Space research

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in space. Frequently, the term includes research in the upper atmosphere using sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons. Space research should not be confused with Space science, which is one of many research disciplines addressed by space researchers. The process of space exploration involves a lot of space research, but space research additionally includes usage of space technology for a broader spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth science and materials science.

History
Space research emerged as a field of research based on the advancing rocket technology of the 1940s and 1950s. In 1948-1949 detectors on V-2 rocket flights detected x-rays from the sun. [1] Sounding rockets proved useful for studies of the structure of the upper atmosphere. As higher altitudes were reached, the field of space physics emerged with studies of aurorae, the ionosphere and the magnetosphere. Notable as the start of satellite-based is space research the detection of the Van Allen radiation belt by Explorer 1 in 1958, four months after the launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1. In the following year space planetology emerged with a series of lunar probes, e.g. the first photographs of the far side of the moon by Luna 3 in 1959. The early space researchers obtained an important international forum with the establishment of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) in 1958, which achieved an exchange of scientific information between east and west during the cold war, despite the military origin of the rocket technology underlying the research field.[2]

[edit] Research fields

Space research includes the following fields of science: [3] [4]

Earth observations, using remote sensing techniques to interpret optical and radar data from Earth observation satellites Geodesy, using gravitational perturbations of satellite orbits Atmospheric sciences, aeronomy using satellites, sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons Space physics, the in situ study of space plasmas, e.g. aurorae, the ionosphere, the magnetosphere and space weather Planetology, using space probes to study objects in the planetary system Astronomy, using space telescopes and detectors that are not limited by looking through the atmosphere Materials sciences, taking advantage of the micro-g environment on orbital platforms

Life sciences, including human physiology, using the space radiation environment and weightlessness Physics, using space as a laboratory for studies in fundamental physics.

Advances in Space Research

Advances in Space Research or (ASR) is a peer reviewed, scientific journal that is published 27 times per year. It was established in 1981, and is the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), as well as being published by Pergamon (Elsevier). The Editor in Chief is J. Lastovicka of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics AS CR of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.[1] Topics of interest for this journal are all interactions observed in space research, including space studies of the Earth's surface, meteorology, and climate. Acceptable articles in the context of space research are from the perspective of astrophysics, materials science, the life sciences, and fundamental physics. Also included in this context is the study of planetary meteorologies, and planetary climates. Other research encompasses Earth-based astronomy observations, the study of space debris, and space weather.[2][3]

Abstracting and indexing

According to Journal Citation Reports rates Advance in Space Research with an impact factor of 0.860 for 2008 and 1.079 for 2009. It is listed on the following databases:[4]

Chemical Abstracts Current Contents/Physics Current Contents/Chemistry & Earth Science Geo Bib & Index Geographical Abstracts Geological Abstracts INSPEC Index to Scientific & Technical Proceedings (ISTP) Meteorological & Geoastrophysical Abstracts (MGA) Science Citation Index Science Citation Index Expanded Scopus Web of Science

Committee on Space Research

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia COSPAR redirects here. For the designation system see International Designator The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established by the International Council for Science in 1958. Among COSPAR's objectives are the promotion of scientific research in space on an international level, with emphasis on the free exchange of results, information, and opinions, and providing a forum, open to all scientists, for the discussion of problems that

may affect space research. These objectives are achieved through the organization of symposia, publication, and other means. COSPAR has created a number of research programmes on different topics, a few in cooperation with other scientific Unions. The long term project COSPAR international reference atmosphere started in 1960; since then it produced several editions of the high atmosphere code CIRA, The code "IRI" of the URSI-COSPAR working group on the International Reference Ionosphere was first edited in 1978 and is yearly updated.

General Assembly
Every second year COSPAR organises a General Assembly (also called Scientific Assembly). These are conferences currently gathering more than a thousand participating space researchers. The most recent assemblies are listed below. [1]
General Assembly Year Place 33rd 2000 Warsaw, Poland 34th 2002 Houston, USA 35th 2004 Paris, France 36th 2006 Beijing, China 37th 2008 Montreal, Canada 38th 2010 Bremen, Germany

Space exploration
Space exploration is the use of space technology to explore outer space.[1] Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Various criticisms of space exploration are sometimes made. Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race" between the Soviet Union and the United States, the launch of the first man-made object to orbit the Earth, the USSR's Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 craft on July 20, 1969 are often taken as the boundaries for this initial period. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) in 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS). With the substantial completion of the ISS[2] following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the USA remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a

return to the Moon by 2020[3] was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009.[4] The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond low earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth/Moon L1, the Moon, Earth/Sun L2, near-earth asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit.[5] As of March 2011, the US Senate and House of Representatives are still working towards a compromise NASA funding bill, which will probably terminate Constellation and fund development of a heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV).[6] In the 2000s, the People's Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future manned space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated manned missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 21st century. From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then private space exploration of the Moon (see Google Lunar X Prize).

History of exploration in the 20th Century

See also: Timeline of space exploration , History of astronomy , and Timeline of first orbital launches by country

Most orbital flight actually takes place in upper layers of the atmosphere, especially in the thermosphere (not to scale)

In July 1950 the first Bumper rocket is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The Bumper was a two-stage rocket consisting of a Post-War V-2 topped by a WAC Corporal rocket. It could reach then-record altitudes of almost 400 km. Launched by General Electric Company, this Bumper was used primarily for testing rocket systems and for research on the upper atmosphere. They carried small payloads that allowed them to measure attributes including air temperature and cosmic ray impacts.

The first steps of putting a man-made object into space were taken by German scientists during World War II while testing the V2 rocket which became the first human-made object in space on October 3, 1942 with the launching of V-4. After the war, the U.S. used German scientists and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment launched by the U.S. on a V2 rocket on May 10, 1946. The first images of Earth taken from space followed the same year while the first animal experiment saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified V2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help of German teams, launched sub-orbital V2 rockets and their own variant, the R-1, including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These suborbital experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.
First flights

Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite orbited earth at 939 km (583 mi) to 215 km (134 mi) in 1957, and was soon followed by Sputnik 2. See First satellite by country (Replica Pictured)

The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned Sputnik 1 ("Satellite 1") mission on October 4, 1957. The satellite weighed about 83 kg (184 pounds), and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of about 250 km (150 miles). It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which emitted "beeps" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not punctured by a meteoroid. Sputnik 1 was launched by an R-7 rocket. It burned up upon re-entry on January 3, 1958. This success led to an escalation of the American space program, which unsuccessfully attempted to launch a Vanguard satellite into orbit two months later. On January 31, 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited Explorer 1 on a Juno rocket. In the meantime, the Soviet dog Laika became the first animal in orbit on November 3, 1957.
First human flights

The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 ("East 1"), carrying 27 year old Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes. Gagarin's flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration of the advanced Soviet space program and it opened an entirely new era in space exploration: human spaceflight.

Apollo CSM in lunar orbit

The U.S. first launched a person into space within a month of Vostok 1 with Alan Shepard's suborbital flight in Mercury-Redstone 3. Orbital flight was achieved by the United States when John Glenn's Mercury-Atlas 6 orbited the Earth on February 20, 1962.

Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, orbited the Earth 48 times aboard Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. China first launched a person into space 42 years after the launch of Vostok 1, on October 15, 2003, with the flight of Yang Liwei aboard the Shenzhou 5 (Spaceboat 5) spacecraft.
First planetary explorations

The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna 2 in 1959.[7] The first automatic landing on another celestial body was performed by Luna 9[8] in 1966. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of another celestial body.[9] The first manned landing on another celestial body was performed by Apollo 11 in its lunar landing on July 20, 1969. The first successful interplanetary flyby was the 1962 Mariner 2 flyby of Venus (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). Flybys for the other planets were first achieved in 1965 for Mars by Mariner 4, 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10, 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10, 1979 for Saturn by Pioneer 11, 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2, and 1989 for Neptune by Voyager 2. The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of Venera 7 on Venus which returned data to earth for 23 minutes. In 1971 the Mars 3 mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over 6 years of Mars surface operation by Viking 1 from 1975 to 1982 and over 2 hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by Venera 13 in 1982 (the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission).
Key people in early space exploration

The dream of stepping into the outer reaches of the Earth's atmosphere was driven by the fiction of Jules Verne[10][11][12] and H.G.Wells,[13] and rocket technology was developed to try and realise this vision. The German V2 was the first rocket to travel into space, overcoming the problems of thrust and material failure. During the final days of World War II this technology was obtained by both the Americans and Soviets as were its designers. The initial driving force for further development of the technology was a weapons race for intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to be used as long-range carriers for fast nuclear weapon delivery, but in 1961 when USSR launched the first man into space, the U.S. declared itself to be in a "Space Race" with Russia.

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard, Hermann Oberth, and Reinhold Tiling laid the groundwork of rocketry in the early years of the 20th century. Wernher von Braun was the lead rocket engineer for Nazi Germany's World War II V-2 rocket project. In the last days of the war he led a caravan of workers in the German rocket program to the American lines, where they surrendered and were brought to the USA to work on U.S. rocket development ("Operation Paperclip"). He acquired American citizenship and

led the team that developed and launched Explorer 1, the first American satellite. Von Braun later led the team at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center which developed the Saturn V moon rocket. Initially the race for space was often led by Sergei Korolyov, whose legacy includes both the R7 and Soyuzwhich remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Russian space program. Kerim Kerimov was one of the founders of the Soviet space program and was one of the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight (Vostok 1) alongside Sergey Korolyov. After Korolyov's death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of the first space stations from 1971 to 1991, including the Salyut and Mir series, and their precursors in 1967, the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188.[14]
[15]

Robert Gilruth

Other key people included:

Valentin Glushko held the role of Chief Engine Designer for USSR. Glushko designed many of the engines used on the early Soviet rockets, but was constantly at odds with Korolyov. Vasily Mishin was Chief Designer working under Sergey Korolyov and one of first Soviets to inspect the captured German V2 design. Following the death of Sergei Korolev, Mishin was held responsible for the Soviet failure to be first country to place a man on the moon. Bob Gilruth was the NASA head of the Space Task Force and director of 25 manned space flights. Gilruth was the person who suggested to John F. Kennedy that the Americans take the bold step of reaching the Moon in an attempt to reclaim space superiority from the Soviets. Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. was NASA's first flight director, who oversaw development of Mission Control and associated technologies and procedures. Maxime Faget was the designer of the Mercury capsule; he played a key role in designing the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and contributed to the design of the Space Shuttle.

[edit] Targets of exploration

[edit] The Sun

While the Sun will probably not be physically explored in the close future, one of the reasons for going into space includes knowing more about the Sun. Once above the atmosphere in particular and the Earth's magnetic field, this gives access to the Solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach the surface of the Earth. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes.

MESSENGER image of Mercury

A MESSENGER image from 18,000 km showing a region about 500 km across [edit] Mercury Main article: Exploration of Mercury

Mercury remains the least explored of the inner planets. As of May 2011, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March, 2011, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b). A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2020, BepiColombo is to include two probes. BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency. MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10's flybys.

Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.

Mariner 10 image of Venus [edit] Venus Main article: Observations and explorations of Venus

Venus was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the solar system, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the solar system. The first successful Venus flyby was the American Mariner 2 spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967 Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970 Venera 7 became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975 with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9 some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere.

The "marble" Earth picture taken by Apollo 17

First television image of Earth from space [edit] Earth Main article: Earth observation satellite

Space exploration has been used as a tool to understand the Earth as a celestial object in its own right. Orbital missions can provide data for the Earth that can be difficult or impossible to obtain from a purely ground-based point of reference. For example, the existence of the Van Allen belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by the Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical. Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore the Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of earth based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

The Moon as seen from the Earth Luc Viatour (Belgium)

Apollo 16 astronaut John Young [edit] Earth's Moon Main article: Exploration of the Moon

Earth's Moon was the first celestial body to be the object of space exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans. In 1959 the Soviets obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon, never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon's surface; just four months later, Surveyor 1 marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet unmanned missions culminated in the Lunokhod program in the early '70s which included the first unmanned rovers and also successfully returned lunar soil samples to the Earth for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to the Earth. Unmanned exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian Moon Impact Probe. Manned exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969 the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Manned exploration of the Moon did not continue for long, however. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the most recent human visit to another world, and there is no further planned human exploration of an extraterrestrial body, though robotic missions are still pursued vigorously.

Mars as seen by the HST

Part of a panorama taken by the Spirit rover in 2004 [edit] Mars Main article: Exploration of Mars

The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United States, Europe, and Japan. Dozens of robotic spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the red planet but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth. The exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of The Great Galactic Ghoul[16] which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This phenomenon is also informally known as the Mars Curse.[17] [edit] Phobos
Main article: Exploration of Phobos

The Russian space mission Phobos-Grunt, Scheduled to launch in 2011,[18] will begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a "trans-shipment point" for spaceships travelling to Mars.[19]
[edit] Asteroids and comets Main article: Exploration of the asteroids

Until the advent of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was Galileo, which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo's planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object. The dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta, two of the three largest asteroids, are targets of

NASA's Dawn mission, launched in 2007. While many comets have been closely studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. A few long-period comets are currently the furthest known objects in the solar system. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer conducted the first comet fly-by (21P/Giacobini-Zinner) before joining the Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into 9P/Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition while the Stardust mission returned samples of another comet's tail. The Philae lander will attempt to land on a comet in 2014. Hayabusa was an unmanned spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from a small near-Earth asteroid named 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in midSeptember 2005. After arriving at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroid's shape, spin, topography, colour, composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010.
[edit] Deep space exploration Main article: Deep space exploration

[edit] Jupiter
Main article: Exploration of Jupiter

Voyager 1 image of Jupiter

Image of Io taken by the Galileo spacecraft

The exploration of Jupiter has consisted solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973. A large majority of the missions have been "flybys", in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; the Galileo spacecraft is the only one to have orbited the planet. As Jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing mission is nearly impossible. Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s,[20] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.[21] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.[20] Jupiter has over 60 known moons, many of which have relatively little known information about them.

A picture of Saturn taken by Voyager 2.

Huygens image from the surface of Titan

[edit] Saturn
Main article: Exploration of Saturn

Saturn has been explored only through unmanned spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission (CassiniHuygens) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions consist of flybys in 1979 by Pioneer 11, in 1980 by Voyager 1, in 1982 by Voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft which entered orbit in 2004 and is expected to continue its mission well into 2010. Saturn has at least 62 satellites, although the exact number is debatable since Saturn's rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes. The largest of the moons is Titan. Titan holds the distinction of being the only moon in the solar system with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of the Earth. As a result of the deployment from the Cassini spacecraft of the Huygens probe and its successful landing on Titan, Titan also holds the distinction of being the only moon (apart from Earth's own Moon) to be successfully explored with a lander.

Uranus from Voyager 2

Voyager 2 image showing the tortured surface of Miranda

[edit] Uranus
Main article: Exploration of Uranus

The exploration of Uranus has been entirely through the Voyager 2 spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its axial tilt of 97.77, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest approach to Uranus occurred on January 24, 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planet's unique atmosphere and magnetosphere. Voyager 2 also examined its ring system and the moons of

Uranus including all five of the previously known moons, while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons. Images of Uranus proved to have a very uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be completely unique and proved to be profoundly affected by the planet's unusual axial tilt. In contrast to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of the moons of Uranus, including evidence that Miranda had been unusually geologically active.

Picture of Neptune taken by Voyager 2

Triton as imaged by Voyager 2

[edit] Neptune
Main article: Exploration of Neptune

The exploration of Neptune began with the August 25, 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the sole visit to the system as of 2009. The possibility of a Neptune Orbiter has been discussed, but no other missions have been given serious thought. Although the extremely uniform appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2's visit in 1986 had led to expectations that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, Voyager 2 found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, auroras, and even a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by Jupiter's small Spot. Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the solar system, measured as high as 2,100 km/h.[22] Voyager 2 also examined Neptune's ring and moon system. It discovered 900 complete rings and

additional partial ring "arcs" around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptune's three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously known moons, one of which, Proteus, proved to be the last largest moon in the system. Data from Voyager further reinforced the view that Neptune's largest moon, Triton, is a captured Kuiper belt object.[23] [edit] Pluto
Main article: Exploration of Pluto

Pluto and Charon (1994)

The dwarf planet Pluto (considered a planet until the IAU redefinition of "planet" in October 2006[24]) presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit very difficult at present). Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.[25] Pluto continues to be of great interest, despite its reclassification as the lead and nearest member of a new and growing class of distant icy bodies of intermediate size, in mass between the remaining eight planets and the small rocky objects historically termed asteroids (and also the first member of the important subclass, defined by orbit and known as "Plutinos"). After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons was granted funding from the US government in 2003.[26] New Horizons was launched successfully on January 19, 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto will be on July 14, 2015; scientific observations of Pluto will begin five months prior to closest approach and will continue for at least a month after the encounter.

[edit] Future of space exploration

The European Space Agency's Columbus Module at the International Space Station, launched into space on the U.S. Space Shuttle mission STS-122 in 2008

In the 2000s, several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities and the private sector have space exploration objectives. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 provides objectives for American space exploration. Technical avenues for US space exploration beyond low earth orbit (LEO) are being investigated by a NASA multi-center Technology Applications Assessment Team led from the Johnson Spaceflight Center. This study has as of January 2011 outlined "Nautilus-X", a concept for a multi-mission space exploration vehicle useful for missions beyond LEO, of up to 24 months duration for a crew of up to six.[27][28] Although adaptable to a variety of mission-specific propulsion units of various low-thrust, high specific impulse (Isp) designs, nuclear ion-electric drive is shown for illustrative purposes. It is intended for integration and checkout at the International Space Station (ISS), and would be suitable for deep-space missions from the ISS to and beyond the Moon, including Earth/Moon L1, Sun/Earth L2, near-Earth asteroidal, and Mars orbital destinations. It incorporates a reduced-g centrifuge providing artificial gravity for crew health to ameliorate the effects of long-term 0g exposure, and the capability to mitigate the space radiation environment.[29]

[edit] Rationales
Main article: Space advocacy

Astronaut Buzz Aldrin, had a personal Communion service when he first arrived on the surface of the Moon.

The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (from things such as spin-offs), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program.[30] Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and that staying on Earth will lead to extinction. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking, renowned British theoretical physicist, said that "I don't

think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars."[31] NASA has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration.[32] Overall, the public remains largely supportive of both manned and unmanned space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is "a good investment", compared to 21% who did not.[33] Arthur C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight.[34] He argued that humanity's choice is essentially between expansion off the Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death.

[edit] Opposition
Critics such as the late physicist and Nobel prize winner Richard Feynman have contended that human space travel (as distinguished from space exploration in general, such as robotic missions) has never achieved any major scientific breakthroughs.[35]

Indian Space Research Organisation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Indian Space Research Organisation
bhratya antarika anusandhna sagahana

Established Headquarters Primary spaceport Administrator

ISRO logo August 15, 1969 (42 years ago) Antariksh Bhavan, New BEL Road, Bangalore, Karnataka, India Satish Dhawan Space Centre K. Radhakrishnan (Chairman)

Budget Website

6,600 crore (US$1.47 billion)

(2010-11)[1]

www.isro.org

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, Hindi: ) is the primary body for space research under the control of the Government of India, and one of the big six advanced space research organizations that dominate space (others being NASA (U.S), RKA (Russia), CNSA (China), ESA (Europe) and JAXA (Japan). It was established in its modern form in 1969 as a result of co-ordinated efforts initiated earlier. Over the years, ISRO has conducted a variety of operations for both Indian and foreign clients. ISRO's satellite launch capability is mostly provided by indigenous launch vehicles and launch sites. In 2008, ISRO successfully launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, while future plans include indigenous development of GSLV, manned space missions, further lunar exploration, and interplanetary probes. ISRO has several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international community as a part of several bilateral and multilateral agreements.

Formative years

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India's Space Program.

Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the activities of scientist S. K. Mitra who conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground based radio methods in 1920's Calcutta.[2] Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[2] However, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[2] Organized space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram

Sarabhaifounder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabadand Homi Bhabha, who had played a role in the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[2] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing of instruments, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar minesone of the deepest mining sites in the world and studies of the upper atmosphere.[3] Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[3][4] Government support became visible by 1950 when the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as secretary.[4] The Department of Atomic Energy provided funding for space research throughout India.[5] Tests on the Earth's magnetic fieldstudied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823and aspects of meteorology continued to yield valuable information and in 1954, Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[4] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad.[4] Both these facilities enjoyed the technical support and scientific cooperation of the United States of America.[4] Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined prime minister of IndiaJawaharlal Nehru.[5] In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[5] The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was found in 1962 with Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman.[5] Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled ISRO rapidly to develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India leading up to, and even after, the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.[6] The death of Homi Bhabha in an air crash on 24 January 1966 came as a blow to the Indian space program.[7] Following Bhabha's passing, Sarabhai was sent to assume Bhabha's place as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and secretary of the Department of Atomic Energy.[7] The 1960s also saw the founding of the Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC), Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES, 1967), the Sriharikota base, and the Indian Satellite System Project (ISSP).[7] The Indian Space Research Organization in its modern form was created by Vikram Sarabhai in 1969.[7] This body was to take control of all space activities in the Republic of India.[7]

[edit] Goals and objectives

The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks.[8] The Indian space program was driven by the vision of Dr Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of Indian Space Programme.[9] As stated by him:

There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.[8]

As also pointed out by Dr APJ Kalam:

Many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation, which was finding it difficult to feed its population. Their vision was clear if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it as a means of displaying our might.[10]

India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[11] Hennock etc. hold that India also connects space exploration to national prestige, further stating: "This year India has launched 11 satellites, including nine from other countriesand it became the first nation to launch satellites on one rocket."[11] Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully operationalised two major satellite systems namely Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites.

[edit] Launch vehicle fleet

Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV III.

Geopolitical and economic considerations during the 1960s and 1970s compelled India to initiate its own launch vehicle program. During the first phase (1960s-1970s) the country successfully developed a sounding rockets program, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[12] ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) technologies.
[edit] Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) Main article: Satellite Launch Vehicle

Status: Decommissioned

The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage solid-fuel light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a payload of 40 kg.[13] Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[14]
[edit] Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Main article: ASLV Status: Decommissioned

The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a 5stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150 kg satellite into LEO. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle. [15] The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that 3 others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only 2 were successful, before it was decommissioned.[14]
[edit] Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) Main article: PSLV Status: Active

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV, commercially viable only from Russia. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched 30 spacecraft (14 Indian and 16 from other countries) into a variety of orbits so far.[16] In April 2008, it successfully launched 10 satellites at once, breaking a world record held by Russia.[17] On 15 July 2011 PSLV flight for 19 times with the first maiden voyage was failure in September 1993. So, with 18th successive mission to put satellites, PSLV trusted as rocket with 94 percent success.[18]
[edit] Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Main article: GSLV Status: Active

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India with the cryogenic engine purchased from Russia while the ISRO develops its own engine program.

In a setback for ISRO, the latest attempt to launch the GSLV, GSLV-F06 carrying GSAT-5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap-on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.[19]
[edit] Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III) Main article: GSLV III Status: In Development

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III is a launch vehicle currently under development by the Indian Space Research Organization. It is intended to launch heavy satellites into geostationary orbit, and will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting. The rocket is the technological successor to the GSLV, however is not derived from its predecessor. The maiden flight is scheduled to take place in 2012.[20]

[edit] Earth observation and communication satellites

INSAT-1B.

India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Ariane Rocket as a part of APPLE Experiment from Kourou in 1975. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.
[edit] The INSAT series Main article: Indian National Satellite System

INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-andrescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication

system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.
[edit] The IRS series Main article: Indian Remote Sensing satellite

Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,B,C,D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.
[edit] Other satellites

ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite,[21] was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002.[22] The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.[23] In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the then Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in Space Shuttle Columbia.

[edit] Extraterrestrial exploration

India's first mission beyond Earth's orbit was Chandrayaan-1, a lunar spacecraft which successfully entered the lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. ISRO plans to follow up Chandrayaan1 with Chandrayaan-2 and unmanned missions to Mars and Near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.
[edit] Lunar exploration Main article: Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 (Sanskrit: -) is India's first mission to the moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission includes a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. India launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV is C11 on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carries high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. Over its two-year operational period, it is intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest, as they might contain ice. The lunar mission carries five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other international space agencies including NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free

of cost. The Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the moon.[24]
[edit] Planetary exploration

The Indian Space Research Organisation had begun preparations for a mission to Mars and had received seed money of 10 crore from the government.The space agency was looking at launch opportunities between 2013 and 2015.[25] The space agency would use its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) to put the satellite in orbit and was considering using ionthrusters, liquid engines or nuclear power to propel it further towards Mars.[26] The Mars mission studies had already been completed and that space scientists were trying to collect scientific proposals and scientific objectives.[27]

[edit] Human spaceflight program

Indian Navy Frogmen recovering the SRE-1 Main article: Indian human spaceflight program

The Indian Space Research Organization has been sanctioned a budget of 12,400 crore (US$2.77 billion) for its human spaceflight program.[28] According to the Space Commission which passed the budget, an unmanned flight will be launched in 2013[29] and manned mission will launch in 2016.[30] If realized in the stated time-frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out manned missions indigenously.
[edit] Technology demonstration

The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1)[31] is an experimental Indian spacecraft which was launched using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three

other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.[32] The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aero-thermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations. ISRO also plans to launch SRE-2 and SRE-3 in the near future to test advanced re-entry technology for future manned missions.[33]
[edit] Astronaut training and other facilities

ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bangalore by 2012 to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use water simulation to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. It also plans to build a new Launch pad to meet the target of launching a manned space mission by 2015. This would be the third launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
[edit] Development of crew vehicle Main article: ISRO Orbital Vehicle

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is working towards a maiden manned Indian space mission vehicle that can carry three astronauts for seven days in a near earth orbit. The Indian manned spacecraft temporarily named as Orbital Vehicle intend to be the basis of indigenous Indian human spaceflight program. The capsule will be designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden manned mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 248 miles (400 km) in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crew vehicle would launch atop of ISRO's GSLV Mk II, currently under development. The GSLV Mk II features an indigenously developed cryogenic upper-stage engine.[34] The first test of the cryogenic engine, held on 15 April 2010, failed as the cryogenic phase did not perform as expected and rocket deviated from the planned trajectory.[35] A future launch has been scheduled for 2011. If successful then ISRO will become the sixth entity, after United States, Russia, China, Japan and Europe, to develop this technology.

[edit] Planetary sciences and astronomy

India's space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963. Even before this, noteworthy contributions were made by the Indian scientists in the following areas of space science research:

Cosmic rays and high energy astronomy using both ground based as well as balloon borne experiments/studies such as neutron/meson monitors, Geiger Muller particle detectors/counters etc. Ionospheric research using ground based radio propagation techniques such as ionosonde, VLF/HF/VHF radio probing, a chain of magnetometer stations etc. Upper atmospheric research using ground based optical techniques such as Dobson spectrometers for measurement of total ozone content, air glow photometers etc. Indian astronomers have been carrying out major investigations using a number of ground based optical and radio telescopes with varying sophistication.

With the advent of the Indian space program, emphasis was laid on indigenous, self-reliant and state-of-the-art development of technology for immediate practical applications in the fields of space science research activities in the country. There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionisation, electric conductivity and electric fields. The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard Xray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard Xray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Scorpius X-1, Cyg X-1, Her X-1 etc. and the diffuse cosmic Xray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[36] One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 2040 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the

high doses of ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter Hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[37]

[edit] Facilities
ISRO's headquarters is located at Antariksh Bhavan in Bangalore.
[edit] Research facilities Facility