Metrology

METROLOGY FOR
NON-METROLOGISTS
Rocío M. Marbán
Julio A. Pellecer C.
2002
iii
To contact the authors:
2001 Producción y Servicios Incorporados S.A.

Calzada Mateo Flores 5-55, Zona 3 de Mixco
Guatemala, Centro América
Tel.: (502)431-0662
Fax: (502)434-0692
email: psi2001@itelgua.com
ISBN 99922-770-1-7
© OAS, 2002
iv
This English version of the second revised edition is pub-
lished under the sponsorship of SIM.
The Interamerican Metrology System, SIM (Sistema

Interamericano de Metrología, Normalización, Acreditación
y Calidad) is the regional organization for metrology in
America, comprising national metrology institutes from the
34 member nations represented at the Organization of the
American States, OAS, which acts as its Executive Sec-
retariat.
The opinions stated in this document are not necessarily

opinions of the OAS, its bodies or its staff.
v
vi
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ix
Presentation xi
Introduction 1
What we measure and how 11
Characterization of metrology 19
Vocabulary 21
Applications - what is measured and

what for 27
Length 27
Mass 28
Temperature 29
Time and frequency 30
Electricity and magnetism 31
Photometry and radiometry 32
Acoustics and vibrations 33
Ionizing radiation 34
Chemistry 35
Standards and reference materials

Introduction 37
Length 39
Mass 45
vii
INTRODUCTION
The initial concept of metrology derives from its

etymology: from the Greek metros - measure, and
logos - treaty. This concept is certainly as old as
human beings: “I have nothing”, “I have something”,
“I have much”; these expressions reflect a primi-
tive comparison that is still valid and presently we
can say that metrology is the science of mea-
surements and that to measure is to compare with
something (a unit) which is taken as the basis for
comparison.
Measurements for primitive human beings began

with the ideas of: near-far, fast-slow, light-heavy,
clear-dark, hard-soft, cold-hot, quiet-noisy. At
first these were personal perceptions, but experi-
ence and life in common gave rise to comparisons
between persons and, through the ages, to gener-
ally accepted bases for comparison.
Thus, after several millennia, it is easy to think of

bases for comparison of personal concepts - in
other words: measurements and their units.
1
Metrology for non-metrologists
Some of these measurements and units are basic:
MEASURE UNIT
length metre (meter)

mass kilogram
time second
temperature kelvin
intensity of light candela
electric current ampere
amount of substance mol
For other purposes, not covered by the above, it is

often necessary to use other measurement units,
called derived units because they use or are based
on the base units. That is, using mathematical al-
gorithms, a unit is expressed algebraically in terms
of other units.
To enter the realm of units based on one or more

fundamental units, is to enter a world of scientific
algorithms for specific purposes, which is why de-
rived units are more numerous.
A unit is a value in terms of which a quantity may

be described. It must be stressed that, qua unit, it
must not be broken down into its elements. Mul-
2
Introduction
tiples and sub-multiples are used to express quan-

tities larger or smaller than those of the unit per se.
We will see later on that in the International Sys-
tem of Units multiples and sub-multiples are deci-
mal, that is, they use powers of 10.
We mentioned using something with which to com-

pare; this something is known as a measurement
standard or simply a standard.
Originally, a standard was considered to be a rep-

resentation or physical embodiment of a unit. It was
necessary to stress that the standard was a trust-
worthy representation of the unit only under a set
of precisely defined conditions, to make sure it was
independent of environmental influences such as
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, etc.
Because of their characteristics, physical standards
were not used to directly take measurements. In-
stead they were the basic reference point for the
manufacture and calibration of the instruments that
are used for such purposes.
Today, thanks to scientific advances, we have more

exact and reliable definitions for the units, based
on universal physical constants, and now a stan-
dard can be defined as: a materialized measure,
3
measurement instrument, reference material or

measurement system, whose purpose is the defi-
nition, materialization, conservation, or reproduc-
tion of a unit, or one or several known values of a
quantity, for transmission by comparison to other
measurement instruments (2).
It is also important that the procedure used to mea-

sure give reproducible results and, in fact, there
are precise instructions on how to carry out the pro-
cedure, which units to use and which standard.
In the real world, we usually measure following this

sequence:
- we decide what we are going to measure,

- we select the unit according to the measure,
- we select the measuring instrument (calibrated),
- we apply the accepted procedure.
Before going into details of the main measures, let

us have a brief, very brief look, at the history of
measurement.
Archeological finds show that very ancient civiliza-

tions had well-defined concepts of weighing and
measuring. Trade, land division, and taxation,
4
Introduction
among others, must have required very soon the

uniformity of measurements.
The appearance of weights and measures systems

goes far back into time. We know little of what was
done in the Far East; however, there is no doubt
that they existed in the Mesopotamian civilizations
and - clearly - it is obvious that the construction of
pyramids in Egypt (3000 to 1800 BC) required
elaborate systems of measurement.
We know, and in some countries we still use, some

of the linear measurements of current usage in
ancient Egypt (the span, the foot, the pace, the
fathom, the cubit).
Also in Egypt, scales were used to weigh precious

metals and gems. Later on, when coins began to
be used as elements of trade, they were simply
pieces of gold or silver, stamped with their weight.
They gave birth to a monetary system that spread
throughout the whole Mediterranean area.
The way we measure time is based on the

sexagesimal system developed in Mesopotamia,
and our calendar is derived from the original 365
days Egyptian calendar.
5
Roman conquest of a large part of the European

continent contributed to disseminate the systems
of weights and measures.
By the beginning of the second millennium AD, the

different measures in use had mutiplied uncontrol-
lably. There were, for instance, different measures
for capacity according to the product, be it wine or
beer, wheat or barley. Measures could also vary
from province to province or from town to town.
England used Anglo-Saxon measures and gradu-

ally tried to improve and simplify its system. For
many centuries, the pound-foot-second system
was the preferred system in English-speaking coun-
tries as well as worldwide for some commercial and
technical uses; to date it has not been totally dis-
carded and is still used for many activities in many
countries.
France created and developed a simple and logi-

cal system, based on the most advanced scientific
principles known at the time (the end of the eigh-
teenth century) - the decimal metric system,
which first came in use during the French Revolu-
tion. It owes its name to the use of the decimal
system for multiples and sub-multiples and to its
6
Introduction
base unit: the metre, mètre in French, which is it-

self derived from the Greek metron, meaning mea-
sure. In its first version, the metre was defined as
one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant of the
earth’s meridian (i.e. one ten-millionth of an arc
representing the distance between the Equator and
the North Pole) and it was determined by measur-
ing an arc of meridian between Dunkerque, in
France, and Barcelona, in Spain. The history, vi-
cissitudes, development and application of this sys-
tem are amply documented (1,18).
Metrologists are very active and there are con-

stantly important changes and improvements in all
aspects of measurements. Growing cooperation
between metrologists from different countries is also
helping to establish internationally accepted work
procedures. There are now uniform methods of
measurement so we can all work on the basis of
the same known quantity or unit, and the results of
any calibration, verification and test, in any labora-
tory or enterprise, are a guarantee of compatibility
and quality.
In consonance with the global approach, more and

more countries are adopting the International Sys-
tem of Units (SI) based on the decimal metric sys-
7
tem, with the subsequent adoption of the corre-

sponding standards and measurements tech-
niques.
Forty-eight countries have subscribed the Metre

Convention, that adopted the International System
of Units (SI). The Convention gives authority to the
Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures
(CGPM - General Conference on Weights and Mea-
sures), the Comité International des Poids et
Mesures (CIPM - International Committee on
Weights and Measures) and to the Bureau Inter-
national des Poids et Mesures (BIPM - International
Office of Weights and Measures), to act interna-
tionally in matters pertaining to metrology.
CGPM is constituted by representatives of the

member countries and it holds meetings every four
years in Paris, France for: discussion and exami-
nation of agreements for the improvement and dis-
semination of the International System of Units (SI),
validation of advances and results of new funda-
mental metrological determinations, scientific inter-
national resolutions, and decisions pertaining to the
organization and development of the BIPM.
8
Introduction
In search of a world-wide unification of physical

measurements, the BIPM:
- establishes fundamental standards and

scales for the main physical quantities,
- carries out and coordinates determinations
related to physical constants,
- preserves international prototypes,
- coordinates comparisons with standards
kept at the National Laboratories of
Metrology,
- ensures coordination of the measurement
techniques.
9
10
WHAT WE MEASURE AND HOW
The units of the International System of Units (SI)

are established by the General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) with authority over
the International Office of Weights and Measures
BIPM, with headquarters in France. In what follows,
the international definitions for the units are those
published by BIPM, as of June 2002.
CGPM decided to base the SI on seven well-de-

fined units. These are known as base units and
they are listed in Table 1.
Originally, the base or fundamental units were so

called because they were considered to be mutu-
ally independent and because, from them, all other
units could be derived. The corresponding stan-
dards were material embodiments, kept in agreed
locations, under strictly determined conditions.
Thanks to scientific and technical advances, and
the availability of more exact instruments, the base
units, with the single exception of the kilogram, are
now defined differently, based on physical experi-
ments. It can be argued that in some cases base
units are no longer mutually independent. For
11
TABLE 1
Base Units of the SI
Quantity Symbol Unit
length m metre
mass kg kilogram
time s second
electric current A ampere
thermodynamic
temperature K kelvin
amount of
substance mol mol
luminous
intensity cd candela
12
What we measure
instance, the metre is no longer defined

against the former prototype metre - an iri-
dium-platinum bar - and the current defini-
tion involves the concept of second, another
base unit. Similarly, the candela, the base
unit for luminous intensity, is defined in terms
of the hertz (s-1) and the watt (m2.kg.s3), both
derived units, and of the steradian, a supple-
mentary non-dimensional unit.
However, taken as the set of both base and de-

rived units, the SI is considered to be a coherent
system because:
- the base units are defined in terms of physical

constants (Appendix 1), with the sole
exception of the kilogram, defined in terms
of a prototype,
- each quantity is expressed in terms of a
single unit, obtained by multiplication or
division of the base units and of the non-
dimensional derived units,
- multiples and sub-multiples are obtained by
multiplication by an exact power of ten,
- derived units can be expressed strictly in
terms of the base units, that is, they have no
numerical factor other than the number 1.
13
The work that is being done for the definition and

the improvement of SI units always strives to have
units consistent with those that already exist.
As we mentioned before, the base units give rise

to a large number of other units; Appendix 2 lists
some of those considered SI derived units.
Two derived units, known formerly as “supplemen-

tary” units, deserve special mention. They are the
radian (rad), used to measure plane angles, and
the steradian (sr), used to measure solid angles.
They are also called non-dimensional units. The
neper and the bel, of accepted use although they
are not integrated into the SI, are also non-dimen-
sional units.
The SI also has a set of rules and conventions that

have to do with the use of mixed units, how to se-
lect and identify prefixes, the use of multiples and
sub-multiples, spelling conventions, use of capitali-
zation, use of singulars and plurals, how to group
digits of numerical values, decimal marker, round-
ing out of numerical values, etc.(16,30,37)
These rules are not yet uniformly applied; for in-

stance, in several countries of America, the dot and
14
What we measure
not the comma is used as the decimal sign or

marker. In any case, it is important to be aware of
these rules and for more detailed information on
the subject we recommend consulting some of the
references (16,37,40,46).
There are also some units that do not belong to

the SI but that are accepted for use with it. They
are sometimes called additional units and are listed
in Table 2.
Some of those are accepted temporarily, until their

use is no longer necessary and they are substi-
tuted by the approved units; in some cases their
use is limited to specialized fields, as for example
the carat (ct) in jewelry. There are other units, out-
side the SI(40,46), still in use in some countries and
some contexts, such as the dyne and the stokes.
If we now look at the hierarchical structure of mea-

surement standards, we see we can describe it as
a pyramid. At the top, we have the set of standards
that corresponds to the SI base units, of which we
have already spoken.
The second position is taken up by the set of na-

tional standards.
15
At the next level, we find the reference standards

that will be used to prepare the working standards
to be used in turn for operational work.
The set of operational standards (working stan-

dards) is the base of the pyramid.
The chain of organizations in charge of the opera-

tion of the SI, is headed by the BIPM, followed by
the National Metrology Institutes, the Calibration
Laboratories and, finally the working Laboratories.
The national metrology institutes have custody of

the national standards, and the responsibility for
dissemination of the SI units to accredited calibra-
tion laboratories in their respective countries.
The calibration laboratories are in charge of verify-

ing that measuring equipment as well as reference
and working standards comply with the national
standards.
The testing and assay laboratories, at the opera-

tional level, are in charge of evaluating conformity
for the products that are to be certified. To do this,
they use reference standards, calibrated using the
national standards of the upper level.
16
What we measure
TABLE 2
Additional units accepted for use with the SI
Name Symbol Expression in terms

