all properties of
the granular phases. This is applicable for liquid-solid flows.
Limitations
The following limitations apply to the mixture model in FLUENT:
You must use the pressure-based solver. The mixture model is not available
with either of the density-based solvers.
Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas. There is
Streamwise periodic flow with specified mass flow rate cannot be modeled
when the mixture model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).
Solidification and melting cannot be modeled in conjunction with the
mixture model.
The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixture model if the
cavitation model is enabled.
The relative velocity formulation cannot be used in combination with the MRF
and mixture model (see Section 10.3.1: Limitations ).
The mixture model cannot be used for inviscid flows.
The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the mixture model.
mixture model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section 22.11.9: Parallel
Pro- cessing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the message passing
option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibili ty of all multiphase flow
models with the DPM model.)
The mixture model, like the VOF model, uses a single-fluid approach. It differs from the
VOF model in two respects:
The mixture model allows the phases to be interpenetrating. The volume
fractions
q
and
p
for a control volume can therefore be equal to any value between 0 and
1, depending on the space occupied by phase q and phase p.
The mixture model allows the phases to move at different velocities, using
the concept of slip velocities. (Note that the phases can also be assumed to
move at the same velocity, and the mixture model is then reduced to a
homogeneous multiphase model.)
The mixture model solves the continuity equation for the mixture, the momentum equa-
tion for the mixture, the energy equation for the mixture, and the volume fraction equa-
tion for the secondary phases, as well as algebraic expressions for the relative velocities
(if the phases are moving at different velocities).
23.4.2 ContinuityEquation
The continuity equation for the mixture is
t
(
m
) + (
m
~v
m
) = 0 (23.4-1)
where ~v
m
is the mass-averaged velocity:
P
n
k
~v
k
and
m
is the mixture densi ty:
~v
m
=
k =1
m
(23.4-2)
n
m
=
X
k
(23.4-3)
k=1
k
is the volume fraction of phase k.
m
k k
t
23.4.3 MomentumEquation
The momentum equation for the mixture can be obtained by summing the individual
momentum equations for all phases. It can be expressed as
(
m
~v
m
) + (
m
~v
m
~v
m
) = p +
h
m

~v
m
+ ~v
T
i
+
m
~g + F
~
+

n
!
X
k
~v
dr,k
~v
dr,k k=1 (23.4-4)
where n is the number of phases, F
~
is a body force, and
m
is the viscosity of the
mixture:
n
m
=
X
k
(23.4-5)
k=1
~v
dr,k
is the drift velocity for secondary phase k:
~v
dr,k
= ~v
k
~v
m
(23.4-6)
23.4.4 Energy Equation
The energy equation for the mixture takes the following form:

n n
X
(
k
k
E
k
) +
X
(
k
~v
k
(
k
E
k
+ p)) = (k
eff
T ) + S
E
(23.4-7)
t
k=1 k=1
where k
eff
is the effective conductivity (
P
k
(k
k
+ k
t
)), where k
t
is the turbule nt thermal
conductivi ty, defined according to the turbulence model being used). The first term on
the right-hand side of Equation 23.4-7 represents energy transfer due to conduction. S
E
includes any other volumetric heat sources.
In Equation 23.4-7,
E = h

p
k
v

2
+ (23.4-8)
2
for a compressible phase, and E
k
= h
k
for an incompressible phase, where h
k
is the
sensible enthalpy for phase k.
p
23.4.5 Relative(Slip)Velocityand the DriftVelocity
The relative velocity (also referred to as the slip velocity) is defined as the velocity of a
secondary phase (p) relative to the velocity of the primary phase (q):
~v
pq
= ~v
p
~v
q
(23.4-9)
The mass fraction for any phase (k) is defined as
c
k
=
m
(23.4-10)
The drift velocity and the relative velocity (~v
qp
) are connected by the following
expression:
n
~v
dr,p
= ~v
pq

X
c
k
~v
qk
(23.4-11)
k=1
FLUENTsmixture model makes use of an algebraic slip formulation. The basic assump-
tion of the algebraic slip mixture model is that to prescribe an algebraic relation for the
relative velocity, a local equilibrium between the phases should be reached over
short spatial length scale. Following Manninen et al. [229], the form of the relative
velocity is given by:
p
~v
pq
=
f
(
p

m
)
~a (23.4-12)
drag p
where
p
is the particle relaxation time
p
=
p
d
2
18
q
(23.4-13)
d is the diameter of the particles (or droplets or bubbles) of secondary phase p, ~a is
the secondary-phase particles acceleration. The default drag function f
drag
is taken
from Schiller and Naumann [320]:
f
drag
=
(
1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
Re 1000
0.0183 Re Re > 1000
(23.4-14)
and the acceleration ~a is of the form
~a = ~g (~v
m

)~v
m
~v
m
(23.4-15)
t
p
~a
t
The simplest algebraic slip formulation is the so-called drift flux model, in which the ac-
celeration of the particle is given by gravity and/or a centrifugal force and the particulate
relaxation time is modified to take into account the presence of other particles.
In turbule nt flows the relative velocity should contain a diffusion term due to the
dispersion appearing in the momentum equation for the dispersed phase. FLUENT
adds this dispersion to the relative velocity:
~v
pq
=
(
p

m
)d
2
18
q
f
drag
q
(23.4-16)
where (
m
) is the mixture turbule nt viscosity and (
D
) is a Prandtl dispersion coefficient.
When you are solving a mixture multiphase calculation with slip velocity, you can directly
prescribe formulations for the drag function. The following choices are available:
Schiller-Naumann (the default formulation)
Morsi-Alexander
symmetric
constant
user-defined
See Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients for more information on these drag
functions and their formulations, and Section 23.11.1: Defining the Phases for the Mixture
Model for instructions on how to enable them.
Note that, if the slip velocity is not solved, the mixture model is reduced to a homogeneous
multiphase model. In addition, the mixture model can be customized (using user-defined
functions) to use a formulation other than the algebraic slip method for the slip velocity.
See the separate UDF Manual for details.
23.4.6 VolumeFractionEquationfor the SecondaryPhases
From the continuity equation for secondary phase p, the volume fraction equation for
secondary phase p can be obtained:
n
(
p
p
) + (
p
p
~v
m
) = (
p
p
~v
dr,p
) +
X
(m
qp
m
pq
) (23.4-17)
q=1
5
s
23.4.7 GranularProperties
Since the concentration of particles is an important factor in the calculation of the effec-
tive viscosity for the mixture, we may use the granular viscosity (see section on Eulerian
granular flows) to get a value for the viscosity of the suspension. The volume weighted
averaged for the viscosity would now contain shear viscosity arising from particle mo-
mentum exchange due to translation and collision.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:
s
=
s,col
+
s,kin
+
s,fr
(23.4-18)
Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [119, 363]
KineticViscosity
4
s,col
=
5
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)

s

1/2
(23.4-19)
FLUENTprovides two expressions for the kinetic viscosity.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [363]:
s
d
s
s

2
s,kin
=
6 (3 e
ss
)
1 + (1 + e
ss
) (3e
ss
1)
s
g
0,ss
(23.4-20)
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [119] is also available:
10
s
d
s
s
4

2
s,kin
=
96 (1 + e
ss
) g
0,ss
1 + g
0,ss
s
(1 + e
ss
)
5
(23.4-21)
ss
23.4.8 GranularTemperature
The viscosities need the specification of the granular temperature for the s
th
solids phase.
Here we use an algebraic equation derived from the trans port equation by neglecting
convection and diffusion and takes the form [363]
where
0 = (p
s
I +
s
) : ~v
s

s
+
ls
(23.4-22)
(p
s
I +
s
) : ~v
s
= the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
s
= the collisional dissipation of energy
ls
= the energy exchange between the l
th
fluid or solid phase and the s
th
solid phase
The collisional dissipation of energy,
s
, represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the s
th
solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [221]
m
=
12(1 e
2
)g
0,ss
3/2
(23.4-23)
d
s
s s
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random fluctuations in particle velocity from the s
th
solids phase to the l
th
fluid or solid phase is represented by
ls
[119]:
ls
= 3K
ls
s
(23.4-24)
FLUENTallows you to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:
algebraic formulation (the default)
This is obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the trans port equation
(Equation 23.4-22) [363].
constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random fluctuations are small.
UDF for granular temperature
23.4.9 Solids Pressure
The total solid pressure is calculated and included in the mixture momentum equations:
N
P
s,total
=
X
p
q
(23.4-25)
q=1
where p
q
is presented in the section for granular flows by equation Equation 23.5-48
23.5EulerianModelTheory
23.5 EulerianModelTheory
Details about the Eulerian multiphase model are presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.5.1: Overview and Limitations of the Eulerian Model
Section 23.5.2: Volume Fractions
Section 23.5.3: Conservation Equations
Section 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients
Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure
Section 23.5.6: Maximum Packing Limit in Binary Mixtures
Section 23.5.7: Solids Shear Stresses
Section 23.5.8: Granular Temperature
Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer
Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models
Section 23.5.11: Solution Method in FLUENT
23.5.1 Overviewand Limitationsof the EulerianModel
Overview
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of multiple sepa-
rate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or solids in nearly any
combination. An Eulerian treatme nt is used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-
Lagrangian treatme nt that is used for the discrete phase model.
With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases is limited only
by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any number of secondary phases
can be modeled, provided that sufficient memory is available. For complex multiphase
flows, however, you may find that your solution is limited by convergence behavior.
See Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for multiphase modeling strategies.
FLUENTsEulerian multiphase model does not distinguish between fluid-fluid and fluid-
solid (granular) multiphase flows. A granular flow is simply one that involves at least
one phase that has been designated as a granular phase.
The FLUENTsolution is based on the following:
A single pressure is shared by all phases.
Momentum and continuity equations are solved for each phase.
The following parameters are available for granular phases:
Granular temperature (solids fluctuating energy) can be calculated for each
solid phase. You can select either an algebraic formulation, a consta nt, a
user-defined function, or a partial differential equation.
Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained by applying kinetic the-
ory to granular flows. Frictional viscosity for modeling granular flow is also
available. You can select appropriate models and user-defined functions for
all properties.
Several interphase drag coefficient functions are available, which are
appropriate for various types of multiphase regimes. (You can also modify the
interphase drag coefficient through user-defined functions, as described in the
separate UDF Man- ual.)
All of the k- turbulence models are available, and may apply to all phases or
to the mixture.
Limitations
All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction with the Eulerian
multiphase model, except for the following limitations:
The Reynolds Stress turbulence model is not available on a per phase basis.
Particle tracking (using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model) interacts only
with the primary phase.
Streamwise periodic flow with specified mass flow rate cannot be modeled
when the Eulerian model is used (the user is allowed to specify a pressure drop).
Inviscid flow is not allowed.
Melting and solidification are not allowed.
Eule- rian multiphase model if the shared memory option is enabled (Section
22.11.9: Par- allel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model). (Note that using the
message passing option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibili ty of
all multiphase flow models with the DPM model.)
23.5EulerianModelTheory
To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conservation equations for
momentum, continuity and (optionally) energy is solved, to a multiphase model, addi-
tional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In the process of introduc-
ing additional sets of conservation equations, the original set must also be modified.
The modifications involve, among other things, the introduction of the volume fractions
1
,
2
, . . .
n
for the multiple phases, as well as mechanisms for the exchange of
momentum, heat, and mass between the phases.
23.5.2 VolumeFractions
The description of multiphase flow as interpenetrating continua incorporates the concept
of phasic volume fractions, denoted here by
q
. Volume fractions represent the
space occupied by each phase, and the laws of conservation of mass and momentum are
satisfied by each phase individually. The derivation of the conservation equations can
be done by ensemble averaging the local instantaneous balance for each of the phases
[10] or by using the mixture theory approach [36].
The volume of phase q, V
q
, is defined by
Z
V
q
=
V
q
dV (23.5-1)
where
n
X
q
= 1 (23.5-2)
q=1
The effective density of phase q is
q
=
q
q
(23.5-3)
where
q
is the physical density of phase q.
q
t
23.5.3 ConservationEquations
The general conservation equations from which the equations solved by FLUENT are
derived are presented in this section, followed by the solved equations themsel ves.
Equationsin GeneralForm
Conservationof Mass
The continuity equation for phase q is
n
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
~v
q
) =
X
(m
pq
m
qp
) + S
q
(23.5-4)
p=1
where ~v
q
is the velocity of phase q and m
pq
characterizes the mass transfer from the
p
th
to q
th
phase, and m
qp
characterizes the mass transfer from phase q to phase p, and
you are able to specify these mechanisms separatel y.
By default, the source term S
q
on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-4 is zero, but you
can specify a constant or user-defined mass source for each phase. A similar term appears
in the momentum and enthalpy equations. See Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in
Multiphase Flows for more information on the modeling of mass transfer in FLUENTs
general multiphase models.
Conservationof Momentum
The momentum balance for phase q yields
t
(
q
q
~v
q
) + (
q
q
~v
q
~v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
q
q
~g+
n
X
(R
~
pq
+ m
pq
~v
pq
m
qp
~v
qp
) + (F
~
q
+ F
~
lift,q
+ F
~
vm,q
)
(23.5-5)
p=1
where
q
is the q
th
phase stress-strain tensor

q
=
q
q
(~v
q
+ ~v
T
) +
q
(
q
2
3
q
) ~v
q
I (23.5-6)
Here
q
and
q
are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q, F
~
q
is an external body force,
F
~
lift,q
is a lift
force,
F
~
vm,q
is a virtual mass
force,
R
~
pq
is an interaction force
between
phases, and p is the pressure shared by all phases.
~v
pq
is the interphase velocity, defined as follows. If m
pq
> 0 (i.e., phase p mass is
being transferred to phase q), ~v
pq
= ~v
p
; if m
pq
< 0 (i.e., phase q mass is being
transferred to phase p), ~v
pq
= ~v
q
. Likewise, if m
qp
> 0 then v
qp
= v
q
, if m
qp
< 0
then v
qp
= v
p
.
Equation 23.5-5 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the interphase force R
~
pq
. This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion, and other effects, and is
subject to the conditions that R
~
pq
= R
~
qp
and R
~
qq
= 0.
FLUENTuses a simple interaction term of the following form:
n n
X
R
~
pq
=
X
K
pq
(~v
p
~v
q
) (23.5-7)
p=1 p=1
where K
pq
(= K
qp
) is the interphase momentum exchange coefficient (described in Sec-
tion 23.5.4: Interphase Exchange Coefficients).
Lift Forces
For multiphase flows, FLUENTcan include the effect of lift forces on the secondary phase
particles (or droplets or bubbles). These lift forces act on a particle mainly due to velocity
gradients in the primary-phase flow field. The lift force will be more significant for larger
particles, but the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate for
closely packed particles or for very small particles.
The lift force acting on a secondary phase p in a primary phase q is computed from [88]
F
~
lift
= 0.5
q
p
(~v
q
~v
p
) ( ~v
q
) (23.5-8)
The lift force F
~
lift
will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum equation
for both phases (F
~
lift,q
= F
~
lift ,p
).
In most cases, the lift force is insignificant compared to the drag force, so there is no
reason to include this extra term. If the lift force is significant (e.g., if the phases separate
quickly), it may be appropriate to include this term. By default, F
~
lift
is not
included. The lift force and lift coefficient can be specified for each pair of phases, if
desired.
i
It is important that if you include the lift force in your calculation,
you need not include it everywhere in the computational domain since
it is
computationally expensive to converge. For example, in the wall boundary
layer for turbule nt bubbly flows in channels, the lift force is significant
when the slip velocity is large in the vicinity of high strain rates for the
primary phase.
dt
Virtual Mass Force
For multiphase flows, FLUENT includes the virtual mass effect that occurs when a
secondary phase p accelerates relative to the primary phase q. The inertia of the primary-
phase mass encountered by the accelerating particles (or droplets or bubbles) exerts a
virtual mass force on the particles [88]:
F
~
vm
= 0.5
p
q

d
q
~v
q
dt
d
p
~v
p
!

dt
(23.5-9)
The term
d
q
denotes the phase material time derivative of the form
d
q
()
=
()
+
(~v
) (23.5-10)
dt t
q
The virtual mass force F
~
vm
will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum
equation for both phases (F
~
vm,q
= F
~
vm,p
).
The virtual mass effect is significant when the secondary phase density is much smaller
than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transie nt bubble column). By default, F
~
vm
is not included.
Conservationof Energy
To describe the conservation of energy in Eulerian multiphase applications, a separate
enthalpy equation can be written for each phase:
t
(
q
q
h
q
) + (
q
q
~u
q
h
q
) =
q
p
q
t
n
+
q
: ~u
q
~q
q
+ S
q
+
X
(Q
pq
+ m
pq
h
pq

m
qp
h
qp
)
p=1
(23.5-11)
where h
q
is the specific enthalpy of the q
th
phase, ~q
q
is the heat flux, S
q
is a source
term that includes sources of enthalpy (e.g., due to chemical reaction or radiation),
Q
pq
is the intensity of heat exchange between the p
th
and q
th
phases, and h
pq
is the
interphase enthalpy (e.g., the enthalpy of the vapor at the temperature of the droplets,
in the case of evaporation). The heat exchange between phases must comply with the
local balance conditions Q
pq
= Q
qp
and Q
qq
= 0.
EquationsSolved by FLUENT
The equations for fluid-fluid and granular multiphase flows, as solved by FLUENT, are
presented here for the general case of an n-phase flow.
ContinuityEquation
The volume fraction of each phase is calculated from a continuity equation:
1
"

n

rq
,
t
(
q
q
) + (
q
q
~v
q
) =
X
(m
pq
m
qp
)

(23.5-12)
p=1
where
rq
is the phase reference density, or the volume averaged density of the q
th
phase
in the solution domain.
The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the condition that the
volume fractions sum to one (given by Equation 23.5-2), allows for the calculation of the
primary-phase volume fraction. This treatme nt is common to fluid-fluid and granular
flows.
Fluid-FluidMomentumEquations
The conservation of momentum for a fluid phase q is
t
(
q
q
~v
q
) + (
q
q
~v
q
~v
q
) =
q
p +
q
+
q
q
~g +
n
X
(K
pq
(~v
p
~v
q
) + m
pq
~v
pq
m
qp
~v
qp
) +
p=1
(F
~
q
+ F
~
lift,q
+ F
~
vm,q
) (23.5-13)
Here ~g is the acceleration due to gravity and
q
, F
~
q
, F
~
lift,q
, and F
~
vm,q
are as
defined for
Equation 23.5-5.
Fluid-SolidMomentumEquations
Following the work of [7, 51, 79, 119, 198, 221, 267, 363], FLUENT uses a multi-fluid
granular model to describe the flow behavior of a fluid-solid mixture. The solid-phase
stresses are derived by making an analogy between the random particle motion arising
from particle-particle collisions and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into
account the inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of the
particle velocity fluctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and pressure of the solid
phase. The kinetic energy associated with the particle velocity fluctuations is represented
p
by a pseudothermal or granular temperature which is proportional to the mean square
of the random motion of particles.
The conservation of momentum for the fluid phases is similar to Equation 23.5-13, and
that for the s
th
solid phase is
t
(
s
s
~v
s
) + (
s
s
~v
s
~v
s
) =
s
p p
s
+
s
+
s
s
~g +
N
X
(K
ls
(~v
l
~v
s
) + m
ls
~v
ls
m
sl
~v
sl
) +
l=1
(F
~
s
+ F
~
lift ,s
+ F
~
vm,s
) (23.5-14)
where p
s
is the s
th
solids pressure, K
ls
= K
sl
is the momentum exchange coefficient
between fluid or solid phase l and solid phase s, N is the total number of phases, and
F
~
q
, F
~
lift,q
, and F
~
vm,q
are as defined for Equation 23.5-5.
Conservationof Energy
The equation solved by FLUENTfor the conservation of energy is Equation 23.5-11.
23.5.4 InterphaseExchange Coefficients
It can be seen in Equations 23.5-13 and 23.5-14 that momentum exchange between the
phases is based on the value of the fluid-fluid exchange coefficient K
pq
and, for granular
flows, the fluid-solid and solid-solid exchange coefficients K
ls
.
Fluid-FluidExchange Coefficient
For fluid-fluid flows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets or bubbles. This
has an impact on how each of the fluids is assigned to a particular phase. For example,
in flows where there are unequal amounts of two fluids, the predomina nt fluid should be
modeled as the primary fluid, since the sparser fluid is more likely to form droplets or
bubbles. The exchange coefficient for these types of bubbly, liquid-liquid or gas-liquid
mixtures can be written in the following general form:
K
pq
=
p
f
p
(23.5-15)
where f , the drag function, is defined differently for the different exchange-
coefficient models (as described below) and
p
, the particulate relaxation time, is
defined as
p
=
p
d
2
18
q
(23.5-16)
where d
p
is the diameter of the bubbles or droplets of phase p.
Nearly all definitions of f include a drag coefficient (C
D
) that is based on the relati ve
Reynolds number (Re). It is this drag function that differs among the exchange-coefficient
models. For all these situations, K
pq
should tend to zero whenever the primary phase is
not present within the domain. To enforce this, the drag function f is always multiplied
by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as is reflected in Equation 23.5-15.
For the model of Schiller and Naumann [320]
where
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-17)
C
D
=
(
24(1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(23.5-18)
and Re is the relative Reynolds number. The relative Reynolds number for the
primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained from
Re =
q
|~v
p
~v
q
|d
p
q
(23.5-19)
The relative Reynolds number for secondary phases p and r is obtained from
Re =
rp
|~v
r
~v
p
|
d
rp
rp
(23.5-20)
where
rp
=
p
p
+
r
r
is the mixture viscosity of the phases p and r.
The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method, and it is acceptable for
general use for all fluid-fluid pairs of phases.
For the Morsi and Alexander model [252]
where
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-21)
a
2
a
3
C
D
= a
1
+
Re
+
Re
2
(23.5-22)
0
,
,
,
,
,
,
2
and Re is defined by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. The as are defined as follows:
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
=
)
0, 24, 0 0 < Re < 0.1
, 3.690, 22.73, 0.0903 0.1 < Re < 1
,
1.222, 29.1667, 3.8889 1 < Re < 10
,

0.6167, 46.50, 116.67 10 < Re < 100
0.3644, 98.33, 2778 100 < Re < 1000
,
,
0.357, 148.62, 47500 1000 < Re < 5000
,
0.46, 490.546, 578700 5000 < Re < 10000
.5191, 1662.5, 5416700 Re
10000
(23.5-23)
The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting the function def-
inition frequently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but calculations with
this model may be less stable than with the other models.
For the symmetric model
where
K
pq
=
p
(
p
p
+
q
q
)f
pq
(23.5-24)
and
(
p
p
+
q
q
)(
d
p
+d
q
)
2
pq
=
2
18(
p
p
+
q
q
)
(23.5-25)
where
f =
C
D
Re
24
(23.5-26)
C
D
=
(
24(1 + 0.15 Re
0.687
)/Re Re 1000
0.44 Re > 1000
(23.5-27)
and Re is defined by Equation 23.5-19 or 23.5-20. Note that if there is only one
dispersed phase, then d
p
= d
q
in Equation 23.5-25.
The symmetric model is recommended for flows in which the secondary (dispersed)
phase in one region of the domain becomes the primary (continuous) phase in
another. Thus for a single dispersed phase, d
p
= d
q
and
(d
p
+d
q
)
= d
p
. For
example, if air is injected into the bottom of a container filled halfway with
water, the air is the dispersed phase in the bottom half of the container; in the
top half of the container, the air is the continuous phase. This model can also
be used for the interaction between secondary phases.
s
24v
2
You can specify different exchange coefficients for each pair of phases. It is also possible
to use user-defined functions to define exchange coefficients for each pair of phases. If the
exchange coefficient is equal to zero (i.e., if no exchange coefficient is specified), the flow
fields for the fluids will be computed independently, with the only interaction being
their complementary volume fractions within each computational cell.
Fluid-SolidExchangeCoefficient
The fluid-solid exchange coefficient K
sl
can be written in the following general form:
K
sl
=
s
f
s
(23.5-28)
where f is defined differently for the different exchange-coefficient models (as described
below), and
s
, the particulate relaxation time, is defined as

s
d
2
s
=
18
l
where d
s
is the diameter of particles of phase s.
(23.5-29)
All definitions of f include a drag function (C
D
) that is based on the relative Reynolds
number (Re
s
). It is this drag function that differs among the exchange-coefficient models.
For the Syamlal-OBrien model [362]
f =
C
D
Re
s
l
r,s
(23.5-30)
where the drag function has a form derived by Dalla Valle [73]
"
4.8

2
C
D
=
,
0.63 +
q

Re
s
/v
r,s
(23.5-31)
This model is based on measurements of the terminal velocities of particles in
fluidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a function of the volume fraction
and relative Reynolds number [305]:
Re
s
=
l
d
s
|~v
s

~v
l
|
l
(23.5-32)
where the subscript l is for the l
th
fluid phase, s is for the s
th
solid phase, and d
s
is
the diameter of the s
th
solid phase particles.
r,s
A =
4.14
l
B =
2.65
D
The fluid-solid exchange coefficient has the form
K
sl
=
3
s
l
C
4v
2
d
s

Re
s
!
v
r,s
|~v
s
~v
l
| (23.5-33)
where v
r,s
is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase [113]:
v
r,s
= 0.5
A 0.06 Re
s
+
q

2
(0.06 Re
s
)
+ 0.12 Re
s
(2B A) +
A
2
(23.5-34)
with
l
(23.5-35)
and
for
l
0.85,
and
B = 0.8
1.28
(23.5-36)
for
l
> 0.85.
l
(23.5-37)
This model is appropriate when the solids shear stresses are defined according to
Syamlal et al. [363] (Equation 23.5-64).
For the model of Wen and Yu [396], the fluid-solid exchange coefficient is of
the following form:
where
3
K
sl
=
4
C
D
s
l
|~v
s

~v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(23.5-38)
24
h
1 + 0.15( Re )
0.687
i
(23.5-39)
C
D
=
Re
l s
l s
and Re
s
is defined by Equation 23.5-32.
This model is appropriate for dilute systems.
2
The Gidaspow model [119] is a combination of the Wen and Yu model [396]
and the Ergun equation [96].
When
l
> 0.8, the fluid-solid exchange coefficient K
sl
is of the following form:
where
3
K
sl
=
4
C
D
s
l
|~v
s

~v
l
|
d
s
2.65
l
(23.5-40)
24
h
1 + 0.15( Re )
0.687
i
(23.5-41)
C
D
=
Re
l s
l s
When
l
0.8,
K
sl
= 150
s
(1
l
)
l
d
2
+ 1.75
s
|~v
s

~v
l
|
d
(23.5-42)
l
s
s
This model is recommended for dense fluidized beds.
Solid-SolidExchangeCoefficient
The solid-solid exchange coefficient K
ls
has the following form [361]:
3 (1 + e
ls
)

+ C
fr,ls

(d
+ d )
2
g
2 8
s s l l l s 0,ls
K
ls
=
2 ( d
3
+ d
3
)
|~v
l
~v
s
| (23.5-43)
l l s s
where
e
ls
= the coefficient of restitution
C
fr,ls
= the coefficient of friction between the l
th
and s
th
solid-phase particles (C
fr, ls
= 0)
d
l
= the diameter of the particles of solid l
g
0,ls
= the radial distribution coefficient
Note that the coefficient of restitution is described in Section 23.5.5: Solids Pressure
and the radial distribution coefficient is described in Section 23.5.5: Radial Distribution
Function.
s
s
qp
23.5.5 Solids Pressure
For granular flows in the compressible regime (i.e., where the solids volume fraction is less
than its maximum allowed value), a solids pressure is calculated independently and used
for the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase momentum equation. Because
a Maxwellian velocity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is
introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids pressure and
viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic term and a second term due to
particle collisions:
p
s
=
s
s
+ 2
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
g
0,ss
s
(23.5-44)
where e
ss
is the coefficient of restitution for particle collisions, g
0,ss
is the radial distribu-
tion function, and
s
is the granular temperature. FLUENT uses a default value of 0.9
for e
ss
, but the value can be adjusted to suit the particle type. The granular temperature
s
is proportional to the kinetic energy of the fluctuating particle motion, and will be
described later in this section. The function g
0,ss
(described below in more detail) is a
distribution function that governs the transition from the compressible condition with
<
s, max
, where the spacing between the solid particles can continue to decrease, to
the incompressible condition with =
s, max
, where no further decrease in the spacing
can occur. A value of 0.63 is the default for
s, max
, but you can modify it during the
problem setup.
Other formulations that are also available in FLUENTare [363]
p
s
= 2
s
(1 + e
ss
)
2
g
0,ss
s
(23.5-45)
and [226]
1
p
s
=
s
s
[(1 + 4
s
g
0,ss
) +
2
[(1 + e
ss
)(1 e
ss
+ 2
f ric
)]] (23.5-46)
When more than one solids phase are calculated, the above expression does not take into
account the effect of other phases. A derivation of the expressions from the Boltzman
equations for a granular mixture are beyond the scope of this manual, however there is
a need to provide a better formulation so that some properties may feel the presence of
other phases. A known problem is that N solids phases with identical properties should be
consistent when the same phases are described by a single solids phase. Equations derived
empirically may not satisfy this property and need to be changed accordingly without
deviating significantly from the original form. From [118], a general solids pressure
formulation in the presence of other phases could be of the form
N
p
q
=
q
q
+
X
g
0,pq
d
3
n
q
n
p
(1 + e
qp
)f (m
p
, m
q
,
p
,
q
) (23.5-47)
p=1
3
2
d
3
d
3
where d
pq
=
d
p
+d
q
is the average diameter, n
p
, n
q
are the number of particles, m
p
and m
q
are the masses of the particles in phases p and q, and f is a function of the masses of the
particles and their granular temperatures. For now, we have to simplify this expression
so that it depends only on the granular temperature of phase q
N
p
q
=
q
q
+
X
2
p=1
d
3
pq
(1 + e
pq
)g
0,pq
q
(23.5-48)
q
Since all models need to be cast in the general form, it follows that
N
p
q
=
q
q
+ (
X
p=1
d
3
pq
p
c,qp
)
q
q
(23.5-49)
q
where p
c,qp
is the collisional part of the pressure between phases q and p.
The above expression reverts to the one solids phase expression when N = 1 and q = p
but also has the property of feeling the presence of other phases.
RadialDistributionFunction
The radial distribution function, g
0
, is a correction factor that modifies the probabili ty
of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. This function
may also be interpreted as the nondimensional distance between spheres:
g
0
=
s + d
p
(23.5-50)
s
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 23.5-50 it can be observed that
for a dilute solid phase s , and therefore g
0
1. In the limit when the solid phase
compacts, s 0 and g
0
. The radial distribution function is closely connected
to the factor of Chapman and Cowlings [51] theory of nonuniform gases. is equal
to 1 for a rare gas, and increases and tends to infinity when the molecules are so close
together that motion is not possible.
1
1
s,max
)
1
1
s
2
k
d
N
In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution function. FLU-
ENT has a number of options:
For one solids phase, use [267]:
3
Q
s
g
0
=
-
1

s,max
\
(23.5-51)
This is an empirical function and does not extends easily to n phases. For two
identical phases with the property that
q
=
1
+
2
, the above function is not
consistent for the calculation of the partial pressures p
1
and p
2
, p
q
= p
1
+ p
2
. In
order to correct this problem, FLUENTuses the following consistent formulation:
!
1
1
N
g
0,ll
=
-
1
3
Q
\
+ d
l
X
(23.5-52)
s, max
k=1
k
where
and k are solids phases only.
N
s
=
X
k
(23.5-53)
k=1
The following expression is also available [151]:
1
g
0,ll
=
(1

s
3
+
2
d
l
X
k
k=1
d
k
(23.5-54)
Also available [226], slightly modified for n solids phases, is the following:
1 + 2.5
s
+ 4.59
2
+
4.52
3
1
N
k
g
0,ll
=
s s
l
X

s

s, max
3

0.678
+
2
d
k=1
d
k
(23.5-55)
The following equation [363] is
available:
1
3(
P
N
k
)
k=1
d
k
g
0,kl
=
(1 )
+
(1 )
2
(d
d
k
d
l
(23.5-56)
+ d )
s s j k
X
1
=
(
d1
d1
When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 23.5-52, Equation 23.5-54
and Equation 23.5-55 are extended to
d
m
g
0,ll
+ d
l
g
0,mm
g
0,lm
=
d
m
+ d
l
(23.5-57)
It is interesting to note that equations Equation 23.5-54 and Equation 23.5-55 compare
well with [6] experimental data, while Equation 23.5-56 reverts to the [47] derivation.
23.5.6 Maxi mum Packing Limitin BinaryMixtures
The packing limit is not a fixed quantity and may change according to the number of
particles present within a given volume and the diameter of the particles. Small particles
accumulate in between larger particles increasing the packing limit. For a binary mixture
FLUENTuses the correlations proposed by [99].
For a binary mixture with diameters d
1
> d
2
, the mixture composition is defined as
1
1 +2
where
X
1
<=
1,max
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
(23.5-58)
)
The maximum packing limit for the mixture is given by
s,max
= (
1,max

2,max
+ [1
s
d2
](1
1,max
)
2,max
) (23.5-59)
X
1
(
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
)
1,max
+
2,max
(23.5-60)
otherwise, the maximum packing limit for the binary mixture is
[1
s
d2
](
1,max
+ (1
1,max
)
2,max
)(1 X
1
) +
1,max
(23.5-61)
The packing limit is used for the calculation of the radial distribution function.
5
s
23.5.7 Solids Shear Stresses
The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising from particle momen-
tum exchange due to translation and collision. A frictional component of viscosity can
also be included to account for the viscous-plastic transition that occurs when particles
of a solid phase reach the maximum solid volume fraction.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are added to give the
solids shear viscosity:
s
=
s,col
+
s,kin
+
s,fr
(23.5-62)
Collisional Viscosity
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as [119, 363]
KineticViscosity
4
s,col
=
5
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)

s

1/2
(23.5-63)
FLUENTprovides two expressions for the kinetic part.
The default expression is from Syamlal et al. [363]:
s
d
s
s

2
s,kin
=
6 (3 e
ss
)
1 + (1 + e
ss
) (3e
ss
1)
s
g
0,ss
(23.5-64)
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [119] is also available:
10
s
d
s
s
4

2
s,kin
=
96 (1 + e
ss
) g
0,ss
1 + g
0,ss
s
(1 + e
ss
)
5
(23.5-65)
BulkViscosity
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular particles to compres-
sion and expansion. It has the following form from Lun et al. [221]:
4
s
=
3
s
d
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
ss
)

s

1/2
(23.5-66)
Note that the bulk viscosity is set to a constant value of zero, by default. It is also
possible to select the Lun et al. expression or use a user-defined function.
f riction
= P
f r
~
~
f riction s s
FrictionalViscosity
In dense flow at low shear, where the secondary volume fraction for a solid phase nears
the packing limit, the generation of stress is mainly due to friction between particles.
The solids shear viscosity computed by FLUENT does not, by default, account for the
friction between particles.
If the frictional viscosity is included in the calculation, FLUENT uses Schaeffers [318]
expression:
s,fr
=
p
s
sin
2
I
2D
(23.5-67)
where p
s
is the solids pressure, is the angle of internal friction, and I
2D
is the second
invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. It is also possible to specify a constant or user-
defined frictional viscosity.
In granular flows with high solids volume fraction, instantaneous collisions are less im-
portant. The application of kinetic theory to granular flows is no longer relevant since
particles are in contact and the resulting frictional stresses need to be taken into account.
FLUENTextends the formulation of the frictional viscosity and employs other models, as
well as providing new hooks for UDFs. See the separate UDF Manual for details.
The frictional stresses are usually written in Newtonian form:
icti on
I + (~u + (~u )
T
) (23.5-68)
The frictional stress is added to the stress predicted by the kinetic theory when the solids
volume fraction exceeds a critical value. This value is normally set to 0.5 when the flow
is three-dimensional and the maximum packing limit is about 0.63. Then
P
S
= P
kinetic
+ P
f riction
(23.5-69)
S
=
kinetic
+
f riction
(23.5-70)
The derivation of the frictional pressure is mainly semi-empirical, while the frictional vis-
cosity can be derived from the first principles. The application of the modified Coulomb
law leads to an expression of the form
f riction
=
P
f riction
sin
2
I
2D
(23.5-71)
Where is the angle of internal friction and I
2D
is the second invariant of the deviatoric
stress tensor.
(
Two additional models are available in FLUENT: the Johnson and Jackson [165] model
for frictional pressure and Syamlal et al [363].
The Johnson and Jackson [165] model for frictional pressure is defined as
(
s

s,mi n
)
n
P
f riction
= F r
s,max
(23.5-72)

s
)
p
With coefficient Fr = 0.05, n=2 and p = 3 [266]. The critical value for the solids volume
fraction is 0.5. The coefficient Fr was modified to make it a function of the volume
fraction:
F r = 0.1
s
(23.5-73)
The frictional viscosity for this model is of the form
f riction
= P
f riction
sin (23.5-74)
The second model that is employed is Syamlal et al [363], described in Equation 23.5-64.
Comparing the two models results in the frictional normal stress differing by orders of
magnitude.
The radial distribution function is an important parameter in the description of the solids
pressure resulting from granular kinetic theory. If we use the models of Lun et al. [221] or
Gidaspow [118] the radial function tends to infinity as the volume fraction tends to the
packing limit. It would then be possible to use this pressure directly in the calculation
of the frictional viscosity, as it has the desired effect. This approach is also available in
FLUENTby default.
i
The introduction of the frictional viscosity helps in the description of
frictional flows, however a complete description would require the
introduction
of more physics to capture the elastic regime with the calculation of the
yield stress and the use of the flow-rule. These effects can be added by the
user via UDFs to model static regime. Small time steps are required to get
good convergence behavior.
ss
ss
23.5.8 GranularTemperature
The granular temperature for the s
th
solids phase is proportional to the kinetic energy of
the random motion of the particles. The trans port equation derived from kinetic theory
takes the form [79]
3
"
#
(
s
s
) + (
s
s
~v
s
s
)
= (p
s
I +
s
) : ~v
s
+(k
s
)
s
+
ls
(23.5-
75)
2 t
where
(p
s
I +
s
) : ~v
s
= the generation of energy by the solid stress tensor
k
s
= the diffusion of energy (k
s
is the diffusion coefficient)
s
= the collisional dissipation of energy
ls
= the energy exchange between the l
th
fluid or solid phase and the s
th
solid phase
Equation 23.5-75 contains the term k
s
describing the diffusive flux of granular
energy. When the default Syamlal et al. model [363] is used, the diffusion coefficient for
granular energy, k
s
is given by
15d
s
s

2
2
16
k
s
=
4(41 33)
1 +
5
(4 3)
s
g
0,ss
+
15
(41 33)
s
g
0,ss
)
(23.5-76)
where
1
=
2
(1 + e
ss
)
FLUENT uses the following expression if the optional model of Gidaspow et al. [119] is
enabled:
150
s
d
s
q
()

6

2
2
s
s
k
s
=
384(1 + e )g
0,ss
1 +
s
g
0,ss
(1 + e
s
)
5
+ 2
s
s
d
s
(1 + e
ss
)g
0,ss
(23.5-77)
The collisional dissipation of energy,
s
, represents the rate of energy dissipation within
the s
th
solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the
expression derived by Lun et al. [221]
m
=
12(1 e
2
)g
0,ss
3/2
(23.5-78)
d
s
s s
s
6
~
2
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random fluctuations in particle velocity from the s
th
solids phase to the l
th
fluid or solid phase is represented by
ls
[119]:
ls
= 3K
ls
s
(23.5-79)
FLUENTallows the user to solve for the granular temperature with the following options:
algebraic formulation (the default)
It is obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the transport equation,
Equation 23.5-75 [363].
partial differential equation
This is given by Equation 23.5-75 and it is allowed to choose different options for
it properties.
constant granular temperature
This is useful in very dense situations where the random fluctuations are small.
UDF for granular temperature
For a granular phase s, we may write the shear force at the wall in the following form:
~ =

s
g
0
q
s
U
s,||
(23.5-80)
s,max
Here U
~
s,||
is the particle slip velocity parallel to the wall, is the specularity
coefficient between the particle and the wall,
s,max
is the volume fraction for the
particles at maximum packing, and g
0
is the radial distribution function that is model
dependent.
The general boundary condition for granular temperature at the wall takes the form
[165]

s
q

s 2
3
q
s
=
6
3
s,max
s
g
0
s
)U
~
s,||
U
~
s,||

4
3
s,max
(1 e
sw
)
s
g
0
s
(23.5-81)
23.5.9 Description of HeatTransfer
The internal energy balance for phase q is written in terms of the phase enthalpy, Equa-
tion 23.5-11, defined by
Z
H
q
= c
p,q
dT
q
(23.5-82)
where c
p,q
is the specific heat at constant pressure of phase q. The thermal boundary
conditions used with multiphase flows are the same as those for a single-phase flow. See
Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details.
p
The HeatExchangeCoefficient
The rate of energy transfer between phases is assumed to be a function of the temperature
difference
Q
pq
= h
pq
(T
p
T
q
) (23.5-83)
where h
pq
(= h
qp
) is the heat transfer coefficient between the p
th
phase and the q
th
phase.
The heat transfer coefficient is related to the p
th
phase Nusselt number, Nu
p
, by
h
pq
=
6
q
q
Nu
p
d
p
2
(23.5-84)
Here
q
is the thermal conductivity of the q
th
phase. The Nusselt number is typically
determined from one of the many correlations reported in the literature. In the case of
fluid-fluid multiphase, FLUENTuses the correlation of Ranz and Marshall [295, 296]:
Nu
p
= 2.0 + 0.6Re
1/2
Pr
1/3
(23.5-85)
where Re
p
is the relative Reynolds number based on the diameter of the p
th
phase and
the relative velocity |u~
p
u~
q
|, and Pr is the Prandtl number of the q
th
phase:
c
p
q
q
Pr =
q
(23.5-86)
In the case of granular flows (where p = s), FLUENT uses a Nusselt number correlation
by Gunn [128], applicable to a porosity range of 0.351.0 and a Reynolds number of up
to 10
5
:
Nu
s
= (7 10
f
+ 5
2
)(1 + 0.7Re
0.2
Pr
1/3
) + (1.33 2.4
f
+ 1.2
2
)Re
0.7
Pr
1/3
(23.5-
87)
f s f s
The Prandtl number is defined as above with q = f . For all these situations, h
pq
should tend to zero whenever one of the phases is not present within the domain. To
enforce this, h
pq
is always multiplied by the volume fraction of the primary phase q, as
reflected in Equation 23.5-84.
23.5.10 TurbulenceModels
To describe the effects of turbule nt fluctuations of velocities and scalar quantities in
a single phase, FLUENT uses various types of closure models, as described in Chap-
ter 12: Modeling Turbulence. In comparison to single-phase flows, the number of terms
to be modeled in the momentum equations in multiphase flows is large, and this makes
the modeling of turbulence in multiphase simulations extremely complex.
FLUENTprovides three methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase flows within the
context of the k- models. In addition, FLUENT provides two turbulence options within
the context of the Reynolds stress models (RSM).
The k- turbulence model options are:
mixture turbulence model (the default)
dispersed turbulence model
turbulence model for each phase
i
Note that the descriptions of each method below are presented based
on the standard k- model. The multiphase modifications to the RNG
and
realizable k- models are similar, and are therefore not presented explicitl y.
The RSM turbulence model options are:
mixture turbulence model (the default)
dispersed turbulence model
For either category, the choice of model depends on the importance of the secondary-
phase turbulence in your application.
k- TurbulenceModels
FLUENT provides three turbulence model options in the context of the k- models: the
mixture turbulence model (the default), the dispersed turbulence model, or a per-phase
turbulence model.
N
k- MixtureTurbulenceModel
The mixture turbulence model is the default multiphase turbulence model. It represents
the first extension of the single-phase k- model, and it is applicable when phases separate,
for stratified (or nearly stratified) multiphase flows, and when the density ratio between
phases is close to 1. In these cases, using mixture properties and mixture velocities is
sufficient to capture important features of the turbule nt flow.
The k and equations describing this model are as follows:
t
(
m
k) + (
m
~v
m
k) =
t,m
k
k
+ G
k,m

m
(23.5-88)
and
t
(
m
) + (
m
~v
m
) =
t,m

+
k
(C
1
G
k,m
C
2
m
) (23.5-89)
where the mixture density and velocity,
m
and ~v
m
, are computed from
N
m
=
X
i
(23.5-90)
i=1
and
N
X
i
~v
i
~v
m
=
i=1
X
i
i=1
(23.5-91)
the turbule nt viscosity,
t,m
, is computed from
k
2
t,m
=
m
C

(23.5-92)
and the production of turbulence kinetic energy, G
k,m
, is computed from
G
k,m
=
t,m
(~v
m
+
(~v
m
)
T
) : ~v
m
(23.5-93)
The constants in these equations are the same as those described in Section 12.4.1: Stan-
dard k- Model for the single-phase k- model.
k- Dispersed TurbulenceModel
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the concentrations of the
secondary phases are dilute. In this case, interparticle collisions are negligible and the
dominant process in the random motion of the secondary phases is the influence of the
primary-phase turbulence. Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phases can therefore
be given in terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of the
particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time.
The model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest
are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Assumptions
The dispersed method for modeling turbulence in FLUENTassumes the following:
a modified k- model for the continuous phase
Turbulent predictions for the continuous phase are obtained using the standard
k- model suppleme nted with extra terms that include the interphase turbule nt
momentum transfer.
Tchen-theory correlations for the dispersed phases
Predictions for turbulence quantities for the dispersed phases are obtained using the
Tchen theory of dispersion of discrete particles by homogeneous turbulence [141].
interphase turbule nt momentum transfer
In turbule nt multiphase flows, the momentum exchange terms contain the cor-
relation between the instantaneous distribution of the dispersed phases and the
turbule nt fluid motion. It is possible to take into account the dispersion of the
dispersed phases trans ported by the turbule nt fluid motion.
a phase-weighted averaging process
The choice of averaging process has an impact on the modeling of dispersion in
turbule nt multiphase flows. A two-step averaging process leads to the appearance
of fluctuations in the phase volume fractions. When the two-step averaging pro-
cess is used with a phase-weighted average for the turbulence, however, turbule nt
fluctuations in the volume fractions do not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted
averaging, so no volume fraction fluctuations are introduced into the continuity
equations.
k
k
q
3
k
Turbulence in the Continuous Phase
The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged fluctuating quantities. The
Reynolds stress tensor for continuous phase q takes the following form:

0 0
2 T
q
=
3
(
q
k
q
+
q
t,q
U
~
q
)I +
q
t,q
(U
~
q
+ U
~
q
where U
~
q
is the phase-weighted velocity.
) (23.5-94)
The turbule nt viscosity
t,q
is written in terms of the turbule nt kinetic energy of phase
q:
2
t,q
=
q
C

q

q
(23.5-95)
and a characteristic time of the energetic turbule nt eddies is defined as
3 k
q
t,q
=
2
C

(23.5-96)
where
q
is the dissipation rate and C

= 0.09.
The length scale of the turbule nt eddies is
L
t,q
=
s
3/2
C

q
2
q
(23.5-97)
Turbulent predictions are obtained from the modified k- model:
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
q
U
~
q
k
q
) =
(
q
t,q
k
k
q
) +
q
G
k,q

q
q

q
+
q
k
q
(23.5-98)
and
t
(
q
q

q
) + (
q
q
U
~
q

q
) =
(
q
t,q

q
) +
q

q
(C
1
G
k,q
C
2
q

q
) +
q

q
q
(23.5-99)
Here
k
q
and

q
represent the influence of the dispersed phases on the continuous phase
q, and G
k,q
is the production of turbule nt kinetic energy, as defined in Section 12.4.4:
Mod- eling Turbulent Production in the k- Models. All other terms have the same
meaning as in the single-phase k- model.
k
= C
X
q p
X
The term
k
q
can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the continuous phase
and takes the following form, where M represents the number of secondary phases:
M
kq
=
K
pq
(< ~v
0 0
~v
0 0
> +( U
~
p
U
~
q
) ~v
dr
) (23.5-100)
p=1
q
which can be simplified to
M
k
q
=
K
pq
(k
pq
2k
q
+ ~v
pq
~v
dr
) (23.5-101)
p=1
q
where k
lq
is the covariance of the velocities of the continuous phase q and the dispersed
phase l (calculated from Equation 23.5-109 below), ~v
pq
is the relative velocity, and ~v
dr
is the drift velocity (defined by Equation 23.5-114 below).

q
is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. [95]:
where C
3
= 1.2.

q
q 3
q
k
q
(23.5-102)
Turbulence in the Dis persed Phase
Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to evaluate dispersion
coefficients, correlation functions, and the turbule nt kinetic energy of each dispersed
phase.
The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial effects acting on a
dispersed phase p is defined as

p
!
F,pq
=
p
q
K
1
+ C
V
(23.5-103)
pq
q
The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories, mainly affected
by the crossing-tr ajectory effect [69], is defined as
t,pq
= q
t,q
(1 + C

2
)
(23.5-104)
where
=
|~v
pq
|
t,q
L
t,q
(23.5-105)
=
3 3

and
C

= 1.8 1.35 cos
2
(23.5-106)
where is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean relative velocity.
The ratio between these two characteristic times is written as
t,pq
pq
F,pq
(23.5-107)
Following Simonin [333], FLUENTwrites the turbulence quantities for dispersed phase p
as follows:
k
p
= k
q

b
2
+
pq
!
1 +
pq

b +
pq
!
(23.5-108)
k
pq
= 2k
q
1
1 +
pq
(23.5-109)
D
t,pq
= k
pq
t,pq
(23.5-110)
3

2 1
D
p
= D
t,pq
+ k
p
b k
pq
F,pq
(23.5-111)
1

p
!
b = (1 + C
V
) + C
V
q
(23.5-112)
and C
V
= 0.5 is the added-mass coefficient.
Interphase Turbule nt Mome ntum Transfer
The turbule nt drag term for multiphase flows (K
pq
(~v
p
~v
q
) in Equation 23.5-7) is
modeled as follows, for dispersed phase p and continuous phase q:
K
pq
(~v
p
~v
q
) = K
pq
(U
~
p
U
~
q
) K
pq
~v
dr
(23.5-113)
The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 23.5-113 contains the drift velocity:

D
p
D
q
!
~v
dr
=
pq
pq q
q
(23.5-114)
Here D
p
and D
q
are diffusivities, and
pq
is a dispersion Prandtl number. When using
Tchen theory in multiphase flows, FLUENT assumes D
p
= D
q
= D
t,pq
and the default
value for
pq
is 0.75.
multiphase-
options
yes
yes
The drift velocity results from turbule nt fluctuations in the volume fraction. When
multiplied by the exchange coefficient K
pq
, it serves as a correction to the momentum
exchange term for turbule nt flows. This correction is not included, by default, but you
can enable it during the problem setup.
You can enable the effect of drift velocity by performing the
following:
1. If it is not already done, set the k-epsilon Multiphase Model to Dispersed in the
Viscous panel.
2. Enter the multiphase-options text command in the console window.
define models viscous multiphase-turbulence
multiphase-options
/define/models/viscous/multiphase-turbulence>
Enable dispersion force in momentum?
[no] Enable interphase k-epsilon source?
[no]
The effect of the drift velocity is influenced both by the momentum equation and,
to a lesser extent, the turbulence equation. Therefore, you should answer yes to
both questions to take into account the effect of drift velocity.
k- TurbulenceModelfor EachPhase
The most general multiphase turbulence model solves a set of k and trans port equations
for each phase. This turbulence model is the appropriate choice when the turbulence
transfer among the phases plays a dominant role.
Note that, since FLUENT is solving two additional trans port equations for each sec-
ondary phase, the per-phase turbulence model is more computationally intensive than
the dispersed turbulence model.
Trans port Equations
The Reynolds stress tensor and turbule nt viscosity are computed using Equations 23.5-94
and 23.5-95. Turbulence predictions are obtained from
t
(
q
q
k
q
) + (
q
q
U
~
q
k
q
) =
(
q
t,q
k
k
q
) + (
q
G
k,q

q
q

q
) +
N N
t,l
N
t,q
X
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
X
K
lq
(U
~
l
U
~
q
)
l
+
X
K
lq
(U
~
l

U
~
q
)
q
(23.5-115)
l=1 l=1
l
l=1
and
t
(
q
q

q
) + (
q
q
U
~
q

q
) =
(
q
t,q

q
) +

q
"
k
q
C
1
q
G
k,q
C
2
q

q
+

N N
t,l
N
t,q
!#
C
3
X
K
lq
(C
lq
k
l
C
ql
k
q
)
X
K
lq
(U
~
l

U
~
q
)
l
+
X
K
lq
(U
~
l
U
~
q
)
q
l=1 l=1
l
l=1
q
(23.5-116)
The terms C
lq
and C
ql
can be approximated as
C
lq
= 2, C
ql
= 2

lq
!
1 +
lq
(23.5-117)
where
lq
is defined by Equation 23.5-107.
Interphase Turbule nt Mome ntum Transfer
The turbule nt drag term (K
pq
(~v
p
~v
q
) in Equation 23.5-7) is modeled as follows,
where
l is the dispersed phase (replacing p in Equation 23.5-7) and q is the continuous phase:
N N N
X
K
lq
(~v
l
~v
q
) =
X
K
lq
(U
~
l
U
~
q
)
X
K
lq
~v
dr,lq
(23.5-118)
l=1 l=1 l=1
Here
U
~
l
and U
~
q
are phase-weighted velocities, and ~v
dr,lq
is the drift velocity for
phase
l (computed using Equation 23.5-114, substituting l for p). Note that FLUENT will
compute the diffusivities D
l
and D
q
directly from the trans port equations, rather than
using Tchen theory (as it does for the dispersed turbulence model).
As noted above, the drift velocity results from turbule nt fluctuations in the volume
fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coefficient K
lq
, it serves as a correction to
the momentum exchange term for turbule nt flows. This correction is not included, by
default, but you can enable it during the problem setup.
The turbulence model for each phase in FLUENTaccounts for the effect of the turbulence
field of one phase on the other(s). If you want to modify or enhance the interaction of the
multiple turbulence fields and interphase turbule nt momentum transfer, you can supply
these terms using user-defined functions.

c
=
RSMTurbulence Models
Multiphase turbulence modeling typically involves two equation models that are
based on single-phase models and often cannot accurately capture the underlying flow
physics. Additional turbulence modeling for multiphase flows is diminished even more
when the basic underlying single-phase model cannot capture the complex physics of the
flow. In such situations, the logical next step is to combine the Reynolds stress model
with the multiphase algorithm in order to handle challenging situations in which both
factors, RSM for turbulence and the Eulerian multiphase formulation, are a
precondition for accurate predictions [65].
The phase-averaged continuity and momentum equations for a continuous phase are:

(
c
c
) + (
c
c
U
c
) = 0 (23.5-119)
t
(
c
rmc
U
c
) + (
c
rmc
U
c
O
U
c
) =
c
p +
t
+ F
Dc
(23.5-120)
t
c
For simplicity, the laminar stress-strain tensor and other body forces such as gravity
have been omitted from Equations 23.5-119-23.5-120. The tilde denotes phase-averaged
variables while an overbar (e.g.,
c
) reflects time-averaged values. In general, any variable
can have a phase-average value defined as
c
(23.5-121)
Considering only two phases for simplicity, the drag force between the continuous
and the dispersed phases can be defined as:
"
d
u
0
c
u
0
!#
F
Dc
= K
dc
(U
d
U
c
)
d c
(23.5-122)
c
where K
dc
is the drag coefficient. Several terms in the Equation 23.5-122 need to be
modeled in order to close the phase-averaged momentum equations. Full descriptions of
all modeling assumptions can be found in [64]. This section only describes the different
modeling definition of the turbule nt stresses
t
that appears in Equation 23.5-120.
The turbule nt stress that appears in the momentum equations need to be defined on a
per-phase basis and can be calculated as:
t
k
=
k
k
R
k,ij
(23.5-123)
where the subscript k is replaced by c for the primary (i.e., continuous) phase or by d for
any secondary (i.e., dispersed) phases. As is the case for single-phase flows, the current
multiphase Reynolds stress model (RSM) also solves the trans port equations for Reynolds
stresses R
ij
. FLUENTincludes two methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase flows
within the context of the RSM model: the dispersed turbulence model, and the mixture
turbulence model.
RSMDispersed TurbulenceModel
The dispersed turbulence model is used when the concentrations of the secondary phase
are dilute and the primary phase turbulence is regarded as the dominant process. Conse-
quently, the trans port equations for turbulence quantities are only solved for the primary
(continuous) phase, while the predictions of turbulence quantities for dispersed phases
are obtained using the Tchen theory. The trans port equation for the primary phase
Reynolds stresses in the case of the dispersed model are:

(R
ij
) +
t
x
k
(U
k
R
ij
) =
i
k
U
j
x
k
+
R
jk
U
i
!
+
x
k
x
k
"

x
k
#
(R
ij
)
u
0
u
0
[u
0
u
0
u
0
] + p(
i
+
j
)
x
k
i j k
x
j
x
i

ij
+
R,ij
(23.5-124)
The variables in Equation 23.5-124 are per continuous phase c and the subscript is omitted
for clarity. The last term of Equation 23.5-124,
R,ij
, takes into account the interaction
between the continuous and the dispersed phase turbulence. A general model for this
term can be of the form:
R,ij
= K
dc
C
1,dc
(R
dc,ij
R
c,ij
) + K
dc
C
2,dc
a
dc,i
b
dc,j
(23.5-125)
where C
1
and C
2
are unknown coefficients, a
dc,i
is the relative velocity, b
dc,j
represents the drift or the relative velocity, and R
dc,ij
is the unknown particulate-
fluid velocity correlation. To simplify this unknown term, the following assumption has
been made:
2
R,ij
=
3
ij
k
(23.5-126)
where
ij
is the Kronecker delta, and
k
represents the modified version of the original
Simonin model [333].
kc
= K
dc
(k
dc
2k
c
+ V
rel
V
drift
) (23.5-127)
1
where
K

c
represents the turbule nt kinetic energy of the continuous
phase,
k
dc
is
the
continuous-dispersed phase velocity covariance and finally, V
rel
and V
drift
stand for
the
relative and the drift velocities, respectively. In order to achieve full closure, the trans port
equation for the turbule nt kinetic energy dissipation rate ( ) is required. The
modeling of together with all other unknown terms in Equation 23.5-127 are modeled
in the same way as in [64].
RSMMixtureTurbulence Model
The main assumption for the mixture model is that all phases share the same turbu-
lence field which consequently means that the term
R
in the Reynolds stress trans port
equations (Equation 23.5-124) is neglected. Apart from that, the equations maintain the
same form but with phase properties and phase velocities being replaced with mixture
properties and mixture velocities. The mixture density, for example, can be expressed as
N
m
=
X
i
(23.5-128)
i=1
while mixture velocities can be expressed as
P
N
i
U
i
U
m
=
i=1
(23.5-129) P
N
i=1
i
where N is the number of species.
23.5.11 SolutionMethodin FLUENT
For Eulerian multiphase calculations, FLUENT uses the phase coupled SIMPLE (PC-
SIMPLE) algorithm [379] for the pressure-velocity coupling. PC-SIMPLE is an extension
of the SIMPLE algorithm [276] to multiphase flows. The velocities are solved coupled by
phases, but in a segregated fashion. The block algebraic multigrid scheme used by the
density-based solver described in [394] is used to solve a vector equation formed by the
velocity components of all phases simultaneously. Then, a pressure correction equation
is built based on total volume continuity rather than mass continuity. Pressure and
velocities are then corrected so as to satisfy the continuity constrai nt.
The Pressure-CorrectionEquation
For incompressible multiphase flow, the pressure-correction equation takes the form
n
(
X
+
~v
0
+
n
~v

(
X
(m

m
)
)) = 0 (23.5-130)
k=1
rk t
k k k k k k k k lk kl
l=1
k k
where
rk
is the phase reference density for the k
th
phase (defined as the total volume
average density of phase k),
~v
0
is the velocity correction for the k
th
phase, and ~v

is
the
value of ~v
k
at the current iteration. The velocity corrections are themselves expressed
as functions of the pressure corrections.
VolumeFractions
The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations. In discretized
form, the equation of the k
th
volume fraction is
a
p,k
k
=
X
(a
nb,k
nb,k
) + b
k
= R
k
(23.5-131)
nb
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to one,
n
X
k
= 1 (23.5-132)
k=1
23.6 Wet SteamModelTheory
23.6.1 Overview and Limitations of the Wet Steam
Model
Overview
During the rapid expansion of steam, a condensation process will take place shortly
after the state path crosses the vapor-saturation line. The expansion process causes the
super-heated dry steam to first subcool and then nucleate to form a two-phase mixture
of saturated vapor and fine liquid droplets known as wet steam.
Modeling wet steam is very important in the analysis and design of steam turbines. The
increase in steam turbine exit wetness can cause severe erosion to the turbine blades at
the low-pressure stages, and a reduction in aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine stages
operating in the wet steam region [250].
FLUENT has adopted the Eulerian-Eulerian approach for modeling wet steam flow. The
flow mixture is modeled using the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, in addition to
two trans port equations for the liquid-phase mass-fraction (), and the number of liquid-
droplets per unit volume (). The phase change model, which involves the formation of
liquid-droplets in a homogeneous nonequilibrium condensation process, is based on the
classical nonisothermal nucleation theor y.
This section describes the theoretical aspects of the wet steam model. Information about
enabling the model and using your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model is provided in Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model. Solution settings
and strategies for the wet steam model can be found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model.
Postprocessing variables are described in Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables.
Limitations
The following restrictions and limitations currently apply to the wet steam model in
FLUENT:
The wet steam model is available for the density-based solvers only.
Pressure inlet, mass-flow inlet, and pressure outlet are the only inflow and
outflow boundary conditions available.
When the wet steam model is active, the access to the Materials panel is
restricted because the fluid mixture properties are determined from the built in
steam property functions or from the user-defined wet steam property functions.
Therefore, if solid properties need to be set and adjusted, then it must be done in
the Materials panel before activating the wet steam model.
23.6.2 Wet Steam Flow Equations
The wet steam is a mixture of two-phases. The primary phase is the gaseous-phase
consisting of water-vapor (denoted by the subscript v) while the secondary phase is the
liquid-phase consisting of condensed-water droplets (denoted by the subscript l).
The following assumptions are made in this model:
The velocity slip between the droplets and gaseous-phase is negligible.
The interactions between droplets are neglected.
The mass fraction of the condensed phase, (also known as wetness factor),
is small ( < 0.2).
Since droplet sizes are typically very small (from approximately 0.1 microns
to approximately 100 microns), it is assumed that the volume of the condensed
liquid phase is negligible.
From the preceding assumptions, it follows that the mixture density () can be related
to the vapor density (
v
) by the following equation:
=
v
(1 )
(23.6-1)
V
In addition, the temperature and the pressure of the mixture will be equivalent to the
temperature and pressure of the vapor-phase.
The mixture flow is governed by the compressible Navier-Stokes equations given in vector
form by Equation 25.5-4:
W
Z
Q t V
I
Q dV +
Z
[F G] dA = H dV (23.6-2)
where Q=( P,u,v,w,T) are mixture quantities. The flow equations are solved using the
same density-based solver algorithms employed for general compressible flows.
To model wet steam, two additional trans port equations are needed [152]. The first
trans port equation governs the mass fraction of the condensed liquid phase ():
t
+ (
v ) = (23.6-3)
where is the mass generation rate due to condensation and evaporation (kg per unit
volume per second). The second trans port equation models the evolution of the number
density of the droplets per unit volume:
t
+ (
v ) = I (23.6-4)
where I is the nucleation rate (number of new droplets per unit volume per second).
To determine the number of droplets per unit volume, Equation 23.6-1 and the average
droplet volume V
d
are combined in the following expression:

=
(1 )V
d
(
l
/
v
)
(23.6-5)
where
l
is the liquid density and the average droplet volume is defined as

3
where r
d
is the droplet radius.
V
d
=
3
r
d
(23.6-6)
Together, Equation 23.6-2, Equation 23.6-3, and Equation 23.6-4 form a closed system
of equations which, along with Equation 23.6-1, permit the calculation of the wet steam
flow field.
l
23.6.3 Phase ChangeModel
The following is assumed in the phase change model:
The condensation is homogeneous (i.e., no impurities present to form nuclei).
The droplet growth is based on average represe ntative mean radii.
The droplet is assumed to be spherical.
The droplet is surrounded by infinite vapor space.
The heat capacity of the fine droplet is negligible compared with the latent
heat released in condensation.
The mass generation rate in the classical nucleation theory during the nonequilibrium
condensation process is given by the sum of mass increase due to nucleation (the formation
of critically sized droplets) and also due to growth/demise of these droplets [152].
Therefore, is written as:
4
3
=
3
l
I r
+ 4
l
r
2
r
t
(23.6-7)
where r is the average radius of the droplet, and r

is the Kelvin-Helmholtz critical
droplet radius, above which the droplet will grow and below which the droplet will
evaporate. An expression for r

is given by [410].
2
r

=
RT ln S
(23.6-8)
where is the liquid surface tension evaluated at temperature T ,
l
is the condensed
liquid density (also evaluated at temperature T ), and S is the super saturation ratio
defined as the ratio of vapor pressure to the equilibrium saturation pressure:
P
s =
P
sat
(T )
(23.6-9)
The expansion process is usually very rapid. Therefore, when the state path crosses the
saturated- vapor line, the process will depart from equilibrium, and the supersaturation
ratio S can take on values greater than one.
v
e

3

=
The condensation process involves two mechanisms, the transfer of mass from the vapor
to the droplets and the transfer of heat from the droplets to the vapor in the form of
latent heat. This energy transfer relation was presented in [408] and used in [152] and
can be written as:
r
=
t
h
lv
l
P
2RT
+ 1
2
C
p
(T
0
T ) (23.6-10)
where T
0
is the droplet temperature.
The classical homogeneous nucleation theory describes the formation of a liquid-phase
in the form of droplets from a supersaturated phase in the absence of impurities or
foreign particles. The nucleation rate described by the steady-state classical homogeneous
nucleation theory [410] and corrected for nonisothermal effects, is given by:
I =
q
c

2
!s
2

4 r
2

K
b
T
(23.6-11)
(1 + )
l
M
m
3
where q
c
is evaporation coefficient, k
b
is the Boltzmann consta nt, M
m
is mass of one
molecule, is the liquid surface tension, and
l
is the liquid density at temperature T .
A nonisothermal correction factor, , is given by:
2( 1)

h
lv
!
h
lv
!
0.5 (23.6-12)
( + 1) RT RT
where h
lv
is the specific enthalpy of evaporation at pressure p and is the ratio of
specific heat capacities.
23.6.4 Built-inThermodynamicWet SteamProperties
There are many equations that describe the thermodynamic state and properties of steam.
While some of these equations are accurate in generating property tables, they are not
suitable for fast CFD computations. Therefore, FLUENT uses a simpler form of the
thermodynamic state equations [409] for efficient CFD calculations that are accurate
over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. These equations are described below.
T
647.286
#
Equationof State
The steam equation of state used in the solver, which relates the pressure to the vapor
density and the temperature, is given by [409]:
P =
v
RT (1 + B
v
+ C
v
2
) (23.6-13)
where B, and C are the second and the third virial coefficients given by the following
empirical functions:
B = a (1 +

)
1
1
+ a
2
e
(1
e
5
)
2
+ a
3
(23.6-14)
where B is given in m
3
/kg, =
1500
a
2
= -0.000942, and a
3
= -0.0004882.
with T given in Kelvin, = 10000.0, a
1
= 0.0015,
C = a(
0
)e

+ b (23.6-15)
where C is given in m
6
/kg
2
, =
T
with T given in Kelvin,
o
= 0.8978, =11.16,
a= 1.772, and b= 1.5E-06.
The two empirical functions that define the virial coefficients B and C cover the temper-
ature range from 273 K to 1073 K.
The vapor isobaric specific heat capacity C p
v
is given by:
C p
v
= C p
0
(T ) +
R

[(1
v
T )(B B
1
) B
2
]
v
+

(1 2
v
T )C +
v
T C
1
C

2

2

2
v
The vapor specific enthalpy, h
v
is given by:
(23.6-16)
h
v
= h
0
(T ) +
RT

(B B
1
)
v
+ (C
1
)
2

2
v (23.6-17)
The vapor specific entropy, s
v
is given by:
s
v
= s
0
(T ) R
"
ln
v
+ (B + B
1
)
v
+
(

C + C
1
)

2
2
v
(23.6-18)
The isobaric specific heat at zero pressure is defined by the following empirical equation:
6
C p
0
(T ) =
X
a
i
T
i2
(23.6-19)
i=1
2 2
where C p
0
is in KJ/kg K, a
1
= 46.0, a
2
= 1.47276, a
3
= 8.38930E-04, a
4
= -2.19989E-07,
a
5
= 2.46619E-10, and a
6
= -9.70466E-14.
and
B
1
= T
dB
, C
1
= T
dC
, B
2
= T
2 dB
, and C = T
2 dC
.
dT dT
dT
2 2
dT
2
Both h
0
(T ) and s
0
(T ) are functions of temperature and they are defined by:
Z
h
0
(T ) = C p
0
dT + h
c
(23.6-20)
s
0
(T ) =
where h
c
and s
c
are arbitrary constants.
Z
C p
0
dT + s (23.6-21)
T
c
The vapor dynamic viscosity
v
and thermal conductivity K t
v
are also functions of
temperature and were obtained from [408].
SaturatedVaporLine
The saturation pressure equation as a function of temperature was obtained from [301].
The example provided in Section 23.13.5: UDWSPF Example contains a function called
wetst satP() that represents the formulation for the saturation pressure.
SaturatedLiquidLine
At the saturated liquid-line, the liquid density, surface tension, specific heat C p,
dynamic viscosity, and thermal conductivity must be defined. The equation for liquid
density,
l
, was obtained from [301]. The liquid surface tension equation was obtained
from [408]. While the values of C p
l
,
l
and K t
l
were curve fit using published data
from [91] and then written in polynomial forms. The example provided in Section
23.13.5: UDWSPF
Example contains functions called wetst cpl(), wetst mul(), and wetst ktl() that
represent formulations for C p
l
,
l
and K t
l
.
MixtureProperties
The mixture properties are related to vapor and liquid properties via the wetness factor
using the following mixing law:
m
=
l
+ (1 )
v
(23.6-22)
where represents any of the following thermodynamic properties: h, s, C p, C v,
or
K t.
23.7 ModelingMass Transferin MultiphaseFlows
This section describes the modeling of mass transfer in the framework of FLUENTsgen-
eral multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multiphase, mixture multiphase, VOF multiphase).
There are numerous kinds of mass transfer processes that can be modeled in FLUENT. You
can use models available in FLUENT (e.g. FLUENTs cavitation model), or define your
own mass transfer model via user-defined functions. See Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescri bed
Mass Transfer and the separate UDF Manual for more information about the modeling
of mass transfer via user-defined functions.
Information about mass transfer is presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.7.1: Source Terms due to Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional Consta nt Rate Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.3: UDF-Prescri bed Mass Transfer
Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models
i
Note that FLUENTs current cavitation model can only be used in
the framework of the mixture multiphase model.
23.7.1 Source Terms due to Mass
Transfer
FLUENT adds contributions due to mass transfer only to the momentum, species, and
energy equations. No source term is added for other scalars such as turbulence or user-
defined scalars.
Let m
p
i
q
j be the mass transfer rate per unit volume from the i
th
species of phase p to
the j
th
species of phase q. In case a particular phase does not have a mixture material
associated with it, the mass transfer will be with the bulk phase.
Mass Equation
The contribution to the mass source for phase p in a cell is
m
p
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-1)
and for phase q is
m
q
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-2)
23.7ModelingMassTransferin Multiphase
Flows
p
p
p q
p
m
i
m
j
i
MomentumEquation
For VOF or mixture models, there is no momentum source.
For the Eulerian model, the momentum source in a cell for phase p is
m
p
~u
p
= m
p
i
q
j ~u
p
(23.7-3)
and for phase q is
m
q
~u
q
= m
p
i
q
j ~u
p
(23.7-4)
Energy Equation
For all multiphase models, the following energy sources are added.
The energy source in a cell for phase p is
H
p
= m
p
i
q
j (h
i
) (23.7-5)
and for phase q is
H
q
= m
p
i
q
j (h
i
+ h
f
p
h
fj
q
) (23.7-6)
where h
f
i
and h
f
j
are the formation enthalpies of species i of phase p and species j of
phase q respectively and h
i
is the enthalpy of species i of phase p (with reference to the
formation enthal py).
Species Equation
The species source in a cell for species i of phase p is
p
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-7)
and for species j of phase q is
q
= m
p
i
q
j (23.7-8)
OtherScalarEquations
No source/sink terms are added for turbulence quantities and other scalars. The transfer
of these scalar quantities due to mass transfer could be modeled using user-defined source
terms.
23.7.2 Unidirectional ConstantRate Mass Transfer
The unidirectional mass transfer model defines a positive mass flow rate per unit volume
from phase p to phase q:
m
pq
= max[0,
pq
] max[0,
pq
] (23.7-9)
where
pq
= r
p
q
(23.7-10)
and r is a constant rate of particle shrinking or swelling, such as the rate of burning
of a liquid droplet. This is not available for the VOF model.
If phase p is a mixture material and a mass transfer mechanism is defined for species i
of phase p, then
pq
= r
p
y
p,i
q
(23.7-11)
where y
p,i
is the mass fraction of species i in phase p.
23.7.3 UDF-PrescribedMass Transfer
Because there is no universal model for mass transfer, FLUENTprovides a UDF that you
can use to input models for different types of mass transfer, e.g. evaporation, condensa-
tion, boiling, etc. Note that when using this UDF, FLUENT will automatically add the
source contribution to all relevant momentum and scalar equations. This
contribution is based on the assumption that the mass created or destroyed will
have the same momentum and energy of the phase from which it was created or
destroyed. If you would like to input your source terms directly into momentum, energy,
or scalar equations, then the appropriate path is to use UDFs for user-defined sources for
all equations, rather than the UDF for mass transfer. See the separate UDF Manual
for more information about UDF-based mass transfer in multiphase.
23.7.4 CavitationModels
This section provides information about the cavitation model used in FLUENT. You can
use FLUENTs current cavitation model to include cavitation effects in two-phase flows
when the mixture model is used.
Overviewof the CavitationModel
A liquid at constant temperature can be subjected to a decreasing pressure, which may
fall below the saturated vapor pressure. The process of rupturing the liquid by a decrease
of pressure at constant temperature is called cavitation. The liquid also contains the
micro-bubbles of noncondensable (dissolved or ingested) gases, or nuclei, which under
decreasing pressure may grow and form cavities. In such processes, very large and steep
density variations happen in the low-pressure/c avitating regions.
The cavitation model implemented here is based on the so-called full cavitation model,
developed by Singhal et al. [334]. It accounts for all first-order effects (i.e., phase change,
bubble dynamics, turbule nt pressure fluctuations, and noncondensable gases). However,
unlike the original approach [334] assuming single-phase, isothermal, variable fluid densi ty
flows, the cavitation model in FLUENT is under the framework of multiphase flows. It
has the capability to account for multiphase (N-phase) flows or flows with multiphase
species trans port, the effects of slip velocities between the liquid and gaseous phases, and
the thermal effects and compressibility of both liquid and gas phases. The cavitation
model can be used with the mixture multiphase model (with or without slip velocities).
The complete cavitation model capability in FLUENTcan be presented in two parts:
the basic cavitation model
This includes a description of the fundame ntal modeling approach and the standard
two-phase cavitation model.
the extended cavitation model capabili ty
This includes a description of the extension of the cavitation model for multiphase
(N-phase) flows, or flows with multiphase species trans port applications.
Basic CavitationModel
In the standard two-phase cavitation model, the following assumptions are made:
The system under investigation involves only two phases (a liquid and its
vapor), and a certain fraction of separately modeled noncondensable gases.
Both bubble formation (evaporation) and collapse (condensation) are taken
into account in the model.
The mass fraction of noncondensable gases is known in
advance. The cavitation model offers the following capabilities:
The cavitation model accounts for the mass transfer between a single liquid and
its vapor.
It is compatible with all the available turbulence models in FLUENT.
It can be solved with the mixture energy equation.
It is fully compatible with dynamic mesh and nonconformal interfaces.
Both liquid and vapor phases can be incompressible or compressible. The
noncon- densible gases are assumed to always be compressible. For compressible
liquids, the density can be described using a user-defined function. See the separate
UDF Manual for more information on user-defined density functions.
The parameters used in the mass transfer model for cavitation (vaporization
pressure, liquid surface tension coefficient) can be either a constant or a
function of temperature.
The following limitations apply to the cavitation model in FLUENT:
The cavitation model cannot be used with the VOF model, because the
surface tracking schemes for the VOF model are incompatible with the
interpenetrating continua assumption of the cavitation model.
The cavitation model can be used only for multiphase simulations that use
the mixture model. It is always preferable to solve for cavitation using the
mixture model without slip velocity; slip velocities can be turned on if the problem
suggests that there is significant slip between phases.
The cavitation model can only used for cavitating flow occurring in a single
liquid fluid;
With the cavitation model, the primary phase must be liquid, the secondary
phase must be vapor.
VaporMassFractionandVaporTransport
The working fluid is assumed to be a mixture of liquid, vapor and noncondensable gases.
Standard governing equations in the mixture model and the mixture turbulence model
describe the flow and account for the effects of turbulence. A vapor trans port equation
governs the vapor mass fraction, f , given by:
t
(f ) + (v~
v
f ) = (f ) + R
e
R
c
(23.7-12)
where is the mixture densi ty, v~
v
is the velocity vector of the vapor phase, is
the
effective exchange coefficient, and R
e
and R
c
are the vapor generation and condensation
rate terms (or phase change rates). The rate expressions are derived from the Rayleigh-
Plesset equations, and limiting bubble size considerations (interface surface area per
unit volume of vapor) [334]. These rates are functions of the instantaneous, local static
pressure and are given by:
when p < p
sat
when p > p
sat
R
e
= C
e
V
ch

l v
s
2(p
sat
p)
3
l
(1 f ) (23.7-13)
R
c
= C
c
V
ch

l v
s
2(p p
sat
)
3
l
f (23.7-14)
where the suffixes l and v denote the liquid and vapor phases, V
ch
is a characteristic
velocity, which is approximated by the local turbulence intensity, (i.e. V
ch
=
k), is
the surface tension coefficient of the liquid, p
sat
is the liquid saturation vapor pressure at
the given temperature, and C
e
and C
c
are empirical consta nts. The default values are
C
e
= 0.02 and C
c
= 0.01.
Turbulence-InducedPressure Fluctuations
Significant effect of turbulence on cavitating flows has been reported [311]. FLUENTs
cavitation model accounts for the turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations by simply
raising the phase-change threshold pressure from p
sat
to
where
1
p
v
=
2
(p
sat
+ p
turb
) (23.7-15)
p
turb
= 0.39k (23.7-16)
where k is the local turbulence kinetic energy.
Effectsof NoncondensableGases
The operating liquid usually contains small finite amounts of noncondensable gases (e.g.,
dissolved gases, aeration). Even a very small amount (e.g., 10 ppm) of noncondensable
gases can have significant effects on the cavitating flow field due to expansion at low
pressures (following the ideal gas law). In the present approach, the working fluid is
assumed to be a mixture of the liquid phase and the gaseous phase, with the gaseous
phase comprising of the liquid vapor and the noncondensable gases. The density of the
mixture, , is calculated as
=
v
v
+
g
g
+ (1
v

g
)
l
(23.7-17)
where
l
,
v
, and
g
are the densities of the liquid, the vapor, and the noncondensable
gases, respectively, and
l
,
v
, and
g
are the respective volume fractions. The relation-
ship between the mass fraction (f
i
) in Equations 23.7-1223.7-14 and the volume fraction
(
i
) in Equation 23.7-17 is

i
= f
i
i
(23.7-18)
The combined volume fraction of vapor and gas (i.e.,
v
+
g
) is commonly referred to
as the void fraction ().
It may be noted that the noncondensable gas is not defined as a phase or a material.
When using the ideal gas law to compute the noncondensable gas density, the molecular
weight and temperature are required. By default, the gas is assumed to be air and the
molecular weight is set to 29.0. However, if the noncondensable gas is not air, then
the molecular weight can be changed by using a text command. For more information,
contact your FLUENTsupport engineer.
As for the temperature, the default value is set to 300 K when the energy equation is not
acti vated. If the temperature is different, but still a constant (i.e., isothermal flow), you
can change the temperature in FLUENTin the following way:
Activate the energy equation.
Define Models
Energy...
Open the Solution Initialization panel.
Solve InitializeInitialize...
In the Solution Initialization, set the initial value as a desired temperature.
Open the Solution Controls panel.
Solve Controls
Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, under Equations, turn off the energy equation
by deselecting Energy in the list.. By so doing, FLUENT uses the initial values for
the temperature.
Phase ChangeRates
After accounting for the effects of turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations and noncon-
densable gases, the final phase rate expressions are written as:
when p < p
v
when p > p
v
R
e
= C
e
s
2(p
v
p)
3
l
(1 f
v
f
g
) (23.7-19)
k
s
2(p p
v
)
R
c
= C
c
l
3
l
f
v
(23.7-20)
Additional Guidelinesfor the CavitationModel
In practical applications of the cavitation model, several factors greatly influence nu-
merical stability. For instance, high pressure difference between the inlet and exit, large
ratio of liquid to vapor density, and near zero saturation pressure all cause unfavorable
effects on solution convergence. In addition, poor initial conditions very often lead to an
unrealistic pressure field and unexpected cavitating zones, which, once present, are then
usually very difficult for the model to correct. The following is a list of factors that must
be considered when using the cavitation model, along with tips to help address potential
numerical problems:
relaxation factors
In general, small relaxation factors are advised for momentum equations, usually,
between 0.05 0.4; The relaxation factor for the pressure-correction equation should
usually be larger than those for momentum equations, say in the range 0.2 0.7.
The density and the vaporization mass (source term in the vapor equation) can also
be relaxed to improve convergence, Typically, the relaxation factor for density is set
between the values of 0.3 and 1.0, while for the vaporization mass values between
0.1 and 1.0 may be appropriate. For some extreme cases, even smaller relaxation
factors may be required for all the equations.
initial conditions
Though no special initial condition settings are required, it is suggested that the
vapor fraction is always set to inlet values. The pressure is set close to the high-
est pressure among the inlets and outlets to avoid unexpected low pressure and
cavitating spots. Also, in complicated cases, it may be beneficial to obtain a real-
istic pressure field before substa ntial cavities are formed. This can be achieved by
performing the following steps:
1. Set near zero relaxation factors for the vaporization mass and for density, and
increase them to reasonable values after a sufficient number of iterations.
2. Obtain a converged / near-converged solution for a single phase liquid
flow, and then switch on the cavitation model.
noncondensable gases
Noncondensable gases are usually present in liquids. Even a small amount
(e.g.,
15 ppm) of noncondensable gases can have significant effects on both the physical
realism and the convergence characteristics of the solution. A value of zero for the
mass fraction of noncondensable gases should generally be avoided. In some cases, if
the liquid is purified of noncondensable gases, a much smaller value (e.g., 10
8
)
may be used to replace the default value of 1.510
5
. In fact, higher mass
fractions of the noncondensable gases may, in many cases, enhance numerical
stability and lead to more realistic results. In particular, when the saturation
pressure of a liquid at a
certain temperature is zero or very small, noncondensable gases will play a crucial
role both numerically and physically.
limits for dependent variables
In many cases, setting the pressure upper limit to a reasonable value can help
convergence greatly at the early stage of the solution. It is advised to always limit
the maximum pressure when it is possible. By default, FLUENTsets the maximum
pressure limit to 5.010
10
Pascal.
the relaxation factor for the pressure correction equation
For cavitating flows, a special relaxation factor is introduced for the pressure cor-
rection equation. By default, this factor is set to 0.7, which should work well for
most of the cases. For some very complicated cases, however, you may
experience the divergence of the AMG solver. Under those circumstances, this
value may be reduced to no less than 0.4. You can set the value of this relaxation
factor by typing a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT
support engineer.
pressure discretization schemes
As for many multiphase flows, it is more desirable to use the following pressure
discretization schemes in cavitation applications:
body force weighted
second order
PRESTO!
The standard and linear schemes generally are not very effective in complex cavi-
tating flows.
ExtendedCavitationModelCapability
In many practical applications, when cavitation occurs, there exist other gaseous species
in the systems investigated. For instance, in a ventilated supercavitating vehicle, air is
injected into a liquid to stabilize or increase the cavitation along the vehicle surfaces. Also
in some cases, the incoming flow is a mixture of a liquid and some gaseous species. In
order to be able to predict those type of cavitating flows, the basic two-phase cavitation
model needs to be extended to a multiphase (N-phase) flows, or a multiphase species
trans port cavitation model.
MultiphaseCavitationModel
The multiphase cavitation model is an extension of the basic two-phase cavitation model
to multiphase flows. In addition to the primary liquid and secondary vapor phase, more
secondary gaseous phases can be included into the computational system under the fol-
lowing assumptions/limitations:
Mass transfer (cavitation) only occurs between the first and the second phases.
The basic cavitation model is still used to model the phase changes between
the liquid and vapor.
Only one secondary phase can be defined as compressible gas phase, while a
user- defined density may be applied to all the phases.
The predescribed noncondensable gases can still be included in the system.
To exclude noncondensable gases from the system, the mass fraction needs to be
set
to 0, and the noncondensable gas needs to be modeled by a separate compressible
gas phase.
For an noncavitating phase i, the general trans port equation governing the
mass fraction f
i
given by:
t
(f
i
) + (v~
v
f
i
) = (
f
i
f
i
) + S
f
i
(23.7-21)
where S
f
i
is a (user-defined) source term. By default, S
f
i
= 0.
MultiphaseSpecies Transport CavitationModel
In some cases, there are several gas phase components in a system. It is desirable to
consider them all compressible. Since only one compressible gas phase is allowed in the
general multiphase approach, the multiphase species trans port approach offers an option
to handle these type of applications by assuming that there is one compressible gas phase
with multiple species.
The detailed description of the multiphase species trans port approach can be found in
Section 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows. The multiphase species
trans port cavitation model can be summarized as follows:
All the assumptions/limitations for the multiphase cavitation model also
apply here.
The primary phase can only be a single liquid.
All the secondary phases allow more than one species.
23.8ModelingSpecies Transport in Multiphase
Flows
t
q
The vapor, either as a phase or a species, must be in the second phase.
The mass transfer between a liquid and a vapor phase/s pecies is modeled by
the basic cavitation model.
The mass transfer between other phases or species are modeled with the
standard mass transfer approach. In the standard model, the zero constant rate
should be chosen.
For the phases with multiple species, the phase shares the same pressure as
the other phases, but each species has its own pressure (i.e., partial pressure).
As a result, the vapor density and the pressure used in Equation 23.7-19 are the
partial density and pressure of the vapor.
23.8 ModelingSpecies Transport in MultiphaseFlows
Species trans port, as described in Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-
Rate Chemistry, can also be applied to multiphase flows. You can choose to solve the
conservation equations for chemical species in multiphase flows by having FLUENT, for
each phase k, predict the local mass fraction of each species, Y
i
k
, through the solution
of a convection-diffusion equation for the i
th
species. The generalized chemical species
conservation equation (Equation 14.1-1), when applied to a multiphase mixture can be
represented in the following form:
(
q
q
Y
i
q
)+(
q
q
~v
q
Y
i
q
) =
q
J
~
i
n
+
q
R
i
q
+
q
S
i
q
+
X
(m
p
i
q
j m
q
j
p
i )+R
(23.8-1)
p=1
where R
i
q
is the net rate of production of homogeneous species i by chemical reaction for
phase q, m
q
j
p
i is the mass transfer source between species i and j from phase q to p,
and R is the heterogeneous reaction rate. In addition,
q
is the volume fraction for
phase q and S
i
q
is the rate of creation by addition from the dispersed phase plus any
user-defined sources.
FLUENT treats homogeneous gas phase chemical reactions the same as a single-phase
chemical reaction. The reacta nts and the products belong to the same mixture material
(set in the Species Model panel), and hence the same phase. The reaction rate is scaled
by the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell.
The set-up of a homogeneous gas phase chemical reaction in FLUENTis the same as it is
for a single phase. For more information, see Chapter 14: Modeling Species Transport
and Finite-Rate Chemistry. For most multiphase species trans port problems, boundary
conditions for a particular species are set in the associated phase boundary condition
panel (see Chapter 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions), and
postprocessing and
reporting of results is performed on a per-phase basis (see Section 23.15: Postprocessing
for Multiphase Modeling).
For multiphase species trans port simulations, the Species Model panel allows you to in-
clude Volumetric, Wall Surface, and Particle Surface reactions. FLUENTtreats multiphase
surface reactions as it would a single-phase reaction. The reaction rate is scaled with
the volume fraction of the particular phase in the cell. For more information, see Chap-
ter 14: Modeling Species Transport and Finite-Rate Chemistry .
i
To turn off reactions for a particular phase, while keeping the
reactions active for other phases. turn on Volumetric under Reactions in
the Species
Model panel. Then, in the Materials panel, select none from the Reactions
drop-down list.
The species of different phases is entirely independent. There is no implicit relationship
between them even if they share the same name. Explicit relationships between species of
different phases can be specified through mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions. For
more information on mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions, see Section 23.9.7: In-
cluding Mass Transfer Effects and Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions ,
respectively.
Some phases may have a fluid material associated with them instead of a mixture ma-
terial. The species equations are solved in those phases that are assigned a mixture
material. The species equation above is solved for the mass fraction of the species in a
particular phase. The mass transfer and heterogeneous reactions will be associated with
the bulk fluid for phases with a single fluid material.
23.8.1 Limitations
The following limitations exist for the modeling of species trans port for multiphase
flows:
The nonpremixed, premixed, partially-premixed combustion, or the
composition PDF trans port species trans port models are not available for
multiphase species reactions.
The stiff chemistry solver is not available for multiphase species reactions.
Only the laminar finite-rate, finite-rate/eddy-dissipation and eddy-dissipation
turbulence- chemistry models of homogeneous reactions are available for multiphase
species trans port.
The discrete phase model (DPM) is not compatible with multiphase species
transport.
23.8.2 Mass and MomentumTransferwith MultiphaseSpecies Transport
The FLUENT multiphase mass transfer model accommodates mass transfer between
species belonging to different phases. Instead of a matrix- type input, multiple mass
transfer mechanisms need to be input. Each mass transfer mechanism defines the mass
transfer phenomenon from one entity to another entity. An entity is either a particular
species in a phase, or the bulk phase itself if the phase does not have a mixture mate-
rial associated with it. The mass transfer phenomenon could be specified either through
the inbuilt unidirectional consta nt-rate mass transfer (Section 23.7.2: Unidirectional
Consta nt Rate Mass Transfer) or through user-defined functions.
FLUENT loops through all the mass transfer mechanisms to compute the net mass
source/sink of each species in each phase. The net mass source/sink of a species is
used to compute species and mass source terms. FLUENT will also automatically add
the source contribution to all relevant momentum and energy equations based on that
assumption that the momentum and energy carried along with the transferred mass. For
other equations, the trans port due to mass transfer needs to be explicitly modeled by
the user.
Source Terms due to Heterogeneous Reactions
Consider the following reaction:
aA + bB cC + dD (23.8-2)
Let as assume that A and C belong to phase 1 and B and D to phase 2.
Mass Transfer
Mass source for the phases are given by:
S
1
= R(cM
c
aM
a
) (23.8-3)
S
2
= R(dM
d
bM
b
) (23.8-4)
where S is the mass source, M is the molecular weight, and R is the reaction rate.
The general expression for the mass source for the i
th
phase is
X
r r
S
r
i
= R
ri
j
M
j
(23.8-5)
X
p p
S
p
i
= R
pi
j
M
j
(23.8-6)
S
i
= S
p
i
+ S
r
i
(23.8-7)
where is the stoichiometric coefficient, p represents the product, and r represents the
reacta nt.
=
R(cM
c
~u
net
aM
a
~u
1
)
(23.8-10)
= R(dM
d
~u
net
bM
b
~u
2
) (23.8-11)
P
S
S
r j
r
M
p
p
i
k k
j
i
MomentumTransfer
Momentum transfer is more complicated, but we can assume that the reactants mix
(conserving momentum) and the products take momentum in the ratio of the rate of
their formation.
The net velocity, ~u
net
, of the reacta nts is given
by:
aM
a
~u
1
+
bM
b
~u
2
~u
net
=
aM
a
+ bM
b
(23.8-8)
The general expression for the net velocity of the reacta nts is given by:
r
r
M
r
~u
r
~u
net
=
j j j
P
r r
(23.8-9)
r j
M
j
where j represents the j
th
item (either a reacta nt or a product).
Momentum transfer for the phases is then given by:
~
u
1
~
u
2
The general expression is
S
~
u
X
r r
i
= S
pi
~u
net
R
ri
j
M
j
~u
i
(23.8-12)
If we assume that there is no momentum transfer, then the above term will be zero.
Species Transfer
The general expression for source for k
th
species in the j
th
phase is
S k = R
X
r r
k
i
(23.8-13)
p
k
p
k
S k = R
X
j
M
j
(23.8-14)
k
i
S
k
i
= S
p
k + S
r
k (23.8-15)
i i
P
S
H
S
H
c
d
P
i
r
r
P
HeatTransfer
For heat transfer, we need to consider the formation enthalpies of the reacta nts and
products as well:
The net enthalpy of the reacta nts is given by:
aM
a
(H
a
+ h
f
) + bM
b
(H
b
+ h
f
)
H
net
=
a b
aM
a
+ bM
b
(23.8-16)
where h
f
represents the formation enthalpy, and H represents the enthal py.
The general expression for H
net
is:
r
r
M
r
(H
r
+ h
f
)
H
net
=
j j j j
P (23.8-17)
r
r r
j
M
j
If we assume that this enthalpy gets distributed to the products in the ratio of their mass
production rates, heat transfer for the phases are given by:
1
= R(cM
c
H
net
aM
a
H
a
2
= R(dM
d
H
net
bM
b
H
b
cM
c
h
f
) (23.8-18)
dM
d
h
f
) (23.8-19)
The last term in the above equations appears because our enthalpy is with reference to
the formation enthal py.
The general expression for the heat source is:

S
H
X
r r r
!
X
p p
f
p
i
= S
pi
H
net

R
j
M
j
H
j
+
ri
j
M
j
h
j
pi
(23.8-20)
If we assume that there is no heat transfer, we can assume that the different species only
carry their formation enthalpies with them. Thus the expression for H
net
will be:
r
r
M
r
h
f
H
net
=
j j j
(23.8-21)
r
r r
j
M
j
The expression S
H
will be
S
H
X
p p f
p
i
= S
p
i
H
net
R
pi
j
M
j
h
j
(23.8-22)
23.9 Steps for Using a MultiphaseModel
The procedure for setting up and solving a general multiphase problem is outlined below,
and described in detail in the subsections that follow. Remember that only the steps that
are pertinent to general multiphase calculations are shown here. For information about
inputs related to other models that you are using in conjunction with the multiphase
model, see the appropriate sections for those models.
See also Section 23.12.1: Additional Guidelines for Eulerian Multiphase Simulations for
guidelines on simplifying Eulerian multiphase simulations.
1. Enable the multiphase model you want to use (VOF, mixture, or Eulerian) and
specify the number of phases. For the VOF model, specify the VOF formulation
as well.
Define Models
Multiphase...
See Sections 23.9.1 and 23.10.1 for details.
2. Copy the material representing each phase from the materials database.
Define Materials...
If the material you want to use is not in the database, create a new material.
See Section 8.1.2: Using the Materials Panel for details about copying from the
database and creating new materials. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for additional
information about specifying material properties for a compressible phase (VOF
and mixture models only). It is possible to turn off reactions in some materials
by selecting none in the Reactions drop-down list under Properties in the Materials
panel.
i
If your model includes a particulate (granular) phase, you will need
to create a new material for it in the fluid materials category (not the
solid
materials category).
3. Define the phases, and specify any interaction between them (e.g., surface tension
if you are using the VOF model, slip velocity functions if you are using the mixture
model, or drag functions if you are using the Eulerian model).
Define Phases...
See Sections 23.9.323.12.2 for details.
4. (Eulerian model only) If the flow is turbule nt, define the multiphase turbulence
model.
Define Models
Viscous...
See Section 23.12.3: Modeling Turbulence for details.
23.9 Steps for Usinga MultiphaseModel
5. If body forces are present, turn on gravity and specify the gravitational acceleration.
Define Operating Conditions...
See Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.
6. Specify the boundary conditions, including the secondary-phase volume fractions
at flow boundaries and (if you are modeling wall adhesion in a VOF simulation)
the contact angles at walls.
Define Boundary Conditions...
See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for details.
7. Set any model-specific solution parameters.
Solve Controls Solution...
See Sections 23.10.4 and 23.14 for details.
8. Initialize the solution and set the initial volume fractions for the secondary phases.
Solve InitializePatch...
See Section 23.14.1: Setting Initial Volume Fractions for details.
9. Calculate a solution and examine the results. Postprocessing and reporting of
results is available for each phase that is selected.
See Sections 23.14 and 23.15 for details.
This section provides instructions and guidelines for using the VOF, mixture, and Eule-
rian multiphase models.
Information is presented in the following subsections:
Section 23.9.1: Enabling the Multiphase Model
Section 23.9.2: Solving a Homogeneous Multiphase Flow
Section 23.9.3: Defining the Phases
Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces
Section 23.9.5: Modeling Multiphase Species Transport
Section 23.9.6: Specifying Heterogeneous Reactions
Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects
Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions
23.9.1 Enablingthe MultiphaseModel
To enable the VOF, mixture, or Eulerian multiphase model, select Volume of Fluid,
Mix- ture, or Eulerian as the Model in the Multiphase Model panel (Figure 23.9.1).
Define Models Multiphase...
Figure 23.9.1: The Multiphase Model Panel
The panel will expand to show the relevant inputs for the selected multiphase model.
If you selected the VOF model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
VOF formulation (see Section 23.10.1: Choosing a VOF Formulation)
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including
Body
Forces)
If you selected the mixture model, the inputs are as follows:
number of phases
whether or not to compute the slip velocities (see Section 23.9.2: Solving a
Homo- geneous Multiphase Flow)
(optional) implicit body force formulation (see Section 23.9.4: Including
Body
Forces)
If you selected the Eulerian model, the input is the following:
number of phases
To specify the number of phases for the multiphase calculation, enter the appropriate
value in the Number of Phases field. You can specify up to 20 phases.
23.9.2 Solving a Homogeneous MultiphaseFlow
If you are using the mixture model, you have the option to disable the calculation of
slip velocities and solve a homogeneous multiphase flow (i.e., one in which the phases all
move at the same velocity). By default, FLUENTwill compute the slip velocities for the
secondary phases, as described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift
Velocity. If you want to solve a homogeneous multiphase flow, turn off Slip Velocity
under Mixture Parameters.
23.9.3 Definingthe Phases
To define the phases (including their material properties) and any interphase interaction
(e.g., surface tension and wall adhesion for the VOF model, slip velocity for the mixture
model, drag functions for the mixture and the Eulerian models), you will use the Phases
panel (Figure 23.9.2).
Define Phases...
Figure 23.9.2: The Phases Panel
Each item in the Phase list in this panel is one of two types, as indicated in the Type list:
primary-phase indicates that the selected item is the primary phase, and secondary-phase
indicates that the selected item is a secondary phase. To specify any interaction between
the phases, click the Interaction... button.
Instructions for defining the phases and interaction are provided in Sections 23.10.3,
23.11.1, and 23.12.2 for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models, respectively.
23.9.4 IncludingBody Forces
When large body forces (e.g., gravity or surface tension forces) exist in multiphase flows,
the body force and pressure gradient terms in the momentum equation are almost in
equilibrium, with the contributions of convective and viscous terms small in comparison.
Segregated algorithms converge poorly unless partial equilibrium of pressure gradient and
body forces is taken into account. FLUENT provides an optional implicit body force
treatme nt that can account for this effect, making the solution more robust.
The basic procedure involves augmenting the correction equation for the face flow rate,
Equation 25.4-13, with an additional term involving corrections to the body force. This
results in extra body force correction terms in Equation 25.4-11, and allows the flow to
achieve a realistic pressure field very early in the iterative process.
To include this body force, turn on Gravity in the Operating Conditions panel and
specify the Gravitational Acceleration.
For VOF calculations, you should also turn on the Specified Operating Density option
in the Operating Conditions panel, and set the Operating Density to be the density of
the lightest phase. (This excludes the buildup of hydrostatic pressure within the lightest
phase, improving the round-off accuracy for the momentum balance.) If any of the phases
is compressible, set the Operating Density to zero.
i
For VOF and mixture calculations involving body forces, it is
recommended that you also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatme nt
for the
Body Force Formulation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatme nt
improves solution convergence by accounting for the partial
equilibrium of the pressure gradient and body forces in the momentum
equations. See Section 23.9.4: Including Body Forces for details.
23.9.5 ModelingMultiphaseSpecies Transport
FLUENT lets you describe a multiphase species trans port and volumetric reaction (Sec-
tion 23.8: Modeling Species Transport in Multiphase Flows) in a fashion that is similar
to setting up a single-phase chemical reaction using the Species Model panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.9.3).
Define Models Species Transport &
Reaction...
Figure 23.9.3: The Species Model Panel with a Multiphase Model Enabled
1. Select Species Transport under Model.
2. Turn on Volumetric under Reactions.
3. Select a specific phase using the Phase drop-down list under Phase Properties.
4. Click the Set... button to display the Phase Properties panel (Figure 23.9.4).
Figure 23.9.4: The Phase Properties Panel
In the Phase Properties panel, the material for each phase is listed in the Material
drop-down list. From this list, you can choose the material that you want to use
for a specific phase. The drop-down list contains all of the materials that have been
defined for your simulation. If you want to inspect or edit any of the properties
of any of the materials, then you need to open the Materials panel by clicking the
Edit... button.
5. In the Species Model panel, choose the Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction model.
Three models are available:
Laminar Finite-Rate computes only the Arrhenius rate (see Equation 14.1-8) and
neglects turbulence- chemistry interaction.
Eddy-Dissipation (for turbule nt flows) computes only the mixing rate (see Equa-
tions 14.1-26 and 14.1-27).
Finite-Rate/Eddy-Dissipation (for turbule nt flows) computes both the Arrhenius
rate and the mixing rate and uses the smaller of the two.
When modeling multiphase species trans port, additional inputs may also be required
depending on your modeling needs. See, for example, Section 23.9.6: Specifying Het-
erogeneous Reactions for more information defining heterogeneous reactions, or Sec-
tion 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects for more information on mass transfer effects.
23.9.6 SpecifyingHeterogeneous Reactions
You can use FLUENTto define multiple heterogeneous reactions and stoichiometry using
the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.5).
Define Phases...
1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.
Figure 23.9.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heterogeneous Reactions
2. Click the Reactions tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Set the total number of reactions (volumetric reactions, wall surface reactions, and
particle surface reactions) in the Total Number of Heterogeneous Reactions field.
(Use the arrows to change the value, or type in the value and press
<Enter>.)
4. Specify the Reaction Name of each reaction that you want to define.
5. Set the ID of each reaction you want to define. (Again, if you type in the value be
sure to press <Enter>.)
i,r
or
6. For each reaction, specify how many reacta nts and products are involved in the
reaction by increasing the value of the Number of Reactants and the Number of
Products. Select each reacta nt or product in the Reaction tab and then set its stoi-
chiometric coefficient in the Stoich. Coefficient field. (The stoichiometric coefficient
is the constant
0 0 0
i,r
in Equation 14.1-6.)
7. For each reaction, indicate the Phase and Species and the stoichiometric coefficient
for each of your reacta nts and products.
8. For each reaction, indicate an applicable user-defined function using the Reaction
Rate Function drop-down list.
i
The heterogeneous reaction rates can only be specified using a user-
defined function. A UDF is available for an Arrhenius- type reaction
with rate
exponents that are equivalent to the stoichiometric coefficients.
For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.
i
FLUENT assumes that the reacta nts are mixed thoroughly before
reacting together, thus the heat and momentum transfer is based on this
assump-
tion. This assumption can be deacti vated using a text command. For more
information, contact your FLUENTsupport engineer.
23.9.7 Including Mass Transfer
Effects
As discussed in Section 23.7: Modeling Mass Transfer in Multiphase Flows, mass transfer
effects in the framework of FLUENTs general multiphase models (i.e., Eulerian multi-
phase, mixture multiphase, or VOF multiphase) can be modeled in one of three ways:
unidirectional constant rate mass transfer (not available for VOF calculations)
UDF-prescribed mass transfer
mass transfer through cavitation (only valid for the mixture multiphase model)
Because of the different procedures and limitations involved, defining mass transfer
through cavitation is described separately in Section 23.11.2: Including Cavitation Effects.
To define mass transfer in a multiphase simulation, either as unidirectional constant or
using a UDF, you will need to use the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Figure 23.9.6).
Define Phases...
1. In the Phases panel (Figure 23.9.2), click the Interaction... button to open the Phase
Interaction panel.
Figure 23.9.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer
2. Click the Mass tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Specify the Number of Mass Transfer Mechanisms. You can include any number
of mass transfer mechanisms in your simulation. Note also that the same pair of
phases can have multiple mass transfer mechanisms and you have the ability to
activate and deacti vate the mechanisms of your choice.
4. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the source material under From Phase.
5. If species trans port is part of the simulation, and the source phase is composed of
a mixture material, then specify the species of the source phase mixture material
in the corresponding Species drop-down list.
6. For each mechanism, specify the phase of the destination material phase under To
Phase.
7. If species trans port is part of the simulation, and the destination phase is composed
of a mixture material, then specify the species of the destination phase mixture
material in the corresponding Species drop-down list.
8. For each mass transfer mechanism, select the desired mass transfer correlation
under Mechanism. The following choices are available:
constant-rate enables a consta nt, unidirectional mass transfer.
user-defined allows you to implement a correlation reflecting a model of your
choice, through a user-defined function.
FLUENTwill automatically include the terms needed to model mass transfer in all
relevant conservation equations. Another option to model mass transfer between
phases is through the use of user-defined sources and their inclusion in the rele-
vant conservation equations. This approach is a more involved but more powerful,
allowing you to split the source terms according to a model of your choice.
i
Note that momentum, energy, and turbulence are also trans ported with
the mass that is transferred. FLUENT assumes that the reacta nts are
mixed
thoroughly before reacting together, thus the heat and momentum transfer
is based on this assumption. This assumption can be deactivated using
a text command. For more information, contact your FLUENT support
engineer.
When your model involves the trans port of multiphase species, you can define a mass
transfer mechanism between species from different phases. If a particular phase does not
have a species associated with it, then the mass transfer throughout the system will be
performed by the bulk fluid material.
i
Note that including species trans port effects in the mass trans port of
multiphase simulation requires that Species Transport be turned on in the
Species
Model panel.
Define Models Species Transport &
Reaction...
23.9.8 Defining Multiphase Boundary
Conditions
Multiphase boundary conditions are set in the Boundary Conditions panel (Figure 23.9.7),
but the procedure for setting multiphase boundary conditions is slightly different than
for single-phase models. You will need to set some conditions separately for individual
phases, while other conditions are shared by all phases (i.e., the mixture), as described
in detail below.
Define Boundary
Conditions...
Figure 23.9.7: The Boundary Conditions Panel
BoundaryConditionsfor the Mixtureand the Individual Phases
The conditions you need to specify for the mixture and those you need to specify for the
individual phases will depend on which of the three multiphase models you are using.
Details for each model are provided below.
VOFModel
If you are using the VOF model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of zone
are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.1.
For an exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, pressure inlet, pressure
outlet, or velocity inlet, there are no conditions to be specified for the primary
phase. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a
consta nt, a profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or a user-defined
function (see the separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are specified for the
mixture.
For a mass flow inlet, you will need to set the mass flow rate or mass flux for
each individual phase. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
i
Note that if you read a VOF case that was set up in a version of FLUENT
prior to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow inlets.
For an axis, fan, outflow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or
wall zone, all conditions are specified for the mixture. There are no conditions to
be set for the individual phases.
For a wall zone, you can specify the contact angle if wall adhesion option is
enabled.
For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases, and all
other sources are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option in the Fluid panel
for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if relevant) are also specified for the mixture.
The resistance coefficients and direction vectors, however, are specified separately
for each phase. See Section 7.19.6: User Inputs for Porous Media for details about
these inputs. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for details about the relevant conditions for each
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with the
VOF model.
Table 23.9.1: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the VOF Model
Type Primary Phase Secondary Phase Mixture
exhaust fan;
inlet vent;
intake fan;
outlet vent;
pressure inlet;
pressure outlet;
velocity inlet
nothing volume fraction all others
mass flow inlet mass flow/flux mass flow/flux all others
axis;
fan; outflow;
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
nothing nothing all others
pressure far-field not available not available not available
fluid mass source;
other porous inputs
mass source;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
MixtureModel
If you are using the mixture model, the conditions you need to specify for each type of
zone are listed below and summarized in Table 23.9.2.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to
be specified for the primary phase. For each secondary phase, you will need to set
the volume fraction as a consta nt, a profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary
Profiles), or a user-defined function (see the separate UDF Manual). All other
conditions are specified for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture
which direction specification method will be used at this boundary (Normal to
Boundary or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification
method, you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction
components for the individual phases. For each secondary phase, you will need to
set the volume fraction (as described above). All other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
each individual phase. All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
i
Note that if you read a mixture multiphase case that was set up in a
version of FLUENTprevious to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions
at the
mass flow inlets.
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. For
each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
For an axis, fan, outflow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid, symmetry, or
wall zone, all conditions are specified for the mixture. There are no conditions to
be set for the individual phases. Outflow boundary conditions are not available
for the cavitation model.
For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases, and all
other sources are specified for the mixture.
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with the
mixture model.
Table 23.9.2: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Mixture Model
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
nothing volume fraction all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
flow direction
coord. system;
flow direction;
volume fraction
dir. spec.
method;
all others
mass flow inlet mass flow/flux mass flow/flux all others
velocity inlet velocity velocity;
volume fraction
all others
axis;
fan;
outflow (n/a for
cavitation
model);
periodic;
porous jump;
radiator;
solid;
symmetry;
wall
pressure far-field not available not available not available
fluid mass source;
other porous inputs
mass source;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
EulerianModel
If you are using the Eulerian model, the conditions you need to specify for each type
of zone are listed below and summarized in Tables 23.9.3, 23.9.4, 23.9.5, and 23.9.6.
Note that the specification of turbulence parameters will depend on which of the three
multiphase turbulence models you are using, as indicated in Tables 23.9.423.9.6. See
Sections 23.5.10 and 23.12.3 for more information about multiphase turbulence models.
For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no conditions to
be specified for the primary phase if you are modeling laminar flow or using the
mixture turbulence model (the default multiphase turbulence model), except for
backflow total temperature if heat transfer is on.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant,
a profile (see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or a user-defined function (see the
separate UDF Manual). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its
granular temperature. If heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the backflow
total temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to specify the turbu-
lence boundary conditions for the mixture. If you are using the dispersed turbulence
model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase. If you are using the
per-phase turbulence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
For an inlet vent, intake fan, or pressure inlet, you will specify for the mixture
which direction specification method will be used at this boundary (Normal to
Boundary or Direction Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification
method, you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction
components for the individual phases. If heat transfer is on, you will also need
to set the total temperature for the individual phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
each individual phase. You will also need to specify the temperature of each phase,
since the energy equations are solved for each phase.
For mass flow inlet boundary conditions, you can specify the slip velocity between
phases. When you select a mass flow inlet boundary for the secondary phase, two
options will be available for the Slip Velocity Specification Method, as shown in
Figure 23.9.8:
Velocity Ratio
The value for the phase velocity ratio is the secondary phase to primary phase
velocity ratio. By default, it is 1.0, which means velocities are the same (no
slip). By entering a ratio that is greater than 1.0, you are indicating a larger
secondary phase velocity. Otherwise, you can enter a ratio that is less than
1.0 to indicate a smaller secondary phase velocity.
Volume Fraction
If you specify the volume fraction at an inlet, FLUENTwill calculate the phase
velocities.
i
If a secondary phase has zero mass flux (i.e., the Eulerian model is used
to run a single phase case), neither Phase Velocity Ratio nor Volume
Fraction
will affect the solution.
Figure 23.9.8: Mass-Flow Inlet Boundary Condition Panel
For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual phases. If
heat transfer is on, you will also need to set the total temperature for the
individual phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction (as described
above). If the phase is granular, you will also need to set its granular temperature.
For an axis, outflow, periodic, solid, or symmetry zone, all conditions are
specified for the mixture. There are no conditions to be set for the individual
phases.
For a wall zone, shear conditions are specified for the individual phases. All
other conditions are specified for the mixture, including thermal boundary
conditions, if heat transfer is on.
For a fluid zone, all source terms and fixed values are specified for the
individual phases, unless you are using the mixture turbulence model or the
dispersed turbulence model. If you are using the mixture turbulence model,
source terms and fixed values for turbulence are specified instead for the mixture.
If you are using the dispersed turbulence model, they are specified only for the
primary phase.
type of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field, fan, porous jump, radiator, and mass
flow inlet boundaries are not available with the Eulerian model.
Table 23.9.3: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(for Laminar Flow)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
flow direction
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
flow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
wall shear condition shear condition all others
pressure
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
not available not available not available
fluid all source terms;
all fixed values;
other porous inputs
all source terms;
all fixed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Mixture Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
(tot. temperature) volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
flow direction
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
flow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid other source terms;
other fixed values;
other porous inputs
other source terms;
other fixed values;
other porous inputs
source terms for
turbulence;
fixed values for
turbulence;
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Dispersed Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
flow direction;
turb. parameters;
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
flow direction;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. fixed values;
other porous inputs
momentum and mass
sources;
momentum and mass
fixed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
(with the Per-Phase Turbulence Model)
exhaust fan;
outlet vent;
pressure outlet
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
inlet vent;
intake fan;
pressure inlet
coord. system;
flow direction;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
coord. system;
flow direction;
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
dir. spec.
method;
all others
velocity inlet velocity;
turb. parameters
(tot. temperature)
velocity;
volume fraction;
turb. parameters;
gran. temperature
(tot. temperature)
all others
axis;
outflow;
periodic;
solid;
symmetry
pressure
far-field;
fan;
porous jump;
radiator;
mass flow inlet
fluid momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. fixed values;
other porous inputs
momentum, mass,
turb. sources;
momentum, mass,
turb. fixed values;
other porous inputs
porous zone;
porosity;
all others
Steps for SettingBoundaryConditions
The steps you need to perform for each boundary are as follows:
1. Select the boundary in the Zone list in the Boundary Conditions panel.
2. Set the conditions for the mixture at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the mixture.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select mixture.
(b) If the current Type for this zone is correct, click Set... to open the
corresponding panel (e.g., the Pressure Inlet panel); otherwise, choose the
correct zone type in the Type list, confirm the change (when prompted), and
the corresponding panel will open automaticall y.
(c) In the corresponding panel for the zone type you have selected (e.g., the Pres-
sure Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.9), specify the mixture boundary condi-
tions.
Figure 23.9.9: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Mixture
Note that only those conditions that apply to all phases, as described above,
will appear in this panel.
i
For a VOF calculation, if you enabled the Wall Adhesion option in
the
Phase Interaction panel, you can specify the contact angle at the wall for
each pair of phases as a constant (as shown in Figure 23.9.10) or a UDF
(see the UDF manual for more information).
The contact angle (
w
in Figure 23.3.3) is the angle between the wall and the
tangent to the interface at the wall, measured inside the phase listed in the
left column under Wall Adhesion in the Momentum tab of the Wall panel. For
example, if you are setting the contact angle between the oil and air phases in
the Wall panel shown in Figure 23.9.10,
w
is measured inside the oil phase.
Figure 23.9.10: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with
Wall Adhesion
The default value for all pairs is 90 degrees, which is equivalent to no wall
adhesion effects (i.e., the interface is normal to the adjacent wall). A contact
angle of 45
, for example, corresponds to water creeping up the side of

a container, as is common with water in a glass.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the mixture boundary conditions.
3. Set the conditions for each phase at this boundary, if necessary. (See above for
information about which conditions need to be set for the individual phases.)
(a) In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase (e.g., water).
i
Note that, when you select one of the individual phases (rather than
the mixture), only one type of zone appears in the Type list. It is not
possible
to assign phase-specific zone types at a given boundary; the zone type is
specified for the mixture, and it applies to all of the individual phases.
(b) Click Set... to open the panel for this phases conditions (e.g., the Pressure
Inlet panel, shown in Figure 23.9.11).
Figure 23.9.11: The Pressure Inlet Panel for a Phase
(c) Specify the conditions for the phase. Note that only those conditions that
apply to the individual phase, as described above, will appear in this panel.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the phase-specific boundary conditions.
23.10Setting Up the VOFModel
Steps for Copying BoundaryConditions
The steps for copying boundary conditions for a multiphase flow are slightly different
from those described in Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for a single-phase
flow. The modified steps are listed below:
1. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click the Copy... button. This will open the Copy
BCs panel.
2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you want to copy.
3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to copy the condi-
tions.
4. In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase for which you want to copy the
conditions (either mixture or one of the individual phases).
i
Note that copying the boundary conditions for one phase does not
automatically result in the boundary conditions for the other phases
and the
mixture being copied as well. You need to copy the conditions for each
phase on each boundary of interest.
5. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the selected phases (or mixtures) boundary
conditions on the zones selected in the To Zones list to be the same as that phases
conditions on the zone selected in the From Zone list. (You cannot copy a subset
of the conditions, such as only the thermal conditions.)
See Section 7.1.5: Copying Boundary Conditions for additional information about copying
boundary conditions, including limitations.
23.10 SettingUp the VOFModel
23.10.1 Choosing a VOFFormulation
To specify the VOF formulation to be used, select the appropriate VOF Scheme under
VOF Parameters in the Multiphase Model panel.
The VOF formulations that are available in FLUENTare the Explicit and Implicit schemes.
ExplicitSchemes
Time-dependent with the explicit interpolation scheme: Since the donor-
acceptor scheme is available only for quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes, it cannot
be used for a hybrid mesh containing twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases,
you should use the time-dependent explicit scheme. This formulation can also
be used for other cases in which the geometric reconstruction scheme does not give
satisfactory results, or the flow calculation becomes unstable. Note that the
CICSAM scheme or the modified HRIC scheme can be computationally
inexpensive when compared to the geometric reconstruction scheme and improves
the robustness and stability of the calculations. The Volume Fraction
discretizations, Modified HRIC and CICSAM, are available in the Solution Controls
panel when the explicit VOF scheme is selected.
Note that FLUENTwill automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with first-
order discretization for time in the Solver panel.
Time-dependent with the geometric reconstruction interpolation scheme: This
formulation should be used whenever you are interested in the time-accurate
transie nt behavior of the VOF solution.
To use this formulation, make sure Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme in the
Multiphase panel, then select Geo-Reconstruct as the Volume Fraction Discretization
scheme in the Solution Controls panel.
Time-dependent with the donor-acceptor interpolation scheme: This
formulation should be used instead of the time-dependent formulation with the
geometric reconstruction scheme if your mesh contains highly twisted hexahedral
cells. For such cases, the donor-acceptor scheme may provide more accurate
results.
The Donor-Acceptor scheme is used when Explicit is selected as the VOF Scheme
in the Multiphase panel. Initially, this formulation is not available in the GUI. To
make it available, use the following text command:
solve set
expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is
Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]
If your response is yes, then many more discretization schemes will be available
for your selection. You can now use this formulation by selecting Donor-Acceptor
as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls panel.
The CICSAM scheme gives interface sharpness of the same level as the
geometric reconstruction scheme and is particularly suitable for flows with high
viscosity ratios between the phases.
To use this formulation, select Explicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select CICSAMas the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Controls
panel.
While the explicit time-dependent formulation is less computationally expensive
than the geometric reconstruction scheme, the interface between phases will not be
as sharp as that predicted with the geometric reconstruction scheme. To reduce this
diffusivity, it is recommended that you use the second-order discretization scheme
for the volume fraction equations. In addition, you may want to consider turning
the geometric reconstruction scheme back on after calculating a solution with the
implicit scheme, in order to obtain a sharper interface.
i
For the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, if you
are using a conformal grid (i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at
the
boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are
no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you
will need to slit them, as described in Section 6.8.6: Slitting Face Zones.
i
The issues discussed above for the explicit time-dependent
formulation also apply to the implicit steady-state and time-dependent
formulations,
described below. You should take the precautions described above to im-
prove the sharpness of the interface.
ImplicitSchemes
Time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can
be used if you are looking for a steady-state solution and you are not interested in
the intermediate transie nt flow behavior, but the final steady-state solution is
dependent on the initial flow conditions and/or you do not have a distinct
inflow boundary for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme, and enable an Unsteady
calculation in the Solver panel (opened with the Define/Models/Solver... menu
item).
Steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formulation can be
used if you are looking for a steady-state solution, you are not interested in the
intermediate transie nt flow behavior, and the final steady-state solution is not
affected by the initial flow conditions and there is a distinct inflow boundary for
each phase. Note that the implicit modified HRIC scheme can be used as a robust
alternati ve to the explicit geometric reconstruction scheme.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme in the Multiphase panel,
then select Modified HRIC as the Volume Fraction Discretization in the Solution Con-
trols panel.
Examples
To help you determine the best formulation to use for your problem, examples that use
different formulations are listed below:
jet breakup
Use the explicit scheme (time-de pendent with the geometric reconstruction scheme
or the donor-acceptor) if problems occur with the geometric reconstruction scheme.
shape of the liquid interface in a centrifuge
Use the time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme.
flow around a ships hull
Use the steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme.
23.10.2 ModelingOpenChannelFlows
Using the VOF formulation, open channel flows can be modeled in FLUENT. To start
using the open channel flow boundary condition, perform the following:
1. Turn on gravity.
(a) Open the Operating Conditions panel.
(b) Turn on Gravity and set the gravitational acceleration fields.
2. Enable the volume of fluid model.
(a) Open the Multiphase Model panel.
Define Models
Multiphase...
(b) Under Model, turn on Volume of Fluid.
(c) Under VOF Scheme, select either Implicit, Explicit.
3. Under VOF Parameters, select Open Channel Flow.
In order to set specific parameters for a particular boundary for open channel flows,
turn on the Open Channel Flow option in the corresponding boundary condition panel.
Table 23.10.1 summarizes the types of boundaries available to the open channel
flow boundary condition, and the additional parameters needed to model open channel
flow. For more information on setting boundary condition parameters, see Chapter 7:
Boundary Conditions .
Table 23.10.1: Open Channel Boundary Parameters for the VOF Model
Boundary Type Parameter
pressure inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Flow Specification Method;
Free Surface Level, Bottom Level;
Velocity Magnitude
pressure outlet Outlet Group ID;
Pressure Specification Method;
Free Surface Level; Bottom Level
mass flow inlet Inlet Group ID;
Secondary Phase for Inlet;
Free Surface Level;
Bottom Level
outflow Flow Rate Weighting
DefiningInletGroups
Open channel systems involve the flowing fluid (the secondary phase) and the fluid above
it (the primary phase).
If both phases enter through the separate inlets (e.g., inlet-phase2 and inlet-
phase1), these two inlets form an inlet group. This inlet group is recognized by the
parameter Inlet Group ID, which will be same for both the inlets that make up the inlet
group. On
the other hand, if both the phases enter through the same inlet (e.g., inlet-
combined),
then the inlet itself represents the inlet group.
i
In three-phase flows, only one secondary phase is allowed to pass
through one inlet group.
DefiningOutletGroups
Outlet-groups can be defined in the same manner as the inlet groups.
i
In three-phase flows, the outlet should represent the outlet group,
i.e., separate outlets for each phase are not recommended in three-phase
flows.
Setting the InletGroup
For pressure inlets and mass flow inlets, the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the
different inlets that are part of the same inlet group. For instance, when both phases
enter through the same inlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one inlet
group and you would set the Inlet Group ID to 1 for that inlet (or inlet group).
In the case where the same inlet group has separate inlets (different face zones) for each
phase, then the Inlet Group ID will be the same for each inlet of that group.
When specifying the inlet group, use the following guidelines:
Since the Inlet Group ID is used to identify the inlets of the same inlet group,
general information such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, or the mass flow rate
for each phase should be the same for each inlet of the same inlet group.
You should specify a different Inlet Group ID for each distinct inlet group.
For example, consider the case of two inlet groups for a particular problem. The
first inlet group consists of water and air entering through the same inlet (a single
face zone). In this case, you would specify an inlet group ID of 1 for that inlet (or
inlet group). The second inlet group consists of oil and air entering through the
same inlet group, but each uses a different inlet (oil-inlet and air-inlet) for
each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Inlet Group ID of 2 for both of
the inlets that belong to the inlet group.
Setting the OutletGroup
For pressure outlet boundaries, the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the different outlets
that are part of the same outlet group. For instance, when both phases enter through
the same outlet (single face zone), then those phases are part of one outlet group and
you would set the Outlet Group ID to 1 for that outlet (or outlet group).
In the case where the same outlet group has separate outlets (different face zones) for
each phase, then the Outlet Group ID will be the same for each outlet of that group.
When specifying the outlet group, use the following guidelines:
Since the Outlet Group ID is used to identify the outlets of the same outlet
group, general information such as Free Surface Level or Bottom Level should be
the same for each outlet of the same outlet group.
You should specify a different Outlet Group ID for each distinct outlet group.
For example, consider the case of two outlet groups for a particular problem. The
first inlet group consists of water and air exiting from the same outlet (a single face
zone). In this case, you would specify an outlet number of 1 for that outlet (or
outlet group). The second outlet group consists of oil and air exiting through the
same outlet group, but each uses a different outlet (oil-outlet and air-outlet)
for each phase. In this case, you would specify the same Outlet Group ID of 2 for
both of the outlets that belong to the outlet group.
i
For three-phase flows, when all the phases are leaving through the
same outlet, the outlet should consist only of a single face zone.
Determiningthe Free SurfaceLevel
For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Free Surface Level value. This pa-
rameter is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass flow inlet,
and pressure inlet. The Free Surface Level, is represented by y
local
in Equation 23.3-25.
y
local
= (
a g) (23.10-1)
where
a is the position vector of any point on the free surface, and g is the unit
vector in the direction of the force of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface
that is normal to the direction of gravity.
We can simply calculate the free surface level in two steps:
1. Determine the absolute value of height from the free surface to the origin in the
2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the free surface level is above or below
the origin.
If the liquids free surface level lies above the origin, then the Free Surface Level is positive
(see Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the liquids free surface level lies below the origin, then
the Free Surface Level is negati ve.
Determiningthe BottomLevel
For the appropriate boundary, you need to specify the Bottom Level value. This
parameter is available for all relevant boundaries, including pressure outlet, mass flow
inlet, and pressure inlet. The Bottom Level, is represented by a relation similar to
Equation 23.3-25.
y
bottom
= (
b g) (23.10-2)
where
b is the position vector of any point on the bottom of the channel, and g
is the unit vector of gravity. Here we assume a horizontal free surface that is normal
to the direction of gravity.
We can simply calculate the bottom level in two steps:
1. Determine the absolute value of depth from the bottom level to the origin in the
2. Apply the correct sign based on whether the bottom level is above or below the
origin.
If the channels bottom lies above the origin, then the Bottom Level is positive (see
Figure 23.10.1). Likewise, if the channels bottom lies below the origin, then the Bottom
Level is negati ve.
Free Surface Level (positive)
g
Bottom Level (positive)
Origin
Reference Level
Figure 23.10.1: Determining the Free Surface Level and the Bottom Level
Specifyingthe TotalHeight
The total height, along with the velocity, is used as an option for describing the
flow. The total height is given as
V
2
y
tot
= y
local
+
2g
(23.10-3)
where V is the velocity magnitude and g is the gravity magnitude.
Determiningthe VelocityMagnitude
Pressure inlet boundaries require the Velocity Magnitude for calculating the dynamic
pressure at the boundary. This is to be specified as the magnitude of the upstream inlet
velocity in the flow.
Determiningthe SecondaryPhase for the Inlet
For pressure inlets and mass flow inlets, the Secondary Phase for Inlet field is significant
in cases of three-phase flows.
i
Note that only one secondary phase is allowed to pass through one
inlet group.
Consider a problem involving a three-phase flow consisting of air as the primary phase,
and oil and water as the secondary phases. Consider also that there are two inlet groups:
water and air
oil and air
For the former inlet group, you would choose water as the secondary phase. For the
latter inlet group, you would choose oil as the secondary phase.
Choosing the Pressure SpecificationMethod
For a pressure outlet boundary, the outlet pressure can be specified in one of two ways:
by prescribing the local height (i.e., a hydrostatic pressure profile)
by specifying the constant pressure
i
This option is not available in the case of three-phase flows since the
pressure on the boundary is taken from the neighboring cell.
Limitations
The following list summarizes some issues and limitations associated with the open chan-
nel boundary condition.
The conservation of the Bernoulli integral does not provide the conservation
of mass flow rate for the pressure boundary. In the case of a coarser mesh, there
can be a significant difference in mass flow rate from the actual mass flow rate.
For finer meshes, the mass flow rate comes closer to the actual value. So, for
problems having constant mass flow rate, the mass flow rate boundary condition
is a better option. The pressure boundary should be selected when steady and
nonoscillating drag is the main objective.
Specifying the top boundary as the pressure outlet can sometimes lead to a
divergent solution. This may be due to the corner singularity at the pressure
boundary in the air region or due to the inability to specify local flow direction
correctly if the air enters through the top locally.
Only the heavier phase should be selected as the secondary phase.
In the case of three-phase flows, only one secondary phase is allowed to
enter through one inlet group (i.e., the mixed inflow of different secondary phases
is not allowed).
Recommendations for SettingUp an Open ChannelFlow Problem
The following list represents a list of recommendations for solving problems using the
open channel flow boundary condition:
In the cases where the inlet group has a different inlet for each phase of fluid,
then the parameter values (such as Free Surface Level, Bottom Level, and Mass Flow
Rate) for each inlet should correspond to all other inlets that belong to the inlet
group.
The solution begins with an estimated pressure profile at the outlet boundar y.
In general, you can start the solution by assuming that the level of liquid at the
outlet corresponds to the level of liquid at the inlet. The convergence and solution
time is very dependent on the initial conditions. When the flow is completely
subcritical (upstream and downstream), in marine applications for instance, the
above approach is recommended.
If the final conditions of the flow can be predicted by other means, the solution
time can be significantly reduced by using the proper boundary condition.
The initialization procedure is very critical in the open channel analysis.
If you are interested in the final steady state solution, then perform the following
initialization procedure:
1. Initialize the domain by setting the volume fraction of the secondary phase to
0, and providing the inlet velocity.
2. Patch the domain using a volume fraction value of the secondary phase to 1,
up to the Free Surface Level specified at the inlet.
3. Patch the inlet velocity again in the full domain.
If the Free Surface Level values are different at the inlet and outlet, then pat ching
some regions with inlet Free Surface Level values and some regions with outlet Free
Surface Level values could be useful for some problems.
The same steps for initialization are also recommended for unsteady flows, but now
the initial conditions are dependent on the user.
For the initial stability of the solution, a smaller time step is recommended.
You can increase the time step once the solution becomes more stable.
23.10.3 Definingthe Phases for the VOFModel
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and secondary
phases and their interaction in a VOF calculation are provided below.
i
In general, you can specify the primary and secondary phases
whichever way you prefer. It is a good idea, especially in more complicated
problems,
to consider how your choice will affect the ease of problem setup. For
example, if you are planning to patch an initial volume fraction of 1 for
one phase in a portion of the domain, it may be more convenient to make
that phase a secondary phase. Also, if one of the phases is a compressible
ideal gas, it is recommended that you specify it as the primary phase to
improve solution stabili ty.
i
Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be
sure that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a
material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Sections 23.10.5 and 23.11.3 for details.
Definingthe PrimaryPhase
To define the primary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:
1. Select phase-1 in the Phase list.
2. Click Set... to open the Primary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.2).
Figure 23.10.2: The Primary Phase Panel
3. In the Primary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
4. Specify which material the phase contains by choosing the appropriate material in
the Phase Material drop-down list.
5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material.
(a) Click Edit..., and the Material panel will open.
(b) In the Material panel, check the properties, and modify them if necessary. (See
Chapter 8: Physical Properties for general information about setting material
properties, Section 23.10.5: Modeling Compressible Flows for specific informa-
tion related to compressible VOF calculations, and Section 23.10.6: Modeling
Solidification/Melting for specific information related to melting/solidification
VOF calculations.)
i
If you make changes to the properties, remember to click Change
before closing the Material panel.
6. Click OK in the Primary Phase panel.
Defininga SecondaryPhase
To define a secondary phase in a VOF calculation, perform the following steps:
1. Select the phase (e.g., phase-2) in the Phase list.
2. Click Set... to open the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 23.10.3).
Figure 23.10.3: The Secondary Phase Panel for the VOF Model
3. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter a Name for the phase.
5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the procedure out-
lined above for setting the material properties for the primary phase.
6. Click OK in the Secondary Phase panel.
IncludingSurfaceTension and Wall AdhesionEffects
As discussed in Section 23.3.8: When Surface Tension Effects Are Important, the impor-
tance of surface tension effects depends on the value of the capillary number, Ca (defined
by Equation 23.3-16), or the Weber number, We (defined by Equation 23.3-17). Surface
tension effects can be neglected if Ca 1 or We 1.
i
Note that the calculation of surface tension effects will be more
accurate if you use a quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh in the area(s) of the
compu-
tational domain where surface tension is significant. If you cannot use a
quadrilateral or hexahedral mesh for the entire domain, then you should
use a hybrid mesh, with quadrilaterals or hexahedra in the affected areas.
FLUENT also offers an option to use VOF gradients at the nodes for cur-
vature calculations on meshes when more accuracy is desired. For more
information, see Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion.
If you want to include the effects of surface tension along the interface between one or
more pairs of phases, as described in Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension and Wall Adhesion,
click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.10.4).
Figure 23.10.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the VOF Model (Surface Ten-
sion Tab)
Perform the following steps to include surface tension (and, if appropriate, wall adhesion)
effects along the interface between one or more pairs of phases:
1. Click the Surface Tension tab.
2. If you want to include wall adhesion, turn on the Wall Adhesion option. When
Wall Adhesion is enabled, you will need to specify the contact angle at each wall
as a boundary condition (as described in Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase
Boundary Conditions ).
3. For each pair of phases between which you want to include the effects of surface
tension, specify a constant surface tension coefficient. Alternati vely you can spec-
ify a temperature dependent, polynomial, piece-wise polynomial, piecewise linear,
or a user-defined surface tension coefficient. See Section 23.3.8: Surface Tension
and Wall Adhesion for more information on surface tension, and the separate UDF
Manual for more information on user-defined functions. All surface tension coeffi-
cients are equal to 0 by default, representing no surface tension effects along the
interface between the two phases.
i
For calculations involving surface tension, it is recommended that you
also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatme nt for the Body Force
Formulation
in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatme nt improves solution conver-
gence by accounting for the partial equilibrium of the pressure gradient and
surface tension forces in the momentum equations. See Section 23.9.4: In-
cluding Body Forces for details.
23.10.4 SettingTime-Dependent Parameters for the VOFModel
If you are using the time-dependent VOF formulation in FLUENT, an explicit solution
for the volume fraction is obtained either once each time step or once each iteration,
depending upon your inputs to the model. You also have control over the time step used
for the volume fraction calculation.
To compute a time-dependent VOF solution, you will need to enable the Unsteady option
in the Solver panel (and choose the appropriate Unsteady Formulation, as discussed in
Section 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems). If you choose the
Explicit scheme, FLUENT will turn on the first-order unsteady formulation for you
automaticall y, so you need not visit the Solver panel yourself.
Define Models
Solver...
There are two inputs for the time-dependent calculation for the VOF model:
By default, FLUENT will solve the volume fraction equation(s) once for each
time step. This means that the convective flux coefficients appearing in the other
transport equations will not be completely updated each iteration, since the
volume fraction fields will not change from iteration to iteration.
If you want FLUENT to solve the volume fraction equation(s) at every iteration
within a time step, use the text command:
define models multiphase
and select vof as the model. When prompted to solve vof every iteration?,
enter yes. When FLUENT solves these equations every iteration, the convective
flux
coefficients in the other trans port equations will be updated based on the updated
volume fractions at each iteration. This choice is the less stable of the two, and
requires more computational effort per time step than the default choice.
i
If you are using sliding meshes, or dynamic meshes with layering
and/or remeshing, using the solve vof every iteration? option
will yield
more accurate results, although at a greater computational cost.
When FLUENT performs a time-dependent VOF calculation, the time step
used for the volume fraction calculation will not be the same as the time step
used for the rest of the trans port equations. FLUENT will refine the time step
for VOF automaticall y, based on your input for the maximum Courant Number
allowed near the free surface. The Courant number is a dimensionless number
that compares the time step in a calculation to the characteristic time of transit of
a fluid element across a control volume:
t
x
cell
/v
fluid
(23.10-4)
In the region near the fluid interface, FLUENT divides the volume of each cell by
the sum of the outgoing fluxes. The resulting time represents the time it would
take for the fluid to empty out of the cell. The smallest such time is used as
the characteristic time of transit for a fluid element across a control volume, as
described above. Based upon this time and your input for the maximum allowed
Courant Number in the Multiphase Models panel, a time step is computed for use
in the VOF calculation. For example, if the maximum allowed Courant
number is 0.25 (the default), the time step will be chosen to be at most one-
fourth the minimum transit time for any cell near the interface.
Note that these inputs are not required when the implicit scheme is used.
23.10.5 ModelingCompressibleFlows
If you are using the VOF model for a compressible flow, note the following:
Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you
can select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phases material). There is
When using the VOF model, for stability reasons, it is better (although not
required) if the primary phase is a compressible ideal gas.
If you specify the total pressure at a boundary (e.g., for a pressure inlet or
intake fan) the specified value for temperature at that boundary will be used
as total temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for
the other phases (which are incompressible).
For each mass flow inlet, you will need to specify mass flow or mass flux for
each individual phase.
i
Note that if you read a case file that was set up in a version of FLUENT
previous to 6.1, you will need to redefine the conditions at the mass flow
inlets. See Section 23.9.8: Defining Multiphase Boundary Conditions for
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in VOF mul-
tiphase calculations.
See Section 9.6: Compressible Flows for more information about compressible flows.
23.10.6 ModelingSolidification/Melting
If you are including melting or solidification in your VOF calculation, note the following:
It is possible to model melting or solidification in a single phase or in
multiple phases.
For phases that are not melting or solidifying, you must set the latent heat
(L), liquidus temperature (T
liquidus
), and solidus temperature (T
solidus
) to zero.
See Chapter 24: Modeling Solidification and Melting for more information about melting
and solidification.
23.11 SettingUp the MixtureModel
23.11.1 Definingthe Phases for the MixtureModel
phases and their interaction for a mixture model calculation are provided below.
i
Recall that only one of the phases can be a compressible ideal gas. Be
sure that you do not select a compressible ideal gas material (i.e., a
material
that uses the compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of
the phases. See Section 23.11.3: Modeling Compressible Flows for details.
The procedure for defining the primary phase in a mixture model calculation is the same
as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase for details.
Defininga NongranularSecondary Phase
To define a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in a mixture multiphase
calculation, perform the following steps:
23.11Setting Up the MixtureModel
Figure 23.11.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for the Mixture Model
5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the same pro-
cedure you used to set the material properties for the primary phase (see Sec-
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a particulate phase (which must
be placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for
Using a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles, droplets, or
particles of this phase (d
p
in Equation 23.4-12). You can specify a constant value,
or use a user-defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about
user-defined functions. Note that when you are using the mixture model without
slip velocity, this input is not necessary, and it will not be available to you.
Defininga GranularSecondaryPhase
To define a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in a mixture model multiphase
Figure 23.11.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase Using the
Mixture Model
23.11Setting Up the MixtureModel
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
i
Note that all properties for granular flows can utilize user-defined functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.
6. Turn on the Granular option.
7. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter specifies the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-defined to use a user-
defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
functions.
Granular Viscosity specifies the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (
s,kin
in Equation 23.4-18). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.4-20, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.4-21, or select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Granular Temperature specifies temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-defined option.
Solids Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, or the user-defined option.
Radial Distribution specifies a correction factor that modifies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-defined option.
Elasticity Modulus is defined as
with G
0.
G =
P
s
s
(23.11-1)
Choose either the derived or user-defined options.
Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(
s, max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.
DefiningDrag BetweenPhases
For mixture multiphase flows with slip velocity, you can specify the drag function to
be used in the calculation. The functions available here are a subset of those discussed
in Section 23.12.2: Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model. See Section 23.4.5:
Relati ve (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity for more information.
To specify drag laws, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.3),
and then click the Drag tab.
Figure 23.11.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Drag
Tab)
Definingthe Slip Velocity
If you are solving for slip velocities during the mixture calculation, and you want to
modify the slip velocity definition, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel
(Figure 23.11.4), and then click the Slip tab.
Figure 23.11.4: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model (Slip Tab)
Under Slip Velocity, you can specify the slip velocity function for each secondary phase
with respect to the primary phase by choosing the appropriate item in the adjacent
drop-down list.
Select maninnen-et-al (the default) to use the algebraic slip method of Manninen
et al. [229], described in Section 23.4.5: Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift
Velocity.
Select none if the secondary phase has the same velocity as the primary phase
(i.e., no slip velocity).
Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the slip velocity.
See the
separate UDF Manual for details.
23.11.2 IncludingCavitationEffects
For mixture model calculations, it is possible to include the effects of cavitation, using
FLUENTscavitation model described in Section 23.7.4: Cavitation Models. To enable the
cavitation model, turn on the Cavitation option in the Mass tab of the Phase Interaction
panel.
Figure 23.11.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Enabled
When you are using FLUENTscavitation model, you will specify three parameters to be
used in the calculation of mass transfer due to cavitation. Under Cavitation Parameters
in the Phase Interaction panel, set the Vaporization Pressure (p
sat
in Equation 23.7-15),
the Surface Tension Coefficient , and the Non-CondensableGas Mass Fraction . The default
value of p
sat
is 2540 Pa, the vaporization pressure for water at ambient temperature.
Note that p
sat
and the surface tension are properties of the liquid, depending mainly on
temperature. Non-Condensable Gas Mass Fraction is the mass fraction of dissolved gases,
which depends on the purity of the liquid.
When multiple species are included in one or more secondary phases, or the heat transfer
due to phase change needs to be taken into account, the mass transfer mechanism must
be defined before turning on the Cavitation option. This is defined in the same way as
described Section 23.9.7: Including Mass Transfer Effects. It may be noted, however,
that for cavitation problems, at least two mass transfer mechanisms are defined:
mass transfer from liquid to vapor.
mass transfer from vapor to liquid.
In the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 23.11.6), you should choose the constant-rate op-
tion in the Mechanism drop-down list and leave the value as 0 for both mass transfer
mechanisms before turning on the Cavitation option.
Figure 23.11.6: The Phase Interaction Panel for Mass Transfer with Cavita-
tion Disabled
23.11.3 ModelingCompressibleFlows
If you are using the mixture model for a compressible flow, note the following:
Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you
can select the ideal gas law for the density of only one phases material). There is
intake fan) the specified value for temperature at that boundary will be used
as total temperature for the compressible phase, and as static temperature for
the other phases (which are incompressible).
i
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in mixture
multiphase calculations.
23.12SettingUp the EulerianModel
23.12 SettingUp the EulerianModel
23.12.1 Additional Guidelines for EulerianMultiphaseSimulations
Once you have determined that the Eulerian multiphase model is appropriate for your
problem (as described in Section 23.2: Choosing a General Multiphase Model), you should
consider the computational effort required to solve your multiphase problem. The re-
quired computational effort depends strongly on the number of trans port equations be-
ing solved and the degree of coupling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a
large number of highly coupled trans port equations, computational expense will be high.
Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem stateme nt to the simplest
form possible.
Instead of trying to solve your multiphase flow in all of its complexity on your first
solution attempt, you can start with simple approximations and work your way up to
the final form of the problem definition. Some suggestions for simplifying a multiphase
flow problem are listed below:
Use a hexahedral or quadrilateral mesh (instead of a tetrahedral or
triangular mesh).
Reduce the number of phases.
You may find that even a very simple approximation will provide you with useful infor-
mation about your problem.
See Section 23.14.4: Eulerian Model for more solution strategies for Eulerian multiphase
calculations.
23.12.2 Definingthe Phases for the EulerianModel
phases and their interaction for an Eulerian multiphase calculation are provided below.
The procedure for defining the primary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calculation is
the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase for
details.
Defininga NongranularSecondary Phase
To define a nongranular (i.e., liquid or vapor) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase
Figure 23.12.1: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Nongranular Phase
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase).
6. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the Diameter of the bubbles or droplets of
this phase. You can specify a constant value, or use a user-defined function. See
the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.
Defininga GranularSecondaryPhase
To define a granular (i.e., particulate) secondary phase in an Eulerian multiphase calcu-
lation, perform the following steps:
Figure 23.12.2: The Secondary Phase Panel for a Granular Phase
tion 23.10.3: Defining the Primary Phase). For a granular phase (which must be
placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in Section 23.9: Steps for Us-
ing a Multiphase Model), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore the
values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
i
Note that all properties for granular flows can utilize user-defined functions
(UDFs).
See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined functions.
6. Turn on the Granular option.
7. (optional) Turn on the Packed Bed option if you want to freeze the velocity field
for the granular phase. Note that when you select the packed bed option for a
phase, you should also use the fixed velocity option with a value of zero for all
velocity components for all interior cell zones for that phase.
8. Specify the Granular Temperature Model. Choose either the default Phase Prop-
erty option or the Partial Differential Equation option. See Section 23.5.8: Granular
Temperature for details.
9. In the Secondary Phase panel, specify the following properties of the particles of
this phase:
Diameter specifies the diameter of the particles. You can select constant in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, or select user-defined to use a user-
defined function. See the separate UDF Manual for details about user-defined
functions.
Granular Viscosity specifies the kinetic part of the granular viscosity of the par-
ticles (
s,kin
in Equation 23.5-62). You can select constant (the default) in the
drop-down list and specify a constant value, select syamlal-obrien to compute
the value using Equation 23.5-64, select gidaspow to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-65, or select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Granular Bulk Viscosity specifies the solids bulk viscosity (
q
in Equation 23.5-6).
You can select constant (the default) in the drop-down list and specify a con-
stant value, select lun-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-66, or
select user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Frictional Viscosity specifies a shear viscosity based on the viscous-plastic flow
(
s,fr
in Equation 23.5-62). By default, the frictional viscosity is neglected,
as indicated by the default selection of none in the drop-down list. If you
want to include the frictional viscosity, you can select constant and specify a
constant value, select schaeffer to compute the value using Equation 23.5-67,
select johnson-et-al to compute the value using Equation 23.5-72, or select
user-defined to use a user-defined function.
Angle of Internal Friction specifies a constant value for the angle used in Scha-
effers expression for frictional viscosity (Equation 23.5-67). This parameter
is relevant only if you have selected schaeffer or user-defined for the
Frictional Viscosity.
Frictional Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, P
f rictio n
, in the granular-
phase momentum equation. Choose none to exclude frictional pressure from
your calculation, johnson-et-al to apply Equation 23.5-72, syamlal-obrien to ap-
ply Equation 23.5-30, based-ktgf, where the frictional pressure is defined by the
kinetic theory [79]. The solids pressure tends to a large value near the packing
limit, depending on the model selected for the radial distribution function.
You must hook a user-defined function when selecting the user-defined option.
See the separate UDF manual for information on hooking a UDF.
Frictional Modulus is defined as
G =
P
f riction
f riction
(23.12-1)
with G 0, which is the derived option. You can also specify a user-
defined
function for the frictional modulus.
Friction Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular
phase (
s, max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63,
which is the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller
spheres can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to
increase the maximum packing limit.
Granular Conductivity specifies the solids granular conductivity (k
s
in
Equation 23.5-75). You can select syamlal-obrien to compute the value using
Equation 23.5-76, select gidaspow to compute the value using Equation 23.5-77,
or select user-defined to use a user-defined function. Note, however, that
FLU- ENT currently uses an algebraic relation for the granular temperature.
This has been obtained by neglecting convection and diffusion in the
trans port equation, Equation 23.5-75 [363].
Granular Temperature specifies temperature for the solids phase and is propor-
tional to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. Choose
either the algebraic, the constant, or user-defined option.
Solids Pressure specifies the pressure gradient term, p
s
, in the granular-phase
momentum equation. Choose either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-
ahmadi, none, or a user-defined option.
Radial Distribution specifies a correction factor that modifies the probability of
collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. Choose
either the lun-et-al, the syamlal-obrien, the ma-ahmadi, the arastoopour, or a
user-defined option.
Elasticity Modulus is defined as
with G
0.
G =
P
s
s
(23.12-2)
Packing Limit specifies the maximum volume fraction for the granular phase
(
s, max
). For monodispersed spheres, the packing limit is about 0.63, which is
the default value in FLUENT. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres
can fill the small gaps between larger spheres, so you may need to increase the
maximum packing limit.
Definingthe InteractionBetweenPhases
For both granular and nongranular flows, you will need to specify the drag function to
be used in the calculation of the momentum exchange coefficients. For granular
flows, you will also need to specify the restitution coefficient(s) for particle collisions. It
is also possible to include an optional lift force and/or virtual mass force (described
below) for both granular and nongranular flows.
To specify these parameters, click Interaction... to open the Phase Interaction panel (Fig-
ure 23.12.3).
Figure 23.12.3: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Eulerian Model
Specifying the DragFunction
FLUENT allows you to specify a drag function for each pair of phases. Perform the
following steps:
1. Click the Drag tab to display the Drag Function inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate drag function from the corresponding
drop-down list.
Select schiller-naumann to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by
Equa- tion 23.5-18. The Schiller and Naumann model is the default method,
and it is acceptable for general use in all fluid-fluid multiphase calculations.
Select morsi-alexander to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by
Equa- tion 23.5-22. The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete,
adjusting the function definition frequently over a large range of Reynolds
numbers, but calculations with this model may be less stable than with the
other models.
Select symmetric to use the fluid-fluid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-27. The symmetric model is recommended for flows in which
the secondary (dispersed) phase in one region of the domain becomes the
primary (continuous) phase in another. For example, if air is injected into the
bottom of a container filled halfway with water, the air is the dispersed phase
in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of the container, the air is
the continuous phase.
Select wen-yu to use the fluid-solid drag function described by Equation 23.5-
39.
The Wen and Yu model is applicable for dilute phase flows, in which the
total secondary phase volume fraction is significantly lower than that of the
primary phase.
Select gidaspow to use the fluid-solid drag function described by
Equation 23.5-41. The Gidaspow model is recommended for dense fluidized
beds.
Select syamlal-obrien to use the fluid-solid drag function described by
Equa- tion 23.5-31. The Syamlal-OBrien model is recommended for use in
conjunction with the Syamlal-OBrien model for granular viscosity.
Select syamlal-obrien-symmetric to use the solid-solid drag function
described by Equation 23.5-43. The symmetric Syamlal-OBrien model is
appropriate for a pair of solid phases.
Select constant to specify a constant value for the drag function, and
then specify the value in the text field.
Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the drag function (see
the separate UDF Manual for details).
If you want to temporarily ignore the interaction between two phases,
select
none.
Specifyingthe RestitutionCoefficients(Granular Flow Only)
For granular flows, you need to specify the coefficients of restitution for collisions
between particles (e
ls
in Equation 23.5-43 and e
ss
in Equation 23.5-44). In addition to
specifying the restitution coefficient for collisions between each pair of granular phases,
you will also specify the restitution coefficient for collisions between particles of the
same phase.
Perform the following steps:
1. Click the Collisionstab to display the Restitution Coefficient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, specify a constant restitution coefficient. All restitution
coefficients are equal to 0.9 by default.
Includingthe LiftForce
For both granular and nongranular flows, it is possible to include the effect of lift forces
(F
~
lift
in Equation 23.5-8) on the secondary phase particles, droplets, or bubbles.
These lift forces act on a particle, droplet, or bubble mainly due to velocity gradients
in the primary-phase flow field. In most cases, the lift force is insignificant compared
to the drag force, so there is no reason to include it. If the lift force is significant (e.g.,
if the phases separate quickly), you may want to include this effect.
i
Note that the lift force will be more significant for larger particles, but the
FLUENTmodel assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller than the
interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not appropriate
for closely packed particles or for very small particles.
To include the effect of lift forces, perform the following steps:
1. Click the Lift tab to display the Lift Coefficient inputs.
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate specification method from the cor-
responding drop-down list. Note that, since the lift forces for a particle, droplet, or
bubble are due mainly to velocity gradients in the primary-phase flow field, you will
not specify lift coefficients for pairs consisting of two secondary phases; lift coeffi-
cients are specified only for pairs consisting of a secondary phase and the primary
phase.
Select none (the default) to ignore the effect of lift forces.
Select constant to specify a constant lift coefficient, and then specify the
value in the text field.
Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the lift coefficient (see
the separate UDF Manual for details).
Includingthe VirtualMassForce
For both granular and nongranular flows, it is possible to include the virtual mass force
(F
~
vm
in Equation 23.5-9) that is present when a secondary phase accelerates relative to
the primary phase. The virtual mass effect is significant when the secondary phase
densi ty is much smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transie nt bubble
column).
To include the effect of the virtual mass force, turn on the Virtual Mass option in the
Phase Interaction panel. The virtual mass effect will be included for all secondary phases;
it is not possible to enable it just for a particular phase.
23.12.3 ModelingTurbulence
If you are using the Eulerian model to solve a turbule nt flow, you will need to choose
one of turbulence models described in Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models in the Viscous
Model panel (Figure 23.12.4).
Figure 23.12.4: The Viscous Model Panel for an Eulerian Multiphase Calcu-
lation
The procedure is as follows:
1. Select either k-epsilon or Reynolds Stress under Model.
2. Select the desired k-epsilon Model or RSM Multiphase Model and any other related
parameters, as described for single-phase calculations in Section 12.12: Steps in
Using a Turbulence Model.
3. Under k-epsilon Multiphase Model or RSM Multiphase Model, indicate the desired
multiphase turbulence model (see Section 23.5.10: Turbulence Models for details
about each):
Select Mixture to use the mixture turbulence model. This is the default model.
Select Dispersed to use the dispersed turbulence model. This model is
applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous phase and the rest
are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Select Per Phase to use a k- turbulence model for each phase. This model
is appropriate when the turbulence transfer among the phases plays a
dominant role.
IncludingSource Terms
By default, the interphase momentum, k, and sources are not included in the calcula-
tion. If you want to include any of these source terms, you can enable them using the
multiphase-options command in the define/models/viscous/multiphase-
turbulence/
text menu. Note that the inclusion of these terms can slow down convergence noticeabl y.
If you are looking for additional accuracy, you may want to compute a solution first
without these sources, and then continue the calculation with these terms included. In
most cases these terms can be neglected.
Customizing the k- MultiphaseTurbulent Viscosity
If you are using the k- multiphase turbulence model, a user-defined function can be
used to customize the turbule nt viscosity for each phase. This option will enable you to
modify
t
in the k- model. For more information, see the separate UDF Manual.
In the Viscous Model panel, under User-Defined Functions, select the appropriate user-
defined function in the Turbulent Viscosity drop-down list.
23.12.4 IncludingHeatTransferEffects
To define heat transfer in a multiphase Eulerian simulation, you will need to visit the
Phase Interaction panel, after you have turned on the energy equation in the Energy panel.
Define Phases...
1. Click the Interaction... button to open the Phase Interaction panel (e.g., Fig-
ure 23.12.5).
Figure 23.12.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for Heat Transfer
2. Click on the Heat tab in the Phase Interaction panel.
3. Select the desired correlation for the Heat Transfer Coefficient. Note the following
regarding the available choices:
gunn is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations involving a granular
phase.
ranz-marshall is frequently used for Eulerian multiphase simulations not involv-
ing a granular phase.
none allows you to ignore the effects of heat transfer between the two phases
user-defined allows you to implement a correlation reflecting a model of your
choice, through a user-defined function.
4. Set the appropriate thermal boundary conditions. You will specify the thermal
boundary conditions for each individual phase on most boundaries, and for the
mixture on some boundaries. See Chapter 7: Boundary Conditions for more in-
formation on boundary conditions, and Section 23.9.8: Eulerian Model for more
information on specifying boundary conditions for a Eulerian multiphase calcula-
tion.
See Section 23.5.9: Description of Heat Transfer for more information on heat transfer in
the framework of a Eulerian multiphase simulation.
23.12.5 Modeling Compressible
Flows
You can model compressible multiphase flows, and can use it in conjunction with the
energy multiphase equations and available multiphase turbulence models. When using
the Eulerian multiphase model for a compressible flow, note the following:
While you can specify both compressible gas phases and compressible liquid
phases, you can only define one of the phases as a compressible ideal gas (i.e., you
can select the ideal-gas for the density in the Materials panel of only one phases
material). There is no limitation on using compressible liquids using user-defined
functions.
You can define only one compressible fluid phase.
intake fan), FLUENT will use the specified value for temperature at that
boundary as total temperature for the compressible phase, and as static
temperature for the other phases (which are incompressible).
i
more information on defining conditions for a mass flow inlet in Eulerian
multiphase calculations.
23.13 SettingUp the Wet SteamModel
Once you have enabled either of the density-based solvers in FLUENT,you can activate the
wet steam model (see Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory) by opening the Multiphase
panel and selecting the Wet Steam option.
Define Models
Multiphase...
Figure 23.13.1: The Multiphase Model Panel with the Wet Steam Model Ac-
tivated
This section includes information about using your own property functions and data with
the wet steam model. Solution settings and strategies for the wet steam model can be
found in Section 23.14.5: Wet Steam Model. Postprocessing variables are described in
Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables.
23.13.1 Using User-DefinedThermodynamicWet SteamProperties
FLUENT allows you to use your own property functions and data with the wet steam
model. This is achieved with user-defined wet steam property functions (UDWSPF).
These user-defined functions are written in the C programming language and there is a
certain programming format that must be used so that you can build a successful library
that can be loaded into the FLUENTcode.
23.13SettingUp the Wet SteamModel
The following is the procedure for using the user-defined wet steam property functions
(UDWSPF):
1. Define the wet steam equation of state and all related thermodynamic and trans port
property equations.
2. Create a C source code file that conforms to the format defined in this section.
3. Start FLUENTand set up your case file in the usual way.
4. Turn on the wet steam model.
5. Compile your UDWSPF C functions and build a shared library file using the text
user interface.
wet-steam compile-user-defined-we tsteam-functions
6. Load your newly created UDWSPF library using the text user interface.
wet-steam load-unload-user-define d-wetsteam-library
7. Run your calculation.
i
Note that the UDWSPF can only be used when the wet steam model
is acti vated. Therefore, the UDWSPF are available for use with the
densi ty-
based solver only.
23.13.2 Writingthe User-DefinedWet SteamProperty Functions(UDWSPF)
Creating a UDWSPF C function library is reasonably straightforward:
The code must contain the udf.h file inclusion directive at the beginning of
the source code. This allows the definitions for DEFINE macros and other
FLUENT
functions to be accessible during the compilation process.
The code must include at least one of the UDFs DEFINE functions
(i.e. DEFINE ON DEMAND) to be able to use the compiled UDFs utili ty.
Any values that are passed to the solver by the UDWSPF or returned by the
solver to the UDWSPF are assumed to be in SI units.
You must use the principle set of user-defined wet steam property functions
in your UDWSPF library, as described in the list that follows. These functions
are the mechanism by which your thermodynamic property data is transferred to
the FLUENTsolver.
The following lists the user-defined wet steam property function names and arguments,
as well as a short description of their functions. Function inputs from the FLUENTsolver
consist of one or more of the following variables: T = temperature (K ), P =
pressure (P a), and = vapor-phase density (kg/m
3
).
void wetst init(Domain *domain)
This will be called when you load the UDWSPF. You use it to initialize wet steam
model constants or your own model consta nts. It returns nothing.
real wetst satP(real T)
This is the saturated pressure function, which takes on temperature in K and
returns saturation pressure in Pa.
real wetst satT(real P, real T)
This is the saturated temperature function, which takes on pressure in Pa and a
starting guess temperature in K and returns saturation temperature in K.
real wetst eosP(real rho, real T)
This is the equation of state, which takes on vapor density in kg/m
3
and Temper-
ature in K and returns pressure in Pa.
real wetst eosRHO(real P, real T)
This is the equation of state, which takes on pressure in Pa and temperature in K
and returns vapor density in kg/m
3
.
real wetst cpv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specific heat at constant pressure, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns specific heat at constant pressure in
J/kg/K.
real wetst cvv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specific heat at constant volume, which takes on temperature
in K and vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns specific heat at constant volume in
J/kg/K.
real wetst hv(real T,real rho)
This is the vapor specific enthalpy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns specific enthalpy in J/Kg.
real wetst sv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor specific entropy, which takes on temperature in K and vapor
density in kg/m
3
and returns specific entropy in J/Kg/K.
real wetst muv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor dynamic viscosity, which takes on temperature in K and
vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns viscosity in kg/m/s.
real wetst ktv(real T, real rho)
This is the vapor thermal conductivi ty, which takes on temperature in K and
vapor density in kg/m
3
and returns thermal conductivity in W/m/K.
real wetst rhol(real T)
This is the saturated liquid density, which takes on temperature in K and returns
liquid density in kg/m
3
.
real wetst cpl(real T)
This is the saturated liquid specific heat at constant pressure, which takes on tem-
perature in K and returns liquid specific heat in J/kg/K.
real wetst mul(real T)
This is the liquid dynamic viscosity, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
dynamic viscosity in kg/m/s.
real wetst ktl(real T)
This is the liquid thermal conductivi ty, which takes on temperature in K and returns
thermal conductivity in W/m/K.
real wetst surft(real T)
This is the liquid surface tension, which takes on Temperature in K and returns
surface tension N/m.
At the end of the code you must define a structure of type WS Functions whose
mem-
bers are pointers to the principle functions listed previously. The structure is of type
WS Functions and its name is WetSteamFunctionLis t.
UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList =
{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};
23.13.3 CompilingYour UDWSPFand Building a Shared Library
File
This section presents the steps you will need to follow to compile your UDWSPF C code
and build a shared library file. This process requires the use of a C compiler. Most UNIX
operating systems provide a C compiler as a standard feature. If you are using a PC,
you will need to ensure that a C ++ compiler is installed before you can proceed (e.g.,
Microsoft Visual C ++, v6.0 or higher).
i
To use the UDWSPF you will need to first build the UDWSPF
library by compiling your UDWSPF C code and then loading the library
into the
FLUENTcode.
The UDWSPF shared library is built in the same way that the FLUENTexecutable itself
is built. Internally, a script called Makefile is used to invoke the system C compiler
to build an object code library that contains the native machine language translation of
your higher-level C source code. This shared library is then loaded into FLUENT(either
at runtime or automatically when a case file is read) by a process called dynamic loading.
The object libraries are specific to the computer architecture being used, as well as to the
particular version of the FLUENT executable being run. The libraries must, therefore,
be rebuilt any time FLUENT is upgraded, when the computers operating system level
changes, or when the job is run on a different type of computer.
The general procedure for compiling UDWSPF C code is as follows:
Place the UDWSPF C code in your working directory (i.e., where your case
file resides).
Launch FLUENT.
Read your case file into FLUENT.
You can now compile your UDWSPF C code and build a shared library file
using the commands provided in the text command interface (TUI):
Select the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item
define models multiphase wet-
steam
Select the compile-user-defined-wetsteam-functions option.
Enter the compiled UDWSPF library name.
The name given here is the name of the directory where the shared library
(e.g., libudf) will reside. For example, if you hit <Enter> then a
directory should exist with the name libudf, and this directory will contain
library file called libudf. If, however, you type a new library name such as
mywetsteam, then a directory called mywetsteam will be created and
it will contain the library libudf.
Continue on with the procedure when prompted.
Enter the C source file names.
i
Ideally you should place all of your functions into a single file.
However, you can split them into separate files if desired.
Enter the header file names, if applicable. If you do not have an extra header
file, then press <Enter> when prompted.
FLUENT will then start compiling the UDWSPF C code and put it in the
appropriate architecture director y.
23.13.4 Loadingthe UDWSPFShared LibraryFile
To load the UDWSPF library, perform the following steps:
Go to the define/models/multiphase/wet-steam menu item in the text
user interface.
define models multiphase wet-steam
Select the load-unload-user-defined-wetsteam-library option and
follow the procedure when prompted.
If the loading of the UDWSPF library is successful, you will see a message similar
to the following:
Opening user-defined wet steam library "libudf"...
Library "libudf/lnx86/2d/libudf.so" opened
Setting material properties to Wet-Steam...
Initializing user defined material properties...
23.13.5 UDWSPFExample
This section describe a simple UDWSPF. You can use this example as a the basis for your
own UDWSPF code. For approximate calculations at low pressure, the simple ideal-gas
equation of state and constant isobaric specific heat is assumed and used. The properties
at the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapor line used in this example are similar
to the one used by FLUENT.
/********************** ************************ ************************/
/* User Defined Wet Steam
Properties: EOS : Ideal Gas Eq.
Vapor Sat. Line : W.C.Reynolds tables (1979)
Liquid Sat. Line: E. Eckert & R. Drake book (1972)
Use ideal-gas EOS with Steam properties
to model wet steam condensation in low pressure nozzle
Author: L. Zori
Date : Jan. 29 2004
*/
/********************** ************************ ************************/
#include "udf.h"
#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "stdarg.h"
/*Global Constants for this model*/
real ws_TPP = 338.150 ;
real ws_aaa = 0.01 ;
real cpg = 1882.0 ;/* Cp-vapor at low-pressure region*/
DEFINE_ON_DEMAND(I_do_n othing)
{
/* This is a dummy function to allow us to use */
/* the Compiled UDFs utility */
}
void
wetst_init(Domain *domain)
{
/*
You must initialize these material property constants..
they will be used in the wet steam model in fluent
*/
ws_Tc = 647.286 ;/*Critical Temp. */
ws_Pc = 22089000.00 ;/*Critical Pressure */
mw_f = 18.016 ;/*fluid droplet molecular weight (water) */
Rgas_v = 461.50 ;/*vapor Gas Const*/
}
real
wetst_satP(real T)
{
real psat ;
real
SUM=0.0;
real pratio;
real F ;
real a1 = -7.41924200 ;
real a2 = 2.97210000E-
01
;
real a3 =-1.15528600E-
01
;
real a4 = 8.68563500E-
03
;
real a5 = 1.09409899E-
03
;
real a6 =-4.39993000E-
03
;
real a7 = 2.52065800E-
03
;
real a8 =-5.21868400E-
04
;
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc ;
F = ws_aaa*(T - ws_TPP) ;
SUM = a1 + F*(a2+ F*(a3+ F*(a4+ F*(a5+ F*(a6+ F*(a7+ F*a8)))))) ;
pratio = (ws_Tc/T - 1.0)*SUM;
psat = ws_Pc *exp(pratio) ;
return psat; /*Pa */
}
real
wetst_satT(real P, real T)
{
real tsat ;
real dT, dTA,dTM,dP,p1,p2,dPdT;
int i ;
for (i=0; i<25; ++i)
{
if (T > ws_Tc) T = ws_Tc-0.5;
p1= wetst_satP(T) ;
p2= wetst_satP(T+0.1) ;
dPdT = (p2-p1)/0.1 ;
dP = P - p1 ;
dT = dP/dPdT ;
dTA =
fabs(dT);
dTM = 0.1*T
;
if (dTA > dTM)
dT=dT*dTM/dTA ; T = T + dT;
if (fabs(dT) < TEMP_eps*T)
break;
}
tsat = T;
return tsat; /*K */
}
real
wetst_eosP(real rho, real T)
{
real P ;
P = rho* Rgas_v * T ;
return P; /*Pa */
}
real
wetst_eosRHO(real P, real T)
{
real rho ;
rho = P/(Rgas_v * T) ;
return rho; /*kg/m3 */
}
real
wetst_cpv(real T, real rho)
{
real cp;
cp = cpg ;
return cp; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_cvv(real T, real rho)
{
real cv;
cv = wetst_cpv(T,rho) - Rgas_v ;
return cv; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_hv(real T,real rho)
{
real h;
h = T* wetst_cpv(T,rho) ;
return h; /* (J/Kg) */
}
real
wetst_sv(real T, real rho)
{
real s ;
real TDatum=288.15;
real PDatum=1.01325e5;
s=wetst_cpv(T,rho)*log( T/TDatum)+
Rgas_v*log(PDatum/
(Rgas_v*T*rho));
return s; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_muv(real T, real rho)
{
real muv ;
muv=1.7894e-05 ;
return muv; /* (Kg/m/s) */
}
real
wetst_ktv(real T, real rho)
{
real ktv ;
ktv=0.0242 ;
return ktv; /* W/m/K */
}
real
wetst_rhol(real T)
{
real rhol;
real SUM = 0.0 ;
int ii ;
int i ;
real rhoc = 317.0 ;
real D[8] ;
D[0] = 3.6711257 ;
D[1] = -
2.8512396E+01 ; D[2]
=
2.2265240E+02
; D[3] = -
8.8243852E+02 ; D[4]
=
2.0002765E+03
; D[5] = -
2.6122557E+03 ; D[6]
=
1.8297674E+03
; D[7] = -
5.3350520E+02 ;
for(ii=0;ii < 8;++ii)
{
i = ii+1 ;
SUM += D[ii] * pow((1.0 - T/ws_Tc), i/3.0) ;
}
rhol = rhoc*(1.0+SUM);
return rhol; /* (Kg/m3) */
}
real
wetst_cpl(real T)
{
real cpl;
real a1= -36571.6 ;
real a2= 555.217 ;
real a3= -2.96724 ;
real a4=
0.00778551; real a5=
-1.00561e-05; real
a6= 5.14336E-
09;
cpl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;
return cpl; /* (J/Kg/K) */
}
real
wetst_mul(real T)
{
real mul ;
real a1= 0.530784;
real a2= -0.00729561;
real a3= 4.16604E-05
; real a4= -1.26258E-
07; real a5=
2.13969E-10;
real a6= -1.92145E-13;
real a7= 7.14092E-17;
mul = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*(a6+ T*a7))))) ;
return mul; /* (Kg/m/s) */
}
real
wetst_ktl(real T)
{
real ktl ;
real a1= -1.17633;
real a2=
0.00791645; real a3=
1.48603E-
05; real a4=
-1.31689E-07; real
a5= 2.47590E-
10; real a6=
-1.55638E-13;
ktl = a1 + T*(a2+ T*(a3+ T*(a4+ T*(a5+ T*a6)))) ;
return ktl; /* W/m/K */
}
real
wetst_surft(real T)
{
real sigma ;
real Tr ;
real a1= 82.27 ;
real a2= 75.612 ;
real a3= -256.889 ;
real a4= 95.928 ;
Tr = T/ws_Tc ;
sigma = 0.001*(a1 + Tr*(a2+ Tr*(a3+
Tr*a4))) ;
return sigma ;/* N/m */
}
/* do not change the order of the function list */
UDF_EXPORT WS_Functions WetSteamFunctionList
=
{
wetst_init, /*initialization function*/
wetst_satP, /*Saturation pressure*/
wetst_satT, /*Saturation temperature*/
wetst_eosP, /*equation of state*/
wetst_eosRHO, /*equation of state*/
wetst_hv, /*vapor enthalpy*/
wetst_sv, /*vapor entropy*/
wetst_cpv, /*vapor isobaric specific heat*/
wetst_cvv, /*vapor isochoric specific heat*/
wetst_muv, /*vapor dynamic viscosity*/
wetst_ktv, /*vapor thermal conductivity*/
wetst_rhol, /*sat. liquid density*/
wetst_cpl, /*sat. liquid specific heat*/
wetst_mul, /*sat. liquid viscosity*/
wetst_ktl, /*sat. liquid thermal conductivity*/
wetst_surft /*liquid surface tension*/
};
/********************** ************************ ************************/
23.14 SolutionStrategiesfor MultiphaseModeling
23.14.1 Setting InitialVolumeFractions
Once you have initialized the flow (as described in Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution),
you can define the initial distribution of the phases. For a transie nt simulation, this dis-
tribution will serve as the initial condition at t = 0; for a steady-state simulation, setting
an initial distribution can provide added stability in the early stages of the calculation.
You can patch an initial volume fraction for each secondary phase using the Patch panel.
Solve Initialize
Patch...
If the region in which you want to patch the volume fraction is defined as a separate
cell zone, you can simply patch the value there. Otherwise, you can create a cell reg-
ister that contains the appropriate cells and patch the value in the register. See Sec-
tion 25.14.2: Patching Values in Selected Cells for details.
Solution strategies for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian models are provided in Sec-
tions 23.14.2, 23.14.3, and 23.14.4, respectively.
23.14.2 VOFModel
Several recommendations for improving the accuracy and convergence of the VOF solu-
tion are presented here.
Setting the ReferencePressure Location
The site of the reference pressure can be moved to a location that will result in less round-
off in the pressure calculation. By default, the reference pressure location is the center
of the cell at or closest to the point (0,0,0). You can move this location by specifying a
new Reference Pressure Location in the Operating Conditions panel.
The position that you choose should be in a region that will always contain the least
dense of the fluids (e.g., the gas phase, if you have a gas phase and one or more liquid
phases). This is because variations in the static pressure are larger in a more dense
fluid than in a less dense fluid, given the same velocity distribution. If the zero of the
relative pressure field is in a region where the pressure variations are small, less round-off
will occur than if the variations occur in a field of large nonzero values. Thus in systems
containing air and water, for example, it is important that the reference pressure location
be in the portion of the domain filled with air rather than that filled with water.
23.14SolutionStrategiesfor MultiphaseModeling
Pressure InterpolationScheme
For all VOF calculations, you should use the body-force-weighted pressure interpolation
scheme or the PRESTO! scheme.
Solve Controls
Solution...
DiscretizationScheme Selection for the Implicitand ExplicitFormulations
When the implicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are
First Order Upwind
Second Order upwind
Modified HRIC
QUICK
When the explicit scheme is used, the available options for Volume Fraction Discretization
are
Geo-Reconstruct
CICSAM
Modified HRIC
QUICK
When using the explicit scheme, First Order Upwind, Second Order upwind, and Donor-
Acceptor can be made available under Volume Fraction Discretization by using the
following text command:
solve set
expert
You will be asked a series of questions, one of which is
Allow selection of all applicable discretization schemes? [no]
to which you will respond yes.
i
You are encouraged to use the CICSAM scheme, as it gives a
sharper interface than the modified HRIC scheme.
i
In VOF modeling, using a high-order discretization scheme for the
momentum trans port equations may reduce the stability of the solution
compared
to cases using first-order discretization. In such situations, it is recom-
mended to use a low-order variant of Rhie-Chow face flux interpolation,
which can be turned on using the text command:
solve set
numerics
When asked to disable high order Rhie-Chow flux?[no], enter
yes.
Pressure- Velocity Couplingand Under-Relaxationfor the Time-dependent
Formulations
Another change that you should make to the solver settings is in the pressure-velocity
coupling scheme and under-relaxation factors that you use. The PISO scheme is recom-
mended for transie nt calculations in general. Using PISO allows for increased values on
all under-relaxation factors, without a loss of solution stability. You can generally in-
crease the under-relaxation factors for all variables to 1 and expect stability and a rapid
rate of convergence (in the form of few iterations required per time step). For
calculations on tetrahedral or triangular meshes, an under-relaxation factor of 0.70.8 for
pressure is recommended for improved stability with the PISO scheme.
Solve Controls
Solution...
As with any FLUENT simulation, the under-relaxation factors will need to be decreased
if the solution exhibits unstable, divergent behavior with the under-relaxation factors set
to 1. Reducing the time step is another way to improve the stabili ty.
Under-Relaxationfor the Steady-StateFormulation
If you are using the steady-state implicit VOF scheme, the under-relaxation factors for
all variables should be set to values between 0.2 and 0.5 for improved stabili ty.
23.14.3 MixtureModel
Setting the Under-RelaxationFactorfor the Slip Velocity
You should begin the mixture calculation with a low under-relaxation factor for the slip
velocity. A value of 0.2 or less is recommended. If the solution shows good convergence
behavior, you can increase this value graduall y.
Calculatingan InitialSolution
For some cases (e.g., cyclone separation), you may be able to obtain a solution more
quickly if you compute an initial solution without solving the volume fraction and slip
velocity equations. Once you have set up the mixture model, you can temporarily disable
these equations and compute an initial solution.
Solve Controls
Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity in the Equations
list. You can then compute the initial flow field. Once a converged flow field is
obtained, turn the Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity equations back on again, and
compute the mixture solution.
23.14.4 EulerianModel
Calculatingan InitialSolution
To improve convergence behavior, you may want to compute an initial solution before
solving the complete Eulerian multiphase model. There are three methods you can use
to obtain an initial solution for an Eulerian multiphase calculation:
Set up and solve the problem using the mixture model (with slip velocities)
instead of the Eulerian model. You can then enable the Eulerian model,
complete the setup, and continue the calculation using the mixture-model solution
as a starting point.
Set up the Eulerian multiphase calculation as usual, but compute the flow for
only the primary phase. To do this, deselect Volume Fraction in the Equations list
in the Solution Controls panel. Once you have obtained an initial solution for the
primary phase, turn the volume fraction equations back on and continue the
calculation for all phases.
Use the mass flow inlet boundary condition to initialize the flow conditions. It
is recommended that you set the value of the volume fraction close to the value
of the volume fraction at the inlet.
i
You should not try to use a single-phase solution obtained without
the mixture or Eulerian model as a starting point for an Eulerian
multiphase
calculation. Doing so will not improve convergence, and may make it even
more difficult for the flow to converge.
Temporari ly IgnoringLiftand VirtualMass Forces
If you are planning to include the effects of lift and/or virtual mass forces in a steady-state
Eulerian multiphase simulation, you can often reduce stability problems that sometimes
occur in the early stages of the calculation by temporarily ignoring the action of the lift
and the virtual mass forces. Once the solution without these forces starts to converge,
you can interrupt the calculation, define these forces appropriatel y, and continue the
calculation.
Using W-Cycle Multigrid
For problems involving a packed-bed granular phase with very small particle sizes (on
the order of 10 m), convergence can be obtained by using the W-cycle multigrid for the
pressure. Under Fixed Cycle Parameters in the Multigrid Controls panel, you may need to
use higher values for Pre-Sweeps, Post-Sweeps, and Max Cycles. When you are choosing
the values for these parameters, you should also increase the Verbosity to 1 in order to
monitor the AMG performance; i.e., to make sure that the pressure equation is solved to
a desired level of convergence within the AMG solver during each global iteration. See
Section 23.12.2: Defining the Phases for the Eulerian Model for more information about
granular phases, and Sections 25.6.2 and 25.22.3 for details about multigrid cycles.
23.14.5 Wet SteamModel
BoundaryConditions, Initialization, and Patching
When you use the wet steam model (described in Section 23.6: Wet Steam Model Theory
and Section 23.13: Setting Up the Wet Steam Model), the following two field variables
will show up in the inflow, outflow boundary panels, and in the Solution Initialization and
Patch panels.
Liquid Mass Fraction (or the wetness factor)
In general, for dry steam entering flow boundaries the wetness factor is zero.
Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)
In general this value is set to zero, indicating zero droplets entering the domain.
SolutionLimitsfor the Wet SteamModel
When you activate the wet steam model for the first time, a message is displayed indicat-
ing that the Minimum Static Temperature should be adjusted to 273 K since the accuracy
of the built-in steam data is not guaranteed below a value of 273 K. If you use your own
steam property functions, you can adjust this limit to whatever is permissible for your
data.
To adjust the temperature limits, go to the Solution Limits panel.
Solve Controls
Limits...
The default maximum wetness factor or liquid mass fraction () is set to 0.1. In general,
during the convergence process, it is common that this limit will be reached, but even-
tually the wetness factor will drop below the value of 0.1. However, in cases where the
limit must be adjusted, you can do so using the text user interface.
define models multiphase wet-steam
set
max-liquid-mass-
fraction
i
Note that the maximum wetness factor should not be set beyond 0.2
since the present model assumes a low wetness factor. When the wetness
factor is
greater than 0.1, the solution tends to be less stable due to the large source
terms in the trans port equations. Thus, the maximum wetness factor has
been set to a default value of 0.1, which corresponds to the fact that most
nozzle and turbine flows will have a wetness factor less that 0.1.
SolutionStrategiesfor the Wet SteamModel
If you face convergence difficulties while solving wet steam flow, try to initially lower
the CFL value and use first-order discretization schemes for the solution. If you are still
unable to obtain a converged solution, then try the following solver settings:
1. Lower the under-relaxation factor for the wet steam equation below the current set
value. The under-relaxation factor can be found in the Solution Controls panel.
Solve Controls Solution...
2. Solve for an initial solution with no condensation. Once you have obtained a proper
initial solution, turn on the condensation.
To turn condensation on or off, go to the Solution Controls panel.
Solve Controls
Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Wet Steam in the Equations list. When
doing so, you are preventing condensation from taking place while still computing
the flow based on steam properties. Once a converged flow field is obtained, turn
the Wet Steam equation back on again and compute the mixture solution.
23.15 Postprocessing for MultiphaseModeling
Each of the three general multiphase models provides a number of additional field func-
tions that you can plot or report. You can also report flow rates for individual phases
for all three models, and display velocity vectors for the individual phases in a mixture
or Eulerian calculation.
Information about these postprocessing topics is provided in the following subsections:
Section 23.15.1: Model-Specific Variables
Section 23.15.2: Displaying Velocity Vectors
Section 23.15.3: Reporting Fluxes
Section 23.15.4: Reporting Forces on Walls
Section 23.15.5: Reporting Flow Rates
23.15.1 Model-SpecificVariables
When you use one of the general multiphase models, some additional field functions
will be available for postprocessing, as listed in this section. Most field functions that
are available in single phase calculations will be available for either the mixture or each
individual phase, as appropriate for the general multiphase model and specific options
that you are using. See Chapter 30: Field Function Definitions for a complete list of field
functions and their definitions. Chapters 28 and 29 explain how to generate graphics
displays and reports of data.
VOFModel
For VOF calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the
following additional item:
Volume fraction (in the Phases...
category) This item is available for each
phase.
The variables that are not phase specific are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure... and
Velocity... categories) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be
available only for calculations that include the energy equation.
MixtureModel
For calculations with the mixture model, you can generate graphical plots or alphanu-
meric reports of the following additional items:
Diameter (in the Properties... category)
This item is available only for secondary phases.
phase.
The variables that are not phase specific are available (e.g., variables in the Pressure...
category) represent mixture quantities. Thermal quantities will be available only for
calculations that include the energy equation.
EulerianModel
For Eulerian multiphase calculations you can generate graphical plots or alphanumeric
reports of the following additional items:
Diameter (in the Properties... category)
This item is available only for secondary phases.
Granular Conductivity (in the Properties...
category) This item is available only for granular
phases.
Granular Pressure (in the Granular Pressure...
category) This item is available only for granular
phases.
Granular Temperature (in the Granular Temperature...
category) This item is available only for granular phases.
phase.
The availability of turbulence quantities will depend on which multiphase turbulence
model you used in the calculation. Thermal quantities will be available (on a per-phase
basis) only for calculations that include the energy equation.
MultiphaseSpecies Transport
For calculations using species trans port with either of the multiphase models, you can
generate graphical plots or alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:
Mass Fraction of species-n (in the Species...
category) This item is available for each species.
Mole Fraction of species-n (in the Species...
Molar Concentration of species-n (in the Species...
Lam. Diff Coeff of species-n (in the Species...
Eff. Diff. Coeff. of species-n (in the Species...
Enthalpy of species-n (in the Species...
species.
Relative Humidity (in the Species... category).
Turbulent Rate of Reaction-n (in the Reactions...
Rate of Reaction (in the Reactions... category).
Mass Transfer Rate n (in the Phase Interaction... category)
This item is available for each mass transfer mechanism that you defined.
Thermal quantities will be available only for calculations that include the energy equation.
Wet SteamModel
FLUENT provides a wide range of postprocessing information related to the wet steam
model.
The wet steam related items can be found in Wet Steam.... category of the variable
selection drop-down list that appears in the postprocessing panels.
Liquid Mass Fraction
Liquid Mass Generation Rate
Log10(Droplets Per Unit Volume)
Log10(Droplets Nucleation Rate)
Steam Density (Gas-Phase)
Liquid Density (Liquid-Phase)
Mixture Density
Saturation Ratio
Saturation Pressure
Saturation Temperature
Subcooled Vapor Temperature
Droplet Surface Tension
Droplet Critical Radius (microns)
Droplet Average Radius (microns)
Droplet Growth Rate (microns/s)
23.15.2 Displaying VelocityVectors
For mixture and Eulerian calculations, it is possible to display velocity vectors for the
individual phases using the Vectors panel.
Display
Vectors...
To display the velocity of a particular phase, select Velocity in the Vectors Of drop-
down list, and then select the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. You can also
choose Relative Velocity to display the phase velocity relative to a moving reference frame.
To display the mixture velocity ~v
m
(relevant for mixture model calculations only),
select Velocity (or Relative Velocity for the mixture velocity relative to a moving reference
frame), and mixture as the Phase. Note that you can color vectors by values of any
available variable, for any phase you defined. To do so, make the appropriate
selections in the Color by and following Phase drop-down lists.
23.15.3 Reporting Fluxes
When you use the Flux Reports panel to compute fluxes through boundaries, you will be
able to specify whether the report is for the mixture or for an individual phase.
Report
Fluxes...
Select mixture in the Phase drop-down list at the bottom of the panel to report fluxes for
the mixture, or select the name of a phase to report fluxes just for that phase.
23.15.4 Reporting Forces on Walls
For Eulerian calculations, when you use the Force Reports panel to compute forces or
moments on wall boundaries, you will be able to specify the individual phase for which
you want to compute the forces.
Report
Forces...
Select the name of the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list on the left side of the
panel.
23.15.5 Reporting Flow Rates
You can obtain a report of mass flow rate for each phase (and the mixture) through each
flow boundary using the report/mass-flow text command:
report mass-
flow
When you specify the phase of interest (the mixture or an individual phase), FLUENT
will list each zone, followed by the mass flow rate through that zone for the specified
phase. An example is shown below.
/report> mf
(mixture water air)
domain id/name [mixture] air
zone 10 (spiral-press-outlet): -1.2330244
zone 3 (pressure-outlet): -9.7560663
zone 11 (spiral-vel-inlet): 0.6150589
zone 8 (spiral-wall): 0
zone 1 (walls): 0
zone 4 (velocity-inlet): 4.9132133
net mass-flow: -5.4608185

Modelling Multi Phase Flow

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Modelling Multi Phase Flow

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

23-1 c Flue nt Inc.

Septe mber 29,

g is the gravity vector, |

g | is the gravity magnitude, g is

The collisional dissipation of energy,

, for example, corresponds to water creeping up the side of

S-ar putea să vă placă și