of SI units
Time:
minute min 1 min = 60 s
hour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
day d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
Plane angle:
degree o
1o = (π/180) rad
minute ’ 1’ = (1/60)o = (π/10 800) rad
second ” 1”= (1/60)’ = (π/648000) rad
Volume:
liter l, L(a) 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
Mass:
ton,
metric ton t 1 t = 103 kg
a) The alternative symbol for the liter, “L”, was adopted by the CGPM in
order to avoid the risk of confusion between the letter l and the number
1. The script letter is not approved for the liter.
b) Other additional units are: the electronvolt (eV), the unified atomic mass
unit (u), and the astronomical unit (ua).
17
Finally, we find those organizations and entities

working with operational or working standards,
used by industry and others, and that are normally
calibrated against reference standards, which, in
turn, have been calibrated using national standards.
An important concept in metrology is that of trace-

ability. It refers to the property of a measurement
or of the value of a standard, to be related to es-
tablished references, normally national or interna-
tional standards, through a continuous chain of
comparisons, all of them with known uncertainties.
The possibility of determining traceability in any
measurement relies on the concept and the actions
of calibration and on the hierarchical structure of
the standards we have already mentioned.
For metrologists, calibration is: a set of operations

that establish, under specified conditions, the rela-
tion between the values shown by a measuring in-
strument, a measuring system, the values repre-
sented by a materialized measure or by a refer-
ence material, and the corresponding values of the
quantities established by the standards. The term
is sometimes misapplied to a process of compari-
son or verification that is used to verify that be-
tween the values shown by a measuring instrument
18
What we measure
or system and the known values of the measured

quantity, the differences are below the maximum
tolerance (2).
On the other hand, metrologists usually take into

consideration the main causes of errors in mea-
surements; they may or may not be known and
controllable and can be due to factors of the envi-
ronment where the measurements are taken, to
defects of construction or calibration of the instru-
ments, to operator mistakes, to the interpretation
itself of the data, or simply to fortuitous factors.
CHARACTERIZATION OF METROLOGY
For convenience, a distinction is often made be-

tween the several fields of application of metrol-
ogy, into: Scientific Metrology, Legal Metrology, and
Industrial Metrology.
Scientific metrology
This is the set of actions taken to develop primary

standards of measurement for the base units and
the derived units of the International System of Units
(SI).
19
Legal metrology
According to the International Organization for Le-

gal Metrology (OIML) “legal metrology is the en-
tirety of the legislative, administrative and techni-
cal procedures established by, or by reference to
public authorities, and implemented on their behalf
in order to specify and to ensure, in a regulatory or
contractual manner, the appropriate quality and
credibility of measurements related to official con-
trols, trade, health, safety and the environment”.
Industrial metrology
The function of industrial metrology is mainly the

proper calibration, control and maintenance of all
measuring equipment used in production, inspec-
tion and testing. The purpose is to guarantee that
the products will comply with quality standards. The
equipment is controlled at set times and in such a
way that the uncertainty of the measurements will
be known. Calibration is done against certified
equipment, with a known valid relation to standards
such as, for instance, the national reference stan-
dards.
20
What we measure
VOCABULARY
To understand each other, metrologists use an in-

ternationally approved vocabulary, the International
Metrology Vocabulary (VIM)(54); some of the most
common definitions follow:
Quantity (measurable)
attribute of a phenomenon, body or substance that
may be distinguished qualitatively and determined
quantitatively.
Base quantity
one of the quantities that, in a system of quantities,
are conventionally accepted as functionally inde-
pendent of one another.
Derived quantity
quantity defined, in a system of quantities, as a func-
tion of base quantities of that system.
Dimension of a quantity
expression that represents a quantity of a system
of quantities as the product of powers of factors
that represent the base quantities of the system.
21
Quantity of dimension one, dimensionless quantity

quantity in the dimensional expression of which all
exponents of the dimensions of the base quanti-
ties reduce to zero.
Unit (of measurement)

particular quantity, defined and adopted by conven-
tion, with which other quantities of the same kind
are compared in order to express their magnitudes
relative to that quantity.
Base unit (of measurement)

unit of measurement of a base quantity in a given
system of quantities.
Value (of a quantity)

magnitude of a particular quantity, generally ex-
pressed as a unit of measurement multiplied by a
number.
Measurement
set of operations having the object of determining
a value of a quantity.
Measurand
particular quantity subject to measurement.
22
What we measure
Accuracy of measurement
closeness of the agreement between the result of
a measurement and a true value of the measurand.
Repeatability (of results of measurements)

Closeness of the agreement between the results
of successive measurements of the same
measurand carried out under the same conditions
of measurement.
Reproducibility (of results of measurements)

closeness of the agreement between the results of
measurements of the same measurand carried out
under changed conditions of measurement.
Uncertainty of measurement
parameter, associated with the result of a measure-
ment, that characterizes the dispersion of the val-
ues that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand.
Material measure
device intended to reproduce or supply, in a per-
manent manner during its use, one or more known
values of a given quantity.
23
Measurement standard, etalon

material measure, measuring instrument, reference
material or measuring system intended to define,
realize, conserve or reproduce a unit or one or more
values of a quantity to serve as a reference. Stan-
dards may be international (recognized through
international agreement) or national (recognized by
national agreement).
Primary standard
standard that is designated or widely acknowledged
as having the highest metrological qualities and
whose value is accepted without reference to other
standards of the same quantity.
Secondary standard
standard whose value is assigned by comparison
with a primary standard of the same quantity.
Reference standard
standard, generally having the highest metrologi-
cal quality available at a given location or in a given
organization, from which measurements made
there are derived.
24
What we measure
Working standard
standard that is used routinely to calibrate or check
material measures, measuring instruments or ref-
erence materials.
Transfer standard
standard used as an intermediary to compare stan-
dards.
Traceability
property of the result of a measurement or the value
of a standard whereby it can be related to stated
references, usually national or international stan-
dards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons
all having stated uncertainties.
Reference material (RM)

material or substance one or more of whose prop-
erty values are sufficiently homogeneous and well
established to be used for the calibration of an ap-
paratus, the assessment of a measurement
method, or for assigning values to materials.
Certified reference material (CRM)

Reference material, accompanied by a certificate,
one or more of whose property values are certified
by a procedure which establishes traceability to an
25
accurate realization of the unit in which the prop-

erty values are expressed, and for which each cer-
tified value is accompanied by an uncertainty at a
stated level of confidence.
Note: because not all countries use the same sys-

tem to write numbers, it must be stated that in this
document we use the comma as the decimal
marker and an “x” for the multiplication sign. Thus,
for instance, we shall write 6,023 x 1023 and not
6.023 x 1023. Most English-speaking countries use
the period or full stop as the decimal marker.
26
APPLICATIONS
A possible question is: what do we measure for?

Without going into details and without any pretense
at being exhaustive, let us look at some answers,
restricted to main aspects.
As can be expected, different applications require

different actions which are done with different lev-
els of reliability; in metrology this is known as “un-
certainty”, an interval of confidence in the results
of the measurements.
Length
Measurement of length, or the determination of dis-

tance, is used in dimensional measurements such
as: areas, volumes, capacities, speed and veloc-
ity, roundness. Length is present in the definition
of the radian and the steradian, the non-dimen-
sional units used to measure angles. In general,
we could say that it is used in any determination of
the shape of an object.
Many fields of human endeavor require dimensional

measurements: geodesy, real estate and the prop-
erty and use of land, construction and maintenance
27
of roads, highways, streets and avenues, building

of dwellings, all manufacturing industry, machine
tools, odometers to calculate charges for car rent-
als, many commercial aspects. It is probably in the
manufacturing industry where the influence of good
length measurements is more striking. The indus-
tries of apparel, furniture, automotive, accessories,
home appliances, scientific and medical instru-
ments, electronic equipment and many more, re-
quire parts that must fit properly into each other, as
well as exact measures in the final consumer prod-
ucts.
Mass
The need to know mass quantitatively is present in

most human activities. This explains the wide range
of standards and instruments used to determine
mass. Without going into details we can mention:
industry - administration (purchasing, storehouses,
etc.), production (processes and control), sales
(orders and shipments); laboratories (research and
control); trade (all transactions); science (even in
theoretical occupations). The amounts to be deter-
mined can go from the mass of the electron to the
mass of the universe, through that of mosquitoes,
hamburgers, human beings, vehicles, etc.
28
Applications
Normally, everything that is produced, sold or ex-

changed, is related, directly or indirectly, to mass;
which is why we can say that application of metrol-
ogy in its mass aspect is omnipresent at all levels
in everyday life.
Temperature
The sensation of heat or cold is a common one for

living beings and the concept of temperature and
its measurement are present in countless human
activities.
Our first contact with scientific measurement of tem-

perature is usually the home thermometer. We thus
think immediately of medical applications and, par-
ticularly, measurement of body temperature in sick
people, with the importance it can have for the evo-
lution of some ailments. But correct temperature
measurements are also required for the manufac-
ture of pharmaceuticals, the use of diagnosis tech-
niques, clinical analysis, sterilization of clinical and
hospital materials.
Food preparation and the techniques for its con-

servation require temperature measurements;
29
these can be empirical for home use but industry

demands accuracy in its measurements.
Dyeing of fabrics, manufacture of all types of ce-

ramics, paints and enamel for home appliances and
for vehicles, generation of energy, refrigerated
transport, air conditioning, and many more human
activities, require correct determinations of tem-
perature.
Time
Measurement of time is useful not only to make

sure we are punctual or to determine the winner in
a race! There are obvious applications in daily life
(getting up at a certain time; buses, trains and air-
planes being on time, control of working hours for
payment of salaries, control of time for telecom-
munication charges, etc.). There are also many
industrial processes, many medical techniques, that
rely on exact measurements of time.
Other applications include the use of taximeters

(based on time only, or on a combination of time
and distance), timekeepers, speedometers.
30
Applications
Synchronization of activities such as those on the

stock exchange and the military, launching and
coupling of spacecraft, etc. demand exact measure-
ments of time.
In general terms, we can speak of watches and

chronometers (either of type I with digital electronic
circuits, or of type II with analog mechanisms or
synchronous motors) as well as other timepieces
such as those used in vehicle parking meters, au-
tomatic car washers, or the timers of home appli-
ances such as washing machines, dryers, micro-
wave ovens.
Electricity and magnetism
The last two centuries have given birth to count-

less advances toward our current modern devel-
opment; electric motors were built and these con-
tributed to industry, transport and all activities that
require some type of movement. With incandes-
cent bulbs, artificial light radically changed all of
man’s nocturnal activities.
To try to enumerate all current applications of elec-

tricity, properly offered and used, would mean list-
ing all of mankind’s activities for which electricity
31
has to be controlled (i.e. measured), a control that

demands reliable apparatus and systems with a
known accuracy.
Electricity is fundamental for communications, be

it telephones, radio, television, satellite operation.
But, what metrology guarantees with its standards
and its procedures for electricity and magnetism,
is really the reliability in the handling and use of
this resource, rather than the availability itself of
such a resource. During design, many problems of
reliability come up, and the ability to rely on sys-
tems that can ensure the proper behavior of equip-
ment, within set limits, is what makes it possible to
design, plan and implement complex projects.
Also, all of electronics demands reliable (exact, to

the layman) measurements, and this reliability and
reproducibility are due in great part to the advances
in metrology.
Photometry and radiometry
Man has developed many apparatus and devices

that allow him to see no matter what the natural
conditions are and, what is more, that can give him
light intensities that would be difficult to find in na-
32
Applications
ture. All these apparatus demand reliable measure-

ment techniques to ensure that the intensity re-
quired is effectively being obtained.
But, even more important, the techniques for physi-

cal and chemical analysis are very often based on
extremely exact measurements of light or radia-
tion. Absorption photometers, black body photom-
eters, photoelectric instruments, spectrophotom-
eters and radiation measurement apparatus rely
for their accuracy on careful calibrations, based on
accepted standards.
Photodynamic therapies are currently being used

for some ailments, ultraviolet light is used industri-
ally, certain wavelengths of radiation are used for
their germicidal properties while others are used
for plant growth, etc.; all these applications need
reliable measurements.
Acoustics and vibration
Exact acoustic measurements are crucial for ap-

plications such as the design of theaters and
auditoria, telecommunications, radio, the manufac-
ture of musical instruments and of sound repro-
duction and transmission devices (including pho-
33
nographs, microphones, amplifiers), the elimination

of bothersome or dangerous sounds (in offices,
production areas, land and air transport), the de-
sign of warning systems such as ambulance and
firemen sirens and certain industrial indicators,
sonar, petroleum exploration, seismographs,
echocardiograms and ultrasound in chemistry and
in medicine for diagnosis and treatment, in indus-
trial applications such as welding.
Ionizing radiation
Medical applications of ionizing radiation are pos-

sibly the better known, under the form of X rays for
diagnosis, and the use of radioactive isotopes for
radiotherapy and as tracers in medical and bio-
chemical research.
Among industrial applications, we can mention the

activation of vitamins, chemical synthesis (such as
that for ethyl bromide), polymerization (polystyrene,
polyethylene), rubber vulcanization, polymerization
of methylmetacrylate, textile finishes for permanent
press fabrics and garments, food processing (cook-
ing, drying, pasteurization, etc.), preservation and
sterilization of foods, control of germination and of
34
Applications
insect infestations in stored grains, “curing” or so-

lidification of finishes in paints and inks, metallurgy,
geochemistry, archeology (C14), thickness measure-
ments, electric power generation.
Chemistry
In scientific and technical activities it is always of

importance to be able to know on which basis to
calculate which and how much of several sub-
stances should be used.
An obvious case is that of the laboratory, clinical or

industrial, but this can also be said of all types of
industrial processes; some, because they handle
very large volumes and small variations can imply
losses of tons; others, because they use very small
amounts and minimal variations can be crucial.
That is to say, the use of standards and reference

materials is the basis for successful production and
the guarantee of quality. As a simple example, the
production and marketing of pharmaceuticals is a
huge field for the application of metrology.
35
36
STANDARDS AND REFERENCE
MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Standards and reference materials are the subjects

to be treated in the next sections, in accordance
with the following scheme: general considerations
of what we measure, the definition of the measure-
ment unit, primary standards, accuracy and uncer-
tainty, and measuring instruments.
On the subject of uncertainty, it should be noted

that there are two schools among metrologists(2).
One of them looks at uncertainty as an element to
denote uniformity of the results in repeated mea-
surements. The other school uses the term to mean
that we are determining differences among the re-
sults. In both cases, we must remember that un-
certainty is simply an interval of confidence in the
results of the measurement. Both points of view
are valid considering the field of application,
whether operational or national metrology labora-
tories. National and secondary laboratories should
apply the 1993 ISO “Guide to the expression of
uncertainty in measurement”(28).
37
In the Western Hemisphere, the Inter-American

System of Metrology, SIM, through the work it is
doing, is striving to obtain the highest possible in-
tegration and coherence in metrology aspects
among its members. In 1999, SIM authorities did
a strategic planning exercise. One of the aspects
studied was the determination of which areas
should be the subject of regional and of national
actions. These areas turned out to be: length, mass,
temperature, time and frequency, electricity and
magnetism, photometry and radiometry, acoustics
and vibration, ionizing radiation, and chemistry.
38
LENGTH
What do we measure
We all know intuitively what length is. In practice,

what we really measure is the distance or separa-
tion between two points and, given that the current
definition of standards is nowadays oriented to the
use of physical constants, we must be conscious
that length implies distance.
There are estimates that around 80% of the mea-

surements done in industry have to do with dis-
placements and thus with length. In the year 1800,
an accuracy of 0,25mm was considered proper for
length measurements; today(18) we speak of re-
quired intervals that range from the field of
nanotechnology up to that of geophysics.
International definition of the unit for mea-

surement of length
History
Originally, the metre was defined as one ten-mil-

lionth of the length of a quadrant of the earth’s
39
meridian (i.e. one ten-millionth of an arc represent-

ing the distance between the Equator and the North
Pole) and it was determined by measuring an arc
of meridian between Dunkerque, in France, and
Barcelona, in Spain, cities both at sea level. The
first physical embodiment of the metre, the so-called
mètre des Archives, was built in 1799 on this ba-
sis. Later, with the approval of the “Convention of
the Metre” in 1875, a copy of this prototype be-
came, in 1889, the international prototype of the
metre. This prototype metre, an iridium-platinum
bar which is still kept in Paris, was considered stable
and precise, as well as its copies, and they were
used until 1960, when the definition was replaced
by one based on the wavelength of a given orange-
red line of the spectrum of the isotope krypton-86.
In 1983, the 17th General Conference on Weights
and Measures modified it to the current definition
which is related to the speed of light in vacuum
(299 792 458 metres per second).
Definition
The metre (symbol m) is the length of the path

traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
40
Standards
For the measurements of length to be practical, it

is necessary to transfer from a standard expressed
in terms of the velocity of light, to a physical device
or standard.
For measurements of the order of the metre, inter-

ferometric methods are used. The method consists
of a comparison between the length to be measured
and the wavelength λ of a luminous radiation whose
frequency f has been previously determined with
great accuracy. The reference used is the wave-
length of the radiation produced by a laser, stabi-
lized either in frequency or in wave-length(43).
For instance(43), with an helium-neon laser, stabi-

lized in a methane chamber, wavelengths of
3 392,231 397 327 nm can be measured with a
relative uncertainty of 3 x 10-12; with an argon la-
ser, stabilized in a iodine chamber, wavelengths of
514,673 466 4 nm, can be measured with a rela-
tive uncertainty of the order of 2,5 x 10-10.
There are currently portable models of stabilized

lasers, and with these it has been possible for BIPM
to compare and calibrate in situ in a region without
41
the requirement of several national metrology labo-

ratories having to take their apparatus to Paris for
calibration(19). Thanks to these laser-based cali-
brations, the countries can have their own national
standards.
By following the chain we have already seen, cali-

bration standards as well as testing and operational
standards can be derived from these national stan-
dards, and they may include measuring tapes, rul-
ers and all other devices used in everyday life to
measure length.
In addition to the methods based on light sources,

standard gauge blocks are also used. These are
highly polished, metallic or ceramic blocks, whose
edges have a very high-quality parallelism, and that
can be combined in the required number to obtain
the desired length, with an accuracy according to
their intended use, whether for calibration or op-
erational work.
The gauge blocks, calibrated by interferometry, may

themselves constitute the physical embodiment of
the standard, and, through mechanical compari-
son, secondary standards may be derived from
them.
42
Uncertainties
As mentioned before, stabilized laser standards can

offer relative uncertainties for the measurement of
length of the order of 10-9 and of 10-12.
Measuring instruments
Length, width, height, thickness, diameter, all these

are linear measurements and many instruments
and devices have been developed so they can be
measured simply and with the required accuracy.
We thus find, among others: rulers (wood, metal,

fiberglass or plastic, rigid or folding), tape rulers (of
metal, plastic or fabric), calipers and dividers (high-
precision, for nuts and screws, for gears), microme-
ters, verniers, gauge blocks, depth and angle
gauges, protractors, interior and exterior diameter
tapes, roundness or surface gauges, roughness
testers, etc.
These instruments may be based on mechanical,

pneumatic, optical or electronic methods. Accuracy
tolerances are established in accordance with the
type of instrument and its intended use.
43
44
MASS
What do we measure
The mass of a body can manifest itself in two ways:

one is by a change in its state of motion (inertia)
and the other by its attraction to other bodies.
Let us suppose an imaginary vacuum tunnel, where

we have a perfectly lubricated plane surface so that,
if we place an object on this surface, there is no
friction whatsoever between the surface and the
object. If the object is at rest and we want it to
move, the effort required to move it is an indica-
tion of the mass of the object.
In the same tunnel, under the same conditions, if

we remove the plane surface, the object falls down,
attracted by planet Earth, and this is another mani-
festation of its mass.
In both cases, we would have the measure of the

mass of the object: in the first, by the measure of
the effort to move the object, and in the second, by
the measure of its fall.
45
In other words, mass is the quantity of matter con-

tained in a given body while weight is the result of
the attraction of planet Earth on that body.

surement of mass
History
The mass unit, the kilogram, was originally defined

as the mass of one liter of water at a temperature
of 4o C. This definition was later modified in view of
the practical difficulties of obtaining pure water, and
because the definition involved another quantity:
temperature.
It could be argued that the kilogram is really a mul-

tiple of the gram and that it is the gram that should
be the unit. This has been studied by metrologists
but, for practical reasons, it was agreed to continue
considering the kilogram as the mass unit.
With present knowledge, it has not yet been pos-

sible to define the mass unit in terms of universal
physical constants; thus, based on the agreements
at the 1st and 3rd General Conferences on Weights
46
and Measures in 1889 and in 1901 respectively, it

is currently still defined in terms of a device or pro-
totype. However, the 21st General Conference on
Weights and Measure, in October 1999(13), “recom-
mends that national laboratories continue their ef-
forts to refine experiments that link the unit of mass
to fundamental or atomic constants with a view to
a future re-definition of the kilogram”.
Definition
The kilogram (symbol kg) is the unit of mass; it

is equal to the mass of the international proto-
type of the kilogram.
Standards
The international prototype is a cylinder, thirty-nine

millimetres high and thirty-nine millimetres wide,
made from an alloy of ninety percent platinum and
ten percent iridium. It has an approximate density
of twenty-one and one half grams per cubic
centimetre. It is considered the sole primary stan-
dard for the kilogram. The original prototype -
kilogramme des Archives, manufactured at the
47
same time as the mètre des Archives, is consid-

ered to be the historical prototype.
From a single smelt, in 1889, were prepared: the

international kilogram, four witnesses, and national
prototypes (originally 40 of them to fill the needs of
the countries then signatories of the Convention of
the Metre). These, and those subsequently manu-
factured by BIPM, are sometimes known as “Nox
kilogram”, where “x” is the identification number of
one of these standards.
Because the definition and construction of the unit

are based on an artifact, the unit can never be trans-
ferred more accurately than allowed by mass com-
parison with the international mass prototype.
Taking into account the limitations of the compari-

sons, a hierarchy of the mass standards has been
set up, with the following obligatory characteristics:
48
INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE KILOGRAM

Material: Platinum-Iridium; Density: 21,5 g cm-3
PRIMARY STANDARDS OF THE BIPM

Material: Platinum-Iridium.
NATIONAL PROTOTYPE KILOGRAM

Material: Platinum-Iridium.
PRIMARY NATIONAL STANDARDS

Material: Steel (Brass)
Density: 8,0 g cm-3 (8,4 g cm-3)
SECONDARY NATIONAL STANDARDS

Material: Steel (Brass)
REFERENCE STANDARDS
WORKING STANDARDS
49
Accuracy
With the current kilogram standard it is possible to

measure mass with an accuracy of 1 in 108.
The purpose of standards is to be able to measure

exactly the mass of bodies; this requires multiples
and sub-multiples of the kilogram so that masses
can be exactly determined.
The sets of multiples and sub-multiples of the kilo-

gram must also be represented in the form of mass
standards and compared with one or more kilogram
standards. To do so, multiples and sub-multiples
are grouped in decades related to at least 4 stan-
dards; the most common representation is 1 2 2 5;
thus, a one kilogram mass, m1kg, can be determined
as:
m 100 + m200 + m200 + m500
where:
m100 = mass of the 100 grams standard.

m200 = mass of the 200 grams (N O 1) standard.
m200 = mass of the 200 grams (NO 2) standard.
m500 = mass of the 500 grams standard.
50
Clearly, an analytical laboratory balance requires

a different degree of accuracy than a truck weight
controller scale. Accuracy of mass standards can
be categorized as Ei , Fi , Mi with values going usu-
ally from one milligram to 50 kilograms. High accu-
racy masses correspond to class Ei , fine accuracy
to class Fi , and medium accuracy to class M i .
When studying the accuracy of m1kg, the first com-

position to estimate variability would be:
m1kg - (m100 + m200 + m200 +m500 ) = x
where m1kg is the one kilogram mass standard and

the value of x can belong to any of the E, F or M
classes.
OIML Recommendation R111(41) gives the different

tolerance levels for accuracy of different standards
masses for classes Ei , Fi y Mi. Quality of measure-
ment will be characterized by its uncertainty.
The beam balance is the oldest known instrument

to have been used to measure mass. As long as
the definition of the kilogram remains unchanged,
51
we can only compare mass, never measure it di-

rectly. With contemporary techniques it is possible
to build countless numbers and capacities of in-
struments, adequate for their intended use, be that
in laboratories, industries, commerce, government
agencies, etc. Basic requirements for balances are
that they be stable, exact, sensitive and subject to
calibration.
High accuracy metrology uses mass comparators.

The mass comparator for a national standard must
have a limited interval and good sensitivity (for in-
stance, 1 microgram).
In the past, we spoke of simple balances, with equal

or unequal arms, with or without gliding weights,
combination balances, platform-scales, roman
scales, crane scales, deflection balances, spring
balances and automatic balances with multiple
equilibrium positions; today we also use electro-
mechanical scales which send electrical signals to
determine weight. In view of all possible combina-
tions, we nowadays speak of weighing instruments,
without making distinctions between, for instance,
a balance and a scale.
52
TEMPERATURE
What do we measure
In the case of measurements of what we call tem-

perature, what we are looking for is an indicator of
the heat of a given body. But heat is not the same
as temperature. We can define heat as a form of
energy associated with and proportional to the mo-
lecular motion. What we know as temperature is
really the value of a reading on a measuring de-
vice such as a thermometer. For this reason, we
say that temperature is a manifestation of heat.

surement of temperature
History
The definition of the measurement unit for tempera-

ture has a long and complex history. As early as
1742, Anders Celsius proposed a centigrade scale
of temperature, based on water, with zero at the
freezing point and a value of 100 at the boiling point.
BIPM(19) has compiled the history of the unit, start-
ing from the normal scale of hydrogen of 1878 up
53
to the current international temperature scale (ITS-

90 or EIT-90) of 1990. It is however interesting to
note that a whole century went by until, in 1954,
the 10th CGPM (General Conference on Weights
and Measures) adopted the proposal made in 1854
by William Thomson Kelvin, of defining the unit for
thermodynamic temperature (presently named af-
ter him) in terms of the interval between absolute
zero and a single fixed point. The current definition
was approved by the 13th General Conference on
Weights and Measures, in 1967.
Definition
The kelvin (symbol K), unit of thermodynamic

temperature, is the fraction 1/273,16 of the ther-
modynamic temperature of the triple point of wa-
ter.
The triple point of water is the point where it is pos-

sible to have equilibrium or coexistence of the sub-
stance - water in this case - in its three states: solid,
liquid and gaseous.
When speaking of temperature scales, it is common

to find references to the thermodynamic tempera-
54
ture, to which the international definition refers, and,

also, to the practical scale of temperature.
The practical scale or Celsius scale, known before

as centigrade, is the most commonly used. Its zero
is the freezing point of water, and the boiling point
is defined as 100 oC, both measured under speci-
fied conditions. Under zero of this scale, tempera-
tures have a negative value; which is why we com-
monly say that in a harsh winter, temperature may
go down to minus forty degrees (Celsius degrees).
On the other hand, the thermodynamic tempera-

ture scale is expressed in kelvin by definition, and
has its zero at what is called absolute zero, equiva-
lent to -273,16 oC. Thus, this scale has no nega-
tive values and its intervals are the same as those
of the Celsius scale.
Experts in thermometry usually express tempera-

tures below 0 oC in kelvin, and those higher than
0 oC in Celsius degrees. They also insist on the
fact that the freezing point of water, 0 oC, at normal
atmospheric pressure, occurs really at 273,15 K
while the triple point of water occurs at 273,16 K,
equivalent to 0,01 oC.
55
Standards
The standard for the temperature unit is the physi-

cal embodiment of the international temperature
scale ITS-90. Its purpose is to specify procedures
and practical thermometers, internationally ap-
proved, that allow national laboratories to do direct
realizations of the scale and to determine highly
reproducible values.
This direct realization is done by means of a series

of sealed cells that contain a pure substance; the
substance is in a state that corresponds to a given
temperature which, in turn, represents a fixed defi-
nition point. The fixed definition points were origi-
nally selected so that they would correspond as
closely as possible to the thermodynamic scale.
The data is compiled in the legal document known

as ITS-90. In October 1999(13), the 21st General
Conference on Weights and Measures, invited the
International Committee to work towards extend-
ing the ITS-90 below its present lower limit of 0,65K.
There are many fixed points of definition for the

ITS-90 scale. Some are shown in Table 3.
56
TABLE 3
Some fixed points of definition

for the ITS-90 scale
Temperature Substance State

T90/K t90/oC
from 3 to 5 from - 270,15 Saturated vapor

to - 268,15 He - Helium pressure
83,805 8 - 189,344 2 Ar - Argon Triple point
234,315 6 - 38,834 4 Hg - Mercury Triple point
273,16 0,01 H2O - Water Triple point
302,914 6 29,764 6 Ga - Gallium Melting point
429,748 5 156,598 5 In - Indium Solidification point
505,078 231,928 Sn - Tin Solidification point
692,677 419,527 Zn - Zinc Solidification point
933,473 660,323 Al - Aluminium Solidification point
1 234,93 961,78 Ag - Silver Solidification point
1 337,33 1 064,18 Au - Gold Solidification point
1 357,77 1 084,62 Cu - Copper Solidification point
57
Uncertainties
With the sealed cells it is possible to calibrate tem-

perature measurement devices with a relative un-
certainty of the order of 10-6.
The first thermometer of which we have any refer-

ence was built by the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei,
around 1593. Today, there are several types of
sensors to measure temperature, and all of them
infer temperature through some change in a physi-
cal characteristic (42).
The artifacts most commonly in use are: change-

of-state devices, liquid-expansion devices, thermo-
couples, resistive devices and thermistors, optical
and infrared radiators, bimetallic devices, pyrom-
eters.
The change-of-state devices are indicating labels,

pellets and crayons, lacquers, liquid crystals, grains
and cones, that change their appearance when a
given temperature is reached. They are normally
used for temperatures between 38 oC and 1 780 oC.
The change due to the temperature is permanent
58
so that they cannot be used over again, their re-

sponse time is relatively slow and their accuracy is
not very high, but they are useful for industrial ap-
plications such as soldering or in ceramic ovens.
The home thermometer is the best known repre-

sentative of the fluid-expansion devices. These
thermometers can use mercury or an organic liq-
uid such as alcohol, and some use a gas. They
can work by partial, total or complete immersion.
They can be used repeatedly, they do not require
a source of energy, but the data they give cannot
be directly recorded or transmitted.
Thermocouples are built from two pieces, made of

different metals, joined at one end, and with a volt-
meter; they are accurate, robust, reliable, and their
price is relatively low. Their measurement interval
depends on the metals used and usually is between
- 270 oC and 2 300 oC.
Resistive devices (also known as RTDs) are based

on the principle that a change in temperature brings
about a change in the electrical resistance. When
using metals, the resistance increases with a tem-
perature increase; on the contrary, with thermistors,
the electrical resistance of the ceramic semicon-
59
ductor diminishes with an increase of temperature.

These are stable devices but they have a draw-
back; because they work based on the flow of cur-
rent through a sensor, a certain amount of heat is
generated and can influence their accuracy. RTDs
work at temperatures between -250 oC and 850 oC;
thermistors between - 40 oC and 150 oC.
Optical pyrometers or sensors rely on the fact that

light emitted by a hot body is related to its tem-
perature; they work between 700 oC and 4 200 oC.
Infrared pyrometers or sensors measure the
amount of radiation emitted by a surface; they are
appropriate for temperatures around 3 000 oC. They
are more expensive but both have the advantage
of not having to be in direct contact with the sur-
face whose temperature is to be measured.
Bimetallic devices are based on the different ther-

mal expansion of different metals. Two pieces of
different metals are joined together; upon being
heated, one piece will expand more than the other
when exposed to the same change of temperature,
and the generated motion is transmitted to an indi-
cator on a temperature scale. They have the ad-
vantage of being portable and of not requiring a
source of energy.
60
Other temperature measurement devices used in

metrology are the standard platinum resistance
thermometer, SPRT, the constant volume gas ther-
mometers, CVGT, the radiation thermometers.(55)
Specifications and tolerances are set in accordance

with the type of temperature measurement artifact,
its intended use, and the temperature interval of its
readings. For instance, in industry, between 0 oC
and 100 oC, an accuracy of 1 oC is considered nec-
essary; above 100 oC, the required accuracy
changes to 5 oC (6).
61
62
TIME AND FREQUENCY
What do we measure
The concept of time has always drawn the interest

of philosophers and physicists. Aristotle and New-
ton, among many others, tried to define time(44) and,
more recently, Hawking(17) speaks of real time and
imaginary time.
For practical purposes, time is a concept related to

the order and duration of events; if two events do
not occur simultaneously in a given space, they
occur in a given order and with an interval between
them(9). For primitive man, the first intimation of the
flow of time must have been the daily cycle of day
and night, with the visible movements of the stars.
We may reasonably suppose that longer durations
were later conceived through observation of lunar
phases and of the seasons.
History
Time intervals were initially measured based on the

position of celestial bodies. One of the first artifacts
must have been the sun-dial, based on the obser-
vation that the length of shade changes during the
63
day; it consists of a rod (called style or gnomon),

parallel to the axis of the Earth, that projects its
shade on a quadrant. It is believed to date as far
back as 579 BC and is attributed to Anaximander
or to Thales of Miletus.
Fire clocks were used to measure time during the

night, in closed rooms, or during sunless days, and
were nothing more than knotted ropes, marked
candles or a certain amount of oil. Later on, there
were water clocks of which a very ancient model is
known, with a float, built in China, but whose best
representative is the clepsydra, perfected in
Greece. This instrument was used by Assyrians,
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and its use con-
tinued well into the Renaissance. It is based on the
assumed regularity of the flow of water through an
orifice, and the better models used different diam-
eters at different levels. The clepsydra in turn origi-
nated the well-known and distinctive sand glass or
hourglass.
Mechanical clocks are believed to have their origin

in China; they came to Europe around the thirteenth
century. The first clock moved exclusively by
weights, for which we have a description, was built
in 1364 by Henri de Vick, a German watchmaker,
64
for King Charles V of France. We owe the pendu-

lum clock to Huygens, in 1657; he also developed
the mechanisms that would make pocket watches
possible. A Nuremberg locksmith, Peter Henlein,
created the spiral or royal spring and by the seven-
teenth century, the mechanisms were mostly spring
and balance. Clocks often had additional sound
systems of bells, carillons or “cuckoo”. All of these
gave rise to an important industry and real works
of art.
In 1855, E.D. Johnson built the chronometer. Al-

ready in 1780, Louis Recordon had invented the
automatic chain for pocket watches but it was not
until 1924 when John Harwood used it in wrist-
watches. In the twentieth century, electric watches
and alarm clocks became very common, but the
widespread use of watches really came about when
battery-operated watches became available on the
market; they were originally called digital watches
althought there are also analog models. Presently,
very accurate quartz watches are being manufac-
tured.
The high degree of accuracy for time measure-

ments which can be obtained today is possible with
atomic clocks, used in science - particularly in me-
65
trology. They are stable because the frequencies

produced are only very slightly influenced by ex-
ternal factors such as temperature, pressure or
humidity.
International definition of the units for

measurement of time [13th General Confer-
ence on Weights and Measures, 1967], and
of frequency
Formerly, the definition referred to what we might

call the astronomical second, nowadays we refer
to the atomic second.
The second, (symbol s), is the duration of 9 192

631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
where 9 192 631 770 is the frequency of the en-

ergy involved in said caesium transition; the ground
state is considered to be the state where electrons
are at their lowest energy level; the hyperfine lev-
els represent the smallest energy increase that they
can undergo in that state (6).
66
The derived unit for frequency is the hertz.
The hertz (symbol Hz) is the frequency of a

periodic phenomenon, the period of which is
one second.
The hour (symbol h) and the minute (symbol min),

are not decimal multiples of the second and thus
are not SI units. However, their use is so wide-
spread that they are considered units accepted for
use with the SI (see Table 3). In some cases, it is
also necessary to refer to larger time intervals such
as the week, the month and the year.
Standards
Practical realization of the definition of the second

is done using a caesium atomic clock. It is based
on the fact that atoms, under diverse excitements,
emit monochromatic radiations and can thus gen-
erate a period (the duration of an oscillation) which
can be defined very accurately.
Other standards use other sources of frequencies,

such as the hydrogen maser, rubidium standards,
67
commercial caesium standards, etc. They are suf-

ficiently accurate for most applications, and they
are considered secondary standards.
It is not sufficient to be able to measure time inter-

vals accurately; there must also be a world-wide
scale for comparisons and precise relations; air
transportation timetables are a good example of
the importance of this synchronization.
This demands permanent maintenance of the same

continuous temporal reference as an element in
the practical realization of the standard.
68
Atomic caesium clock(43)
Internal energy of an atom (electrons+nucleus) as-

sumes values which correspond to the diverse quantum states
ot the atom.
The atom has the possibility of carrying out a transi-
tion between one level of energy EA and another level of en-
ergy E B, with emission or absorption of radiation. Frequency
ν of the radiation is determined by the relationship:
h.ν = | EB - EA |
where h is Planck’s constant.

The transition adopted to define the second was se-
lected not only because of its own properties (monochroma-
tism of the radiation which implies a well-defined frequency,
with slight sensitivity to external perturbations), but also due
to technical reasons (among others, the transition frequency
is in a domain of frequencies accessible to current electronic
instruments, ease of use of caesium to obtain an atomic beam
and for detection of ionization).
The caesium clock uses a very precise quartz oscilla-
tor whose frequency is verified by generation of an electro-
magnetic radiation which illuminates a cloud of caesium at-
oms. If the radiation frequency is precisely 9 192 631 770
cycles per second, the caesium atoms become polarized and
can be detected by a magnetic field. If the frequency deviates
slightly, the number of polarized atoms diminishes and this
generates a signal for correction to keep the oscillator’s fre-
quency at its nominal value.
69
Time scales (19)
The International Atomic Time (TAI) scale, is calcu-

lated at the BIPM. In 1999 it was obtained from data from
some two hundred atomic clocks in nearly fifty national me-
trology laboratories. To keep the scale unit of TAI as close
as possible to the SI second, BIPM uses data from those
national laboratories which maintain the best primary cae-
sium standards.
TAI is a uniform and stable scale which does not, there-

fore, keep in step with the slightly irregular rotation of the
Earth. For public and practical purposes it is necessary to
have a scale that does so in the long term. Such a scale is
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is identical with
TAI, except that, from time to time, a leap second is added
to ensure that, when averaged over a year, the Sun crosses
the Greenwich meridian at noon UTC to within 0,9 second.
When fractions of a second are not important, the well-known
“Greenwich Meridian Time or Greenwich Mean Time, GMT”
is practically equivalent to UTC. However, it is recommended
not to use the term GMT but instead to always use the term
UTC.
Diffusion of the scale is done through several

means and may require special reception instru-
ments.
70
It can de done by:
- telephone access to a time service, with an ac-

curacy of up to 50 ms,
- coded hourly signals (for instance, 3 MHz
to 30 MHz short wave, with an accuracy of
10 ms (36), 1350 KHz modulated frequency, etc.)
with accuracies of milliseconds,
- accuracies of 10 ns by reception of television
signals using GPS, Global Positioning
System, based on artificial satellites.
Uncertainties
Current time standards work with relative uncer-

tainties of the order of 10-14 and, in some cases, up
to 10-15.
It has also been calculated that, in a million years

of use, the atomic time scale TAI will differ from the
ideal scale by less than a second.
More than the accuracy, that may not be constant,

the most important characteristic of a UTC scale
(generated at national laboratories) is its stability.
71
Usual measurements of time are done with diverse

types of timepieces (such as clocks, watches and
chronometers) with a greater or smaller accuracy
according to the needs, calibrated with the UTC or
TAI scales. Time interval counters and quartz os-
cillators are also used.
For their part, measurements of frequencies require

very high accuracies in applications such as digital
communication and global positioning systems
(GPS).
72
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
What do we measure
Some materials, known as conductors, have free

electric charges that can move, such as electrons
in metals and ions in salt solutions. In these mate-
rials, in the presence of an electric field, a stable
flow is produced in the direction of the field; such a
flow is an electric current.
Ohm’s Law relates the three basic elements of elec-

tricity with the equation:
E = IR
where E is the electric potential, commonly called

voltage, I is the electric current, and R is the resis-
tance.
Based on this law, the electricity unit could have

been defined through any one of these three ele-
ments. It was decided to define it in terms of elec-
tric current, leaving electric potential and resistance
as derived units.
73
Electric current is a property of matter that produces

electric and magnetic effects. In an isolated sys-
tem, it is constant and produced in packets. The
smallest isolated charge is that of the electron. A
simple manifestation of electric current is obtained
by rubbing with a silk cloth two spheres, of amber
for instance, suspended in a non-conductor mate-
rial; the spheres repel each other because they
have the same electric charge. If the spheres are
of different materials, such as one of amber and
the other of glass, they attract one another because
they have different charges(1).
We can visualize the behavior of electricity and the

interdependence of its characteristics through the
following similarity.
If we have a pipe carrying water, we can charac-

terize it by the amount of water that flows through
the pipe, the pressure at which it flows, and the
properties of the pipe itself. In electricity, the water
pressure would be equivalent to the electric poten-
tial, expressed in volts (V); the amount of water
would be the electric current expressed in amperes
(A); and the friction due to the pipe material would
be equivalent to the electric resistance in ohms (Ω).
74
History
Nearly 2 600 years ago, Thales of Miletus noted

that when amber was rubbed with wool or leather,
it attracted small pieces of hay or feathers.
Some 250 years later, Aristotle commented on the

(electric) discharges produced by a fish - a variety
of eel.
The poet Lucretius described 2 100 year ago the

magnet stone found in the region of Magnesia.
In 1 600, William Gilbert made a clear distinction

between electric and magnetic phenomena; the first
machine to produce electricity through friction was
built 63 years later.
Nowadays, the phenomenon is well known al-

though complex, and closely related to quantum
mechanics.
Appendix 4 lists some of the scientists who have

contributed to the development of knowledge on
electricity.
75
International definition of the units for

measurement of electricity and magnetism
[9th General Conference on Weights and
Measures, 1948]
The ampere (symbol A) is that constant current

which, if maintained in two straight parallel con-
ductors of infinite length, of negligible circular
cross-section, and placed one metre apart in
vacuum, would produce between these conduc-
tors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newtons per metre
of length.
The main derived units are the volt and the ohm.
The volt (symbol V) is the potential difference

between two points of a conducting wire carrying
a constant current of one ampere, when the power
dissipated between these points is equal to one
watt.
76
The ohm (symbol Ω) is the electric resistance be-

tween two points of a conductor when a constant
potential difference of one volt, applied to these
points, produces in the conductor a current of one
ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any
electromotive force.
Standards
The principles and devices used in a standard re-

flect scientific development and the technical fa-
cilities available. Formerly, electric current balances
were used for the ampere, but they had a high un-
certainty. Presently, better results are obtained us-
ing the ohm and the quantized volt, and Ohm’s Law.
Practical realization of the unit is done with a sys-

tem that is itself a standard. The Josephson effect
is used for the reference unit of the volt and the
Hall effect for the resistance. The work carried out
in the realization procedure is complex and requires
specialized apparatus and instruments as well as
highly qualified personnel.
77
Uncertainty
Measurement uncertainty of the electric potential

(volt) in an array of Josephson junctions is of a few
parts in 1010 and for the resistance standard with
the Hall effect of a few parts in109.
The high reliability in the transportation of the Jo-

sephson and quantized Hall systems has given as
a result that national laboratories can have inter-
nationally comparable standard systems.
With current technology it is possible to build ana-

log and digital devices to measure electric current.
As in all scientific work, use of computers facili-
tates, speeds up and gives higher certainty of re-
sults. Measurement work uses extensively digital
processing and knowledge of quantum mechan-
ics, making this high technology work even if the
results are in popular use in apparatus such as am-
pere meters, voltmeters and resistance meters. We
must also make a distinction between measure-
ments of high resolution/low uncertainty - standards
and reference systems - and those for practical ap-
plications.
78
LIGHT
(PHOTOMETRY AND RADIOMETRY)
What do we measure
The different forms of radiant energy include cos-

mic rays, gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet rays, light
visible to man, infrared, microwave, electric and ra-
dio waves (hertzian).
In the case of photometry, we are primarily inter-

ested in the phenomenon called light, one of the
forms of radiant energy, that is energy as electro-
magnetic waves, emitted as photons, and with a set
frequency and wavelength. From the point of view
of the spectrum visible to man, light for him has been
mostly sunlight and its substitutes through the cen-
turies: fire, torches, candles, and all the lamps: oil,
kerosene, gas; electric lighting in the form of incan-
descent carbon filament, tungsten filament, sodium,
neon, fluorescent, vapor of mercury, etc.
History
The study of light goes way back into history. Four

centuries before Christ, Euclides worked on his
79
Optica, however the mechanism of vision was not

identified until the beginning of the seventh cen-
tury. Other researchers have studied intensively this
phenomenon: Ibn al-Haitham in the eleventh cen-
tury, Galileus in 1610, Kepler in 1611 with his Diop-
trics, Descartes in 1637 when he discovered the
law governing refraction, Newton in 1704 with his
treaty on Opticks(53). Later on, Huygens, Fresnel,
Maxwell, Michelson and many more have contrib-
uted to this field of study.
For practical purposes, photometry tries to express

the visual impression of an “average observer”. Dif-
ferent people have different visual perceptions; for
this reason, the International Commission on Light
did a series of measurements in a large number of
persons, in order to be able to somehow define
this “average observer”.
Because human visual response varies with the

wavelength, and the human eye does not perceive
infrared and ultraviolet radiation, work is done on
measuring physical quantities - in this case the en-
ergy characteristics of radiation - and this is the
field of radiometry. Thus, although photometry and
radiometry are two different fields, they are very
closely related.
80

surement of light
History
The unit and its standard have an uneven history(31).

The candela was originally defined in the eighteenth
century; it was based on burning elements and thus
had a very low reproducibility. It was later modified
(Carcel 1800, Hefner 1884) but working conditions
still were a critical factor. In 1880, Violle suggested
using a piece of platinum at a temperature corre-
sponding to the transition point between the solid
and the liquid states. There were problems derived
from the purity requirements of platinum and
Blondel suggested in 1896 the use of a black body
that would keep a constant high temperature; in
1930, Burgess placed the platinum in a thorium cru-
cible inside an induction furnace. Due to the diffi-
culties for realization of the photometric unit, sev-
eral congresses modified the Violle candle, in 1884,
1889, 1909, 1921, 1933, 1937, 1938 and 1954 -
when the candela was recognized as the sixth base
unit, after the metre, the kilogram, the second, the
81
ampere and the kelvin - up to the current definition

approved by the 16th General Conference on
Weights and Measures, in 1979.
International definition of the units of mea-

surement in photometry and radiometry
[16th General Conference on Weights
Measures, 1979].
The candela (symbol cd) is the luminous inten-

sity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012
hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that di-
rection of 1/683 watt per steradian.
The following working units are derived from the

candela.
The lumen (symbol lm) is the luminous flux emit-

ted in a unit solid angle of one steradian by a uni-
form point source having a luminous intensity of
one candela.
82
The lux (symbol lx) is the illuminance of a sur-

face receiving a luminous flux of one lumen, uni-
formly distributed over one square metre of the
surface.
The candela per square metre (symbol cd.m-2)

is the luminance perpendicular to the plane sur-
face of one square metre of a source of which the
luminous intensity perpendicular to that surface
is one candela.
In photometry, we use: luminous flux (lm), luminous

efficiency (lm.W-1), luminous intensity (cd), lumi-
nance (cd.m-2), illuminance (lx).
In radiometry, the units are: the energy flow rate,

or heat flow rate, or power (W), the energy inten-
sity or radiant intensity (W.sr-1), the energy lumi-
nance or radiance (W.m-2.sr-1), the energy illumi-
nance also known as irradiance or thermal flow den-
sity (W.m-2).
83
Standards
Presently, maintenance of photometric and radiomet-

ric standards no longer emphasizes photometric
methods, but rather radiometry based on detectors.
The primary standard at the BIPM relies on a com-
mercial cryogenic substitution electric radiometer, con-
sidered to be one of the most accurate radiometers
available. In addition, when the highest degree of ac-
curacy is not required, there are sets of silicon photo-
diodes that are used as working and transfer stan-
dards. Transfer to national or other standards is also
done using lamps, calibrated by comparison.
Uncertainties
The candela standard is realized with a relative un-

certainty of 3 x 10-3.
In photometry and radiation, the following are used:

radiometers; absorption, black body, polarization, elec-
tric, and photoelectric photometers; integrators, colo-
rimeters, spectrophotometers, spectroradiometers, and
radiation measurers; also, cryogenic radiometers (de-
tector-based radiometers) for standards.
84
ACOUSTICS AND VIBRATION
What do we measure
With the exception of people deaf from birth, hu-

man beings intuitively perceive the concept of
sound. For all animals, sound is an important part
of the environment. For man, particularly, sounds
are involved in communications with others and in
the awareness of external circumstances either
natural or man-made (music, the noise of machines
working, warning bells and sirens, etc.)
Sound can be defined as a mechanical alteration,

such as a change of density, or of particle displace-
ment or velocity, in an elastic medium such as air
or water. We consider a medium to be elastic if it
can go back to its original shape and size once the
alteration that provoked the tension, shear or com-
pression, has ceased.
Based on this definition, we can in turn define a

sound field as an elastic medium where a mechani-
cal alteration, such as a change of density, or of
particle displacement or velocity, is produced and
propagated.
85
In acoustics, we study and measure basic proper-

ties of sound:
- intensity or loudness, determined by the

wave amplitude
- pitch, determined by the frequency or number

of vibrations
- timbre, determined by the additional

vibrations (harmonic sounds) together with
the fundamental vibration
A normal human being cannot hear sounds of a

frequency lower than 16 Hz (infrasounds) or higher
than 20 kHz (ultrasounds or supersonics).
Quantitative measurements of sound began in the

nineteenth century, but it was really in the twenti-
eth century, particularly its last 20-30 years, when
studies have been done on the nuisance and the
hazards of noise on the human auditory system(29).
Recently, in 1999, the CIPM created a Consulta-
tive Committee on Acoustics, Ultrasound and Vi-
bration.
86
The International Standardization Organization,

ISO, has established several standards, strictly in
the field of acoustics, that include aspects such as:
standard tuning frequency, methods to calculate
loudness levels, reference quantities for acoustic
levels, etc.; and an even larger number of stan-
dards in related fields. For its part, the International
Electrotechnical Commission, IEC, has been stan-
dardizing aspects related to microphones and their
calibration, sound level meters, sound intensity, hu-
man ear simulators, etc.
For metrological purposes, the most common mea-

surements in acoustics are: the magnitude of a
sound field and the strength of a sound source.
In practice(29), to measure the strength of a sound

field, we use the sound pressure because it is the
easiest to transform from a form of energy (particle
alteration in the elastic medium) to another equiva-
lent form that is the one usually measured (for ex-
ample, pascal, Pa, equivalent to newtons per
square metre, N/m2).
In the case of a source of sound, characterization

is done by its power.
87
Both the sound pressure and the power of a

source of sound are measured in relative deci-
bels at 20 µPa and 1 pW respectively.
Definition of the units for measurements in acoustics

and vibration
We are familiar with watts in terms of illumination -

we know that we can read comfortably when using
a light bulb of 100 W, while a 25 W bulb will give a
very dim light. In the case of light, this is an arith-
metical relation.
In comparison, sensibility to sound is different.

Sounds of an ordinary conversation are around
1 mW, which we can express as 1000 microwatts
(µW), but soft sounds fall to fractions of 1 mW.
The human ear perceives differences in intensity

exponentially. Thus, if 2000 µW “sound” a certain
amount louder than 1000 µW, then we need 4000 µW
instead of 3000 to perceive the same amount of
increase and, in turn, 8000 µ W are necessary for
the perception of the same increase starting from
4000 µW. The ratios 2000/1000, 4000/2000, 8000/
88
4000, are all equal, thought the differences between

values are not, and it is by ratios that the ear judges.
When a sound has 10 times the power of a second

sound, the ratio is 10, whose logarithm is 1. In this
case, we say that the difference in sound intensity
is one bel (so called after Alexander Graham Bell).
Similarly, if a sound is 100 times stronger than an-
other, it is 2 bels stronger; if it is 1000 times stron-
ger, it is 3 bels stronger. This type of unit reflects
the logarithmic way the ear works.
Because the bel turns out to be too large a unit for

usual measurement needs, we use the decibel.
Thus, a sound will be one decibel stronger than
another when it is 1,26 times stronger, because
0,1 is nearly the logarithm base 10 of 1,26.
This non-dimensional derived unit “one” has been

used to express logarithmic values such as the
logarithmic decrease, the pressure level or the
power level, in acoustics and electrotechnics.
We use the name bel (symbol B) and its commonly

used sub-multiple the decibel (symbol dB) when
using logarithms of base ten; we speak of the neper
89
(symbol Np) when using natural or neperian loga-

rithms. Acceptance of these units is still under study
by the CGPM.
Standards
The basic quantity for all measurements in acous-

tics is the sound pressure. There is no practical
way to obtain a reference source that would gen-
erate a sound pressure of one pascal, and work
continues to find a way of generating or measuring
a sound field in such a way it can be used as a
reference standard. Up to the present, accuracy of
measurements relies on the use of accurately cali-
brated microphones.
For measurement purposes, the acoustic signal is

converted to an electric signal, using a condenser
or electrostatic microphone. In this type of micro-
phone, a diaphragm acts as one of the plates of
the capacitor; the vibration produces changes in
90
the capacitance and these, in turn, produce

changes in the output voltage.
The International Electrotechnical Commission,

IEC, has a set of specifications for standard micro-
phones, both for laboratory and for field work.
Calibration is done using sound calibrators with a

reference sound source. The IEC has established
specifications for calibration using the reciprocity
technique(29), based on condensing microphones.
This technique was selected for its uncertainty level
and has been internationally approved for the real-
ization of the primary reference standard; it is be-
ing refined through studies and world-wide
intercomparisons.
Uncertainties
The minimum sound pressure difference that the

human ear can perceive is 1 dB (one decibel).
However, for many applications, such as those
having to do with the determination of noise and,
particularly, that of aircraft, certification requires
measurements on the order of 0,1 dB; thus, pri-
91
mary references for measurement must have an

uncertainty of around 0,05 dB.
Other measuring instruments are used in addition

to microphones.
To determine pressure in continuous sounds, an

exponential-averaging meter is used, and the val-
ues are expressed in decibels as a sound pres-
sure level. For discrete sounds, it is an integrating-
averaging sound level meter, and the value is ex-
pressed in decibels as an equivalent continuous
sound pressure level.
Intensity of sound is a measure of the magnitude

and direction of the flow of sound energy. It is usu-
ally measured using two microphones and the
sound intensity level is expressed in decibels rela-
tive to 10-12 Wm-2. With measurement of sound in-
tensity, it is possible to determine the power of a
source without the need for specialized environ-
ments, but the method is not yet widespread.
92
IONIZING RADIATION
What do we measure
We call ionizing radiations those highly penetrat-

ing electromagnetic radiations of extremely short
wavelength, at least as energetic as X-rays, whose
radiation is strong enough to remove or add elec-
trons from matter, thus producing ions.
Among ionizing radiations we have: those that pro-

duce charged particles such as α and β radiations
and the proton radiations; those that produce non-
charged particles such as γ rays and x-rays (both
liberate photons) and the neutron radiations.
These radiations may be natural or artificially pro-

duced in particle accelerators such as cyclotrons,
betatrons, synchrotrons or linear accelerators.
History
X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Konrad

Röntgen en 1895. In 1896, Antoine Henri Becquerel
(whose name has been given to the radioactive
material disintegration unit) discovered radioactiv-
ity in an uranium salt. Pierre and Marie Curie
93
showed that all uranium salts were radioactive, as

well as thorium salts, and they also discovered the
radioactive elements polonium and radium, present
in the mineral called pitchblende. Radioactive emis-
sions are not homogeneous and Ernest Rutherford,
in 1899, classified them according to their charges
and their penetrating power, and gave them the
names of alpha, beta and gamma radiations.
Definition of the measurements units for ionizing ra-

diation
The nucleus of a radionuclide can be transformed

or disintegrated spontaneously (see Appendix 5).
Activity is characterized by the average number of
disintegrations per second, and is measured with
a unit called the becquerel.
Another important measurement is the absorbed

dose, the quantity of energy imparted by ionizing
radiation to a unit mass of matter, and it can be
considered the fundamental unit in dosimetry.
The SI does not have base units for ionizing radia-

tion, but it recognizes the becquerel and the gray
94
as derived units; in their simplest form they can be

stated as follows.
The becquerel (symbol Bq) is the activity of a

radioactive source in which one disintegration is
produced per second.
The gray (symbol Gy) is the dose of ionizing ra-

diation uniformly absorbed by a unit mass of mat-
ter, at a rate of 1 joule per kilogram of its mass.
Standards
Because of the variety of emitted particles and of

the alterations suffered by the radioactive sources,
there is no single primary standard for the
becquerel.
Primary references are set up as a blend of instru-

ments and measurement methods, specific to each
type of radionuclide.
As an example, for α emissions, (plutonium 239

and plutonium 240 for instance) a silicon detector
95
is used as a counter in a defined solid angle. A

counter in a sodium iodide crystal well is used for γ
emissions (iodine 123 or iridium 192, for instance).
Similarly, there is no single standard for the gray in

dosimetry. In this case, the methods are based on
colorimetry, ionometry (with highly sensitive instru-
ments that can be used for all radiations), Fricke
dosimetry, thermoluminescence (in radioprotection
and radiotherapy), electronic paramagnetic reso-
nance (for industrial radiations).
Uncertainties
Uncertainties in measurements, both for the

becquerel and the gray, are on the order of 10 -2 to
10-3.
As for the setting up of standards, measurement

instruments are detectors, counters, dosimeters,
calibrators for α and γ rays, ionization chambers,
calorimeters, extrapolation chambers (variable ion-
ization), etc.
96
CHEMISTRY
What do we measure
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry and chemi-

cal engineering that deals with the quantities of sub-
stances that enter into, and are produced by chemi-
cal reactions. Every chemical reaction has its char-
acteristic proportions; they are determined from
chemical formulas, equations, atomic weights and
molecular weights, and from determination of what
and how much is used and produced - that is, the
amount of matter involved. All of stoichiometry is
based essentially on the evaluation of the number
of moles of substances, as a precise indicator of
the amount of substance.
In chemistry, particularly in analytical chemistry, the

amount of matter in a given sample is crucial infor-
mation. It is also an important element in other as-
pects such as concentration of solutions, the de-
termination of pH, etc. In chemical industry, it is
necessary to know the amount of substances used
in the diverse reactions and in the products obtained
from them.
97
History
Chemistry can be said to have been “studied” since

the most remote ages. Metal work (copper, gold
and silver, bronze, iron), ceramics, enamels, pig-
ments, etc., all involve chemical processes to some
degree and this requires a certain amount of knowl-
edge, even if at first this knowledge was eminently
practical.
Around 1460, there was in Florence, Italy, a manu-

script with fourteen treatises, allegedly written by a
possibly fictitious person, Hermes Trismegistus,
and known as the Corpus hermeticum. It is be-
lieved to date back to years 100-300 although, in
view of some references to Egypt, some believe
part of its contents to go as far back as 2500 BC;
this would make it the earliest known recorded
knowledge of chemistry.
Empedocles (500 BC), whom we know through

Aristotle, believed there are four elements in na-
ture: fire, earth, air, and water. The first “atomic”
theory (matter is made up of atoms, infinitely small
and indivisible) of which we have notice is due to
Leucippus (around 475 BC) and his disciple
Democritus. It was taken up by Epicurus (341 BC),
98
the Latin poet Lucretius (De rerum natura), and in

his time, by Aristotle who taught that all matter is
composed of mixtures of these four elements and
that they are not permanent but can change one
into another. This led to the belief that it was pos-
sible to transmute bodies, such as base metals,
into others, such as gold.
The first “chemist” may well have been Jabir al-

Hayian (also known as Jabir or Geber) of the court
of Harun al-Rashid (circa year 786), who studied
Greek documents and to whom a large amount of
written texts is attributed. He is believed to have
mastered the techniques of practical chemistry
known at the time. He based his work on sulfur,
mercury and salt, and wrote instructions on how to
carry out the manipulations.
There is material on chemistry written during the

eighth century in Northern Africa and, with the avail-
ability in Europe of translations from the Arab in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there exist
records of the work performed by the alchemists.
In the fourteenth century one of them, Nicolas

Flamel, is reputed to have been able to succeed in
producing gold; what we know he did produce was
99
a gold fever, during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-

turies: a fever for alchemy, that hermetic and eso-
teric world, to which scientists such as Robert
Boyle, John Locke and Isaac Newton were not im-
mune.
But alchemy, more than a simple search for the

production of gold, began to be a science. It seri-
ously studied chemical reactions, contributed to
many discoveries and new knowledge (for instance:
distillation of aqua vitae or ethanol, preparation of
aqua regia, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, many salts),
and generated countless controversies.
As an example, Robert Boyle in his book The Scep-

tical Chymist (1661) refuted the chemical theories
based on the four elements and on the alchemist
trio (mercury, sulfur and salt), arguing they could
not explain the results of experiments.
For our purposes, possibly the most important

chemist must have been Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
who, in 1789, published his Traité élémentaire de
chimie. Lavoisier always insisted on the fact that
measurements were important in chemistry; quali-
tative observation was not sufficient, it was neces-
sary to work quantitatively.
100
Later, in 1811, Amadeo Avogadro stated the prin-

ciple known by his name: equal volumes of gas at
the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules regardless of their
chemical nature and physical properties. This num-
ber, the Avogadro number, is 6,023 x 1023; it is the
number of molecules of any gas present in a vol-
ume of 22,41 liters and is the same for the lightest
gas (hydrogen) as for a heavy gas such as carbon
dioxide or bromine. Avogadro’s number is one of
the fundamental constants of chemistry.

surement in chemistry [14th General Confer-
ence on Weights and Measures, 1971].
History
Formerly, the mole was defined as the molecular weight

of a substance expressed in grams. Presently, and
although this is not obvious from the way the unit is
expressed, the term is applied to an amount of 6,023
x 1023 (Avogadro’ number) of chemical entities; thus,
we can speak of a mole of atoms, a mole of ions, of
radicals, of electrons, of quanta. Nowadays, when the
101
mole is used, the elementary entities must be speci-

fied and these may be atoms, molecules, ions, elec-
trons, other particles or specified groups of such par-
ticles.
The mole (symbol mol) is the amount of substance

of a system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0,012 kilogram of
carbon 12.
The recent adoption of a derived unit, by the 21st Gen-

eral Conference on Weights and Measures in 1999(13),
is based on a recommendation for the use of SI units
in medicine and biochemistry due to the importance of
avoiding the results of clinical measurement being
given in various local units.
The katal (symbol kat) is the mole per second unit, for
use in medicine and biochemistry for the expression of
catalytic activity.
102
There is as yet no unique primary standard realization

for the mole although work is being done towards hav-
ing reliable standards.
Working standards in chemistry consist of a set of meth-

ods, called primary, together with chemically pure sub-
stances, with a defined titer, and in a known matrix,
the reference materials.
The Consultative Committee on the Amount of Sub-

stance (Comité Consultatif sur la Quantité de Matière
- CCQM) of the CIPM has recommended several meth-
ods as having a high potential for their recognition as
primary methods; among them we have:
Primary methods of direct measurement:
Electrochemistry:
- coulometric titration
- pH measurements
- electrolytic conductivity
103
Methods of classical analytical chemistry:
- gravimetry
- titrimetry
Primary correlation methods of measurement:
- isotopic dilution with mass spectrometry

- nuclear magnetic resonance
- differential calorimetry
As to the materials to be used, let us recall here the

definitions for reference material and for certified ref-
erence material.
Reference material: material or substance one or more

of whose property values are sufficiently homogeneous
and well established to be used for the calibration of
an apparatus, the assessment of a measurement
method, or for assigning values to materials.
Certified reference material: Reference material, ac-

companied by a certificate, one or more of whose prop-
erty values are certified by a procedure which estab-
lishes traceability to an accurate realization of the unit
in which the property values are expressed, and for
104
which each certified value is accompanied by an un-
certainty at a stated level of confidence.
An example of these is the usual certified reference

materials used in laboratories to calibrate instruments,
and to verify methods and reagents.
Uncertainties
In chemistry, uncertainties of results vary according to

the element to be quantified and its concentration. How-
ever, we can speak of levels from 10-3 to 10-4.
All determinations involve analytical techniques and

instruments for those methods considered to be pri-
mary and they have already been mentioned.
105
106
REFERENCES
1. Alonso, Marcelo
Física, Curso elemental
Tomo I, Mecánica; Tomo II, Hidromecánica-Calor;
Tomo IV, Electromagnetismo, física atómica
La Habana Cuba, Cultural S.A., 1953
2. Alvaro Medeiros de Farias Theisen

Fundamentos da Metrologia Industrial
Porto Alegre, 1997
3. Audoin, C.
Caesium Beam Frequency Standards: Classical
and Optically Pumped
Metrologia, 1992, 29, 113-134
4. Benson, Harris
University Physics
New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1991
5. Campos, J. et al
Realization of the candela from a partial filtering
V(() detector traceable to a cryogenic radiometer
Metrologia, 1995/96, 32, 675-679
107
6. CENAM
personal communications
7. Cerruti, L.
The Mole, Amedeo Avogadro and others
Metrologia, 1994, 31, 159-166
8. Clare, J.F.
Realization of a photometric scale based on cryo-
genic radiometry
Metrologia, 1998, 35, 251-254
9. Concise Encyclopedia of the Sciences.

New York, Facts on File,1978
10. Cooter, I.L.

Electrical standards and measurements
Electro-Technology, 79, 53, Jan 1967.
11. De Bièvre P. and H.S. Peiser

The reliability of values of molar mass, the fac-
tor that relates measurements expressed in two
SI base units (mass and amount of substance)
Metrologia, 1997, 34, 49-59
12. Dictionary of Physics,

volume 1
McGraw-Hill, 1993
108
References
13. Draft resolutions 21st. CGPM

(information obtained from the BIPM site on the
Internet)
14. Edwards, C.S., et al

A 633 nm iodine-stabilized diode-laser frequency
standard
Metrologia, 1999, 36, 41-45
15. Gardner, J.L. et al

New basis for the Australian realization of the
candela
Metrologia, 1988, 35, 235-239
16. Guide for the Use of the International System of

Units (SI)
Barry N. Taylor
NIST Special Publication 811
US Department of Commerce, NIST, 1995
17. Hawking, Stephen

¿Se vislumbra el final de la física teórica? in
Agujeros negros y pequeños universos.
México, Editorial Planeta, 1994
109
18. Hopkins, Robert A.

The International (SI) Metric System and How it Works
3rd. revised ed., Tarzana, CA, AMJ Publishing Co.,
1975
19. http://www.bipm.fr
20. http://www.cenam.mx
21. http://www.euromet.org
22. http://www.ibpinet.com.br/sim
23. http://www.lcie.fr
24. http://www.nist.gov
25. http://www.oiml.org
26. http://www.ptb.de
27. International Comparison Final Report

Field: Acoustics; EUROMET
Metrologia, 1997, 34, 197-198
28. ISO Guide to the expression of uncertainty in

measurement
Geneva, ISO, 1993
110
References
29. Jarvis, Duncan

Sound measurements
Metrologia, 1999, 36, 249-255
30. José Dajes Castro

Sistema Internacional de Unidades de Medida
Lima, Perú; INDECOPI, 1999
31. Matamoros García, Carlos H.

La candela, principios y usos
Mexico, CENAM, 1999
32. McGlashan M.L.

Amount of substance and the mole
Metrologia, 1994/95, 31, 447-455
33. McGlashan, M.L.

Entitic quantities, molar quantities and relations
between them
Metrologia, 1997, 34, 7-11
34. National Bureau of Standards

Standard cells, their construction, maintenance
and characteristics
US Department of Commerce, 1965
111
35. NBSIR 75-926

The National Measurement System for Length
and Related Dimensional Measurements.
Part I.
US Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Stan-
dards, 1976.
36. NIST Time and Frequency FAQ

(information obtained from the NIST site on the
Internet)
37. Norma Centroamericana ICAITI 4010

Guía para el uso del sistema internacional de
unidades; contiene factores de conversión para
pasar de unidades de otros sistemas a unidades
SI
Guatemala, ICAITI, n.d.
38. Ohno, Y.
Detector-based luminous-flux calibration using
the Absolute Integrating-Sphere Method
Metrologia, 1998, 35, 473-478
39. Ohno, Y. and J.K. Jackson

Characterization of modified FEL quartz-halogen
lamps for photometric standards
Metrologia, 1995/96, 32, 693-696
112
References
40. OIML D 2 (1999)

Legal units of measurement
France, OIML, 1999
41. OIML R111

Weights of classes E1, E2, F1, F2, M1, M2, M3.
France, OIML, 1994
42. Omega Engineering Inc

http://www.omega.com/techref/measureguide.html
43. Padrões de Unidades de Medidas, Referências

Metrológicas da França e do Brasil
Rio de Janeiro, INMETRO, 1999
44. Park, David

The How and the Why - An essay on the origin and
development of physical theory
N.J., Princeton University Press, 1988
45. Samaan N.D. and F. Abdullah

Computer-aided Modelling of Pressure Balances
Metrologia, 1993/94, 30, 641-644
46. SI Guide, International System of Units

Geneva, ISO, 1998
113
47. Simpson, D.I.

Computerized Techniques for Calibrating Pres-
sure Balances
Metrologia, 1993/94, 30, 655-658
48. Tarbeyev Yu. V., and E.T. Frantsuz

Measuring Procedure to realize the Ampere by
the Superconducting Mass Levitation Method
Metrologia, 1992, 29, 313-314
49. The Boeing Co., Primary Standards Unit

A Precision Electrical Measurement Course
August 1962
50. UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme)

Radiation; doses, effects, risks
Nairobi, Kenya, 1985
51. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of

Standards
Definition of Ampere and Magnetic Constant
Precision Measurement and Calibration
NBS Special Publication 300, vol.3, 1972
114
References
52. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of

Standards
Frequency and time
Precision Measurement and Calibration
NBS Special Publication 300, vol.5, 1972
53. Vasco Ronchi

Optics, the science of vision
N.Y., University Press, 1957
54. VIM, (Vocabulaire International des Termes

Fondamentaux et Généraux de Métrologie)
International Vocabulary of Basic and General
Terms in Metrology
Genève, ISO, 1993
55. Working Group 1, Comité Consultatif de

Thermométrie
On the International Temperature Scale of 1990
(ITS-90), Part I: Some definitions.
Short Communication.
Metrologia 1997, 34, 427-429
115
Appendix 1
Fundamental physical constants and their

relationship to the base units
-8 -6
? 4x10 2x10
RKK
R KkJ
e k
h 2e -8 -6
e2 h 4x10 R 2x10
-7
RK-90 KJ-90
R 4x10
-8
A K 3x10
-9
(10 -9 ) (10 -10 ) 4x10
-15
-8 3x10
? 8x10
mol S
exact
NA
c
8x10 -8 -8
10
-4
-12 8x10
cd m 10
h
?
kg
-3 -12
10 G 8x10
R
m 12 me
c ?
-8 -8
8x10 8x10
Reproduced by authorization of the BIPM
116
Appendix 1
c speed of light in vacuum

h Planck’s constant
α fine structure constant
R gas constant
k Boltzmann’s constant
Kj Josephson’s constant
Kj-90 conventional value of
Josephson’s constant
Rk von Klitzing’s constant
Rk-90 conventional value of
von Klitzing’s constant
e elementary charge
NA Avogadro’s number
G gravitational constant
m12
C mass of carbon 12
me electron mass
R∞ Rydberg’s constant
117
Appendix 2
Some SI derived units
Derived SI derived Name Expression in Expression in

quantity unit terms of other terms of SI
SI units base units
plane angle radian (a) rad m·m-1 = 1 (b)
(b)
solid angle steradian(a) sr(c) m2·m-2 = 1
frequency hertz Hz s-1
118
force newton N m·kg·s-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m-1·kg·s-2
energy, work,
quantity of heat joule J N·m m2·kg·s-2
power, radiant
flux watt W J/s m2·kg·s-3
electric charge,
quantity of electricity coulomb C s·A
electric potential
difference,
electromotive
force volt V W/A m2·kg·s-3·A-1
capacitance farad F C/V m-2·kg-1 ·s4·A2
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2·kg·s-3·A-2
electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2·kg-1 ·s3·A2
magnetic flux weber Wb V·s m2· kg·s-2·A-1
magnetic flux
119
density tesla T Wb/m2 kg·s-2·A-1
inductance henry H Wb/A m2· kg·s-2·A-2
Celsius temperature degree °C K

Celsius(d)
luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr (c) m2·m-2·cd = cd
illuminance lux lx lm/m2 m2·m-4·cd = m-2 ·cd
activity (referred to
a radionuclide) becquerel Bq s-1
Appendix 2
absorbed dose, specific
energy (imparted),
kerma, index of
absorbed dose gray Gy J/kg m2·s-2
dose equivalent,
personal dose equivalent,
organ equivalent dose sievert Sv J/kg m2·s-2
120
(a) The radian and steradian may be used with advantage in expressions for derived units
to distinguish between quantities of different nature but with the same dimension.
(b) In practice, the symbols rad and sr are used where appropriate, but the derived unit “1”
is generally omitted.
(c) In photometry, the name steradian and the symbol sr are usually retained in expres-
sions for units.
(d) This unit may be used in combination with SI prefixes, e.g. millidegree Celsius, m°C.
Appendix 3
Most common multiples and submultiples for use with SI
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor in words
1 000 000 000 = 109 giga G one thousand millions

6
1 000 000 = 10 mega M one million
121
3
1 000 = 10 kilo k one thousand
-3
0,001 = 10 mili m one thousandth
-6
0,000 001 = 10 micro µ one millionth
-9
0,000 000 001 = 10 nano n one thousand millionth
-12
0,000 000 000 001 = 10 pico p one billionth
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Scientists who have worked with electricity
Epicurus (342-270 BC). First hypothesis on magnetism
Roger Bacon (1214-1294). Magnetic repulsion
Peter Peregrinus (1269). First text on magnetism
Cornelius Gema (sixteenth century). Attraction between

lines of force
G. Cardan (1501-1576). Differences between electric

and magnetic phenomena
Nicolo Cabeo (1585-1650). Repulsion
William Gilbert (1540-1603). First electroscope
S. Gray (1696-1736). Classification of bodies that

can be electrified by rubbing
F. Hauskbee (seventeenth century). Superficial

distribution of electricity
122
Appendix 4
C. Du Fay (1698-1739). Electric fluids, good and bad

conductors
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). Lightning as an

electric phenomenon
H. Cavendish (1731-1810). Dielectric constant, electric

capacity and potential
Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806). Quantitative law of

attraction between two poles
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854). Fundamental law of

electricity
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827). Voltaic pile
G. Green (1793-1841). Concept of potential in

electrostatics
J. Karl F. Gauss (1777-1855). Terrestrial magnetism
M. Faraday (1791-1867). Dielectric constant and

magnetic lines of force
Wilhelm Weber (1804-1890). Permanent dipoles
123
Hans C. Oersted. (1770-1851). Magnetism is a

manifestation of electricity in motion
M. Ampere (1775-1836). Two parallel currents are

attracted if they flow in the same sense, and
repelled if in opposite senses
Pierre S. Laplace (1749-1836).
Jean B. Biot (1774-1862).
J. Henry. (1797-1878). Induced electromotive force
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879). Light is an

electromagnetic phenomenon
H. R. Hertz (1857-1894). Verification that the speed of

electromagnetic waves equals the speed of light
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937). Theory of the nuclear

atom
Edwin H. Hall (1855-1938). When a magnetic field is

applied perpendicular to a current-carrying strip, a
potential difference appears across the width of the
strip
124
Appendix 4
Leon N. Cooper (in 1956). In the ground state, at 0 K,

with no external field and no current flowing, all the
electrons form Cooper pairs in which two
electrons have opposite momenta and spin
Briand David Josephson (1940- ). Cooper pairs can

tunnel through a thin (1 nm) insulating barrier
separating two superconductors; since each pair
carries a charge of 2e, a supercurrent is created in
the absence of any applied potential difference
125
Appendix 5
Radionuclides - basic concepts(50)
Atoms of the same element always have the same

number of protons in their nuclei but they can have
different numbers of neutrons. Those with different
numbers of neutrons belong to different varieties
of the same element and are called its isotopes.
They are usually distinguished by the total number
of particles in their nuclei. Thus, uranium-238 has
92 protons and 146 neutrons while uranium-235
has the same 92 protons but only 143 neutrons.
Atoms thus characterized are called nuclides.
Some nuclides, the minority, are stable or produce

such low radiation that they can be considered
stable.
In those that are unstable, every transformation

frees energy and there are many variations for
these sequences of transformation or decay as it
is called. The whole transformation process is called
radioactivity and the unstable nuclides are called
radionuclides. The average number of transforma-
126
Appendix 5
tions that take place each second in an amount of

radioactive material is called its activity. The activ-
ity is measured in becquerels, after the man who
discovered the phenomenon. The transformations
may be natural or man-made by, for instance, neu-
tron bombardment of stable nuclides.
The diverse forms of radiation are emitted with dif-

ferent energies and penetrating power. Alpha (α)
radiations can be stopped by a sheet of paper and
they barely penetrate the outer layers of the skin;
however, they are extremely damaging when they
get into the body through an open wound, or when
they are eaten or breathed in. Beta (β) radiations
can penetrate through a couple of centimetres of
living tissue and gamma (γ ) radiations are stopped
only by thick slabs of lead or concrete.
It is the energy of α radiation that does the dam-

age. The amount of radiation deposited in living
tissues is called the absorbed dose and it is mea-
sured with a unit called the gray.
127
On the other hand, a dose of α radiation is more

damaging (20 times more so) than the same dose
of β or γ radiation; for this reason, the damage po-
tential is taken into account in what is known as
the dose equivalent which is measured in sieverts.
128
Temperature 53
Time and frequency 63
Electricity and magnetism 73
Photometry and radiometry 79
Acoustics and vibrations 85
Ionizing radiation 93
Chemistry 97
References 107
Appendix 1
Fundamental physical constants and their
relationship to base units 116
Appendix 2
Some derived SI units 118
Appendix 3
Multiples and submultiples of common
use with SI 121
Appendix 4
Scientists in the field of electricity 122
Appendix 5
Radionuclides - basic concepts 126
viii
Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Several people and organizations have helped to

make this publication possible. The Organization of
the American States, OAS, and the German Coop-
eration for Development, GTZ, were the first to be-
lieve that such a document could be of use.
For the help received, the authors wish to thank the

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM);
Dr. Gérard Geneves at the Laboratoire Central des
Industries Eléctriques du Bureau National de
Métrologie in France (BNM-LCIE); Dr. Duncan Jarvis,
Acoustical and Noise Standards, of the National
Physical Laboratory of the United Kingdom (NPL,
UK); Dr. Hans-Jürgen von Martens, “Acceleration”
section of the Physikalisch-Technische
Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Germany, Ing. Lester
Hernández from COGUANOR in Guatemala. For its
part, the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology in the USA, NIST, through its Director for In-
ternational Affairs, Dr. Steve Carpenter, made freely
available copies of its specialised publications.
The authors are particularly indebted to the scientific

excellence of the Centro Nacional de Metrología de
México (CENAM) and the contribution of its Director,
Dr. Héctor Nava Jaimes, and the professional staff
ix
of that organization; all of them shared fully and un-
reservedly their knowledge and their work practices.
Several changes in this second edition were sug-
gested by CENAM personnel. We are particularly in-
debted for their valuable comments to Dr. Ismael
Castelazo Sinencio, Director of Tecnological Services
and M.Sc. Rubén Lazos, Scientific Coordinator, both
at CENAM, and to Dr. Luis Mussio, Head of Metrol-
ogy at the Laboratorio Tecnológico del Uruguay
(LATU).
The authors would also like to thank Mr.Hermon

Edmonson and Mr. Allan Foreman of the Bureau of
Standards of Jamaica for their help with the English
version of this publication.
Responsibility for the contents of this publication lies

solely with the authors.
July 2002
x
Presentation
PRESENTATION
The aim of this book is to make available, to those
who are not themselves metrologists, a scientifically
and technically sound document as an introduction to
the main aspects of Metrology in the hope that it will
help them understand its importance.
A study of history shows that the progress of nations

has always been related to their progress in measure-
ments. Metrology is the science of measurements and
measurements are a permanent and integral part of
our daily lives, a fact we often disregard. Metrology
blends tradition and change; measurement systems
reflect a people’s traditions, but at the same time we
are always seeking new standards and ways of mea-
suring as part of our progress and evolution.
Thanks to our measurement instruments and appara-

tus, tests and assays can be done to establish if a
product or service conforms to existing quality stan-
dards and this, in turn, gives an assurance of quality
of those products and services offered to consumers.
Because they facilitate and regulate commercial trans-

actions, correct measurements are fundamental for
governments, for enterprises and for the population at
large. Very often, the amounts and characteristics of a
product are the result of a contract between the client
(consumer) and the provider (manufacturer); measure-
ments contribute to this process and thus influence
xi
quality of life for the population by protecting the con-

sumer, helping to preserve the environment, and con-
tributing to a rational use of natural resources.
Metrology related activities in a given country are usu-

ally the responsibility of one or several bodies, autono-
mous or governmental and, according to their scope
and their field of application, they are characterized as
Scientific, Legal or Industrial Metrology.
Scientific metrology is responsible for the research

needed to produce standards with a sound scientific
basis, and it promotes their acceptance and interna-
tional equivalence. Legal and industrial metrology re-
late to the national use of the standards in commerce
and in industry.
The field of Legal metrology relates to commercial trans-

actions; it seeks to ensure, at all levels, that the client
who buys something is effectively receiving the amount
agreed upon. For its part, the aim of Industrial metrol-
ogy is to promote competitiveness in manufacturing and
service industries, through permanent improvement of
the measurements that influence quality.
As a result of the current dynamics of world commerce,

metrology has become even more important, with a
stronger emphasis on the relationship between metrol-
ogy and quality, measurements and quality control,
calibration, laboratory accreditation, traceability, and
certification. Metrology is the basic core for these func-
xii
Presentation
tions and, when carried out coherently, it can bring or-

der and contribute to the final aim of improving and
guaranteeing quality in products and services.
In every country, Metrology plays a singular role, re-

lated to Government, Enterprises and Population, a re-
lationship known as the GEP model.
From the Government point of view, this model is es-

sential to fully understand the purpose of the infrastruc-
ture required to support the establishment of policies
and regulations for manufacturing products and for
services, both those produced locally and those im-
ported from other countries.
Government must also be aware that the measurement

capabilities of a country are a measure of its level of
technological development in several fields, including
manufacturing and services (such as health, educa-
tion, etc.), and that they directly influence competitive-
ness of enterprises. Internationally, enterprises, and not
governments, are the ones who compete, and one of
the pillars of international competitiveness is quality; it
must be recognized that metrology is a necessary (al-
beit insufficient by itself) condition for quality.
The capacity of an enterprise to innovate is one of the

factors of the competitiveness of the enterprise. Inno-
vation may be applied to production or management
processes, to products, to services, or to any other func-
tion of the enterprise. Permanent improvement of quality
xiii
requires continuous improvement of activities; continu-

ous improvement requires procedures that use mea-
surement parameters, so that the newly implemented
procedures may be compared with what had been used
before. Measurements are, therefore, an integral part
of the innovation process. Change is the only constant
in an environment of continuous improvement. For en-
terprises, the purpose of continuous improvement is
generally to win markets and expand production facili-
ties that, in turn, will open new avenues for growth and
the creation of new jobs.
Metrology is essential to support the control of the prod-

ucts being manufactured and their impact on the well
being of the Population. Communities consume national
and foreign products, and Metrology is called upon to
determine that these products are in accordance with
health and safety standards and specifications.
Metrology’s relationship with population is twofold: with
its influence on the development of enterprises, it indi-
rectly contributes to the creation of new jobs, but it also
helps to protect people by watching over the contents,
the quality and the safety of consumer products as well
as the impact of these products on the environment.
Worldwide open commerce has meant a growing inter-

dependence among nations. More and more often,
countries find themselves signing bilateral or regional
agreements and treaties. These involve different sec-
tors (industry, commerce, health, defense, environment,
etc.) and enterprises are then faced with operational
xiv
Presentation
international rules that apply to manufacture, buying of

raw materials, marketing, etc. If we add to this the fact
that consumers are ever more influenced by global
patterns of consumption, it is easy to see how essen-
tial it is to have a technical infrastructure that can act
as the framework for global coordination and order.
A primary requirement for this order is the adoption and

recognition of an international system of measurement
units. The first serious formal step for an international
order on measurements was the international Metre
Convention or Treaty of the Meter (May 20, 1875), which
gave birth to the BIPM (Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures - International Office of Weights and Mea-
sures). In October 1995, the 20th General Conference
on Weights and Measures (Conférence Générale des
Poids et Mesures - CGPM) asked the International
Committee on Weights and Measures (Comité Inter-
national des Poids et Mesures - CIPM) to carry out a
study on international needs related to Metrology, so
as to be able to direct and establish the respective roles
of BIPM, the National Institutes of Metrology and the
Regional Metrology Organizations.
In the Western Hemisphere, the national metrology or-

ganizations of 34 countries are associated in the Inter-
American Metrology System, known as SIM. SIM co-
ordinates its functions based on an organization of five
sub-regions that correspond to the five main economic
and commercial groups of the Western Hemisphere.
These metrology groups are: NORAMET (North
xv
America), CAMET (Central America), CARIMET (the

Caribbean), ANDIMET (Andean Group), and
SURAMET (South America).
Because of the recognized importance of Metrology and

because of the importance of its being better under-
stood by different groups of specialists, this publication
is addressed, as its title clearly shows, to those whose
specialty is not Metrology. The first chapter is a gen-
eral introduction, the second tries to explain what is
measured and why, the third strives to underline the
importance of this field of endeavor with a very brief
description of some applications, the fourth chapter
details the measurement standards and the reference
materials currently used for the main units of the Inter-
national System of Units (SI). Our hope is that reading
this publication will help to gain easily a better under-
standing of current Metrology.
Oscar Harasic
Regional Coordinator of the Project Inter-American System
for Metrology, Standardization, Accreditation and Quality,
Organization of the American States, OAS.
xvi

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METROLOGY FOR

2001 Producción y Servicios Incorporados S.A.

The Interamerican Metrology System, SIM (Sistema

The opinions stated in this document are not necessarily

Applications - what is measured and

Standards and reference materials

The initial concept of metrology derives from its

Measurements for primitive human beings began

Thus, after several millennia, it is easy to think of

Some of these measurements and units are basic:

length metre (meter)

For other purposes, not covered by the above, it is

To enter the realm of units based on one or more

A unit is a value in terms of which a quantity may

tiples and sub-multiples are used to express quan-

We mentioned using something with which to com-

Originally, a standard was considered to be a rep-

Today, thanks to scientific advances, we have more

measurement instrument, reference material or

It is also important that the procedure used to mea-

In the real world, we usually measure following this

- we decide what we are going to measure,

Before going into details of the main measures, let

Archeological finds show that very ancient civiliza-

among others, must have required very soon the

The appearance of weights and measures systems

We know, and in some countries we still use, some

Also in Egypt, scales were used to weigh precious

The way we measure time is based on the

Roman conquest of a large part of the European

By the beginning of the second millennium AD, the

England used Anglo-Saxon measures and gradu-

France created and developed a simple and logi-

base unit: the metre, mètre in French, which is it-

Metrologists are very active and there are con-

In consonance with the global approach, more and

tem, with the subsequent adoption of the corre-

Forty-eight countries have subscribed the Metre

CGPM is constituted by representatives of the

In search of a world-wide unification of physical

- establishes fundamental standards and

The units of the International System of Units (SI)

CGPM decided to base the SI on seven well-de-

Originally, the base or fundamental units were so

Base Units of the SI

Quantity Symbol Unit

electric current A ampere

instance, the metre is no longer defined

However, taken as the set of both base and de-

- the base units are defined in terms of physical

The work that is being done for the definition and

As we mentioned before, the base units give rise

Two derived units, known formerly as “supplemen-

The SI also has a set of rules and conventions that

These rules are not yet uniformly applied; for in-

not the comma is used as the decimal sign or

There are also some units that do not belong to

Some of those are accepted temporarily, until their

If we now look at the hierarchical structure of mea-

The second position is taken up by the set of na-

At the next level, we find the reference standards

The set of operational standards (working stan-

The chain of organizations in charge of the opera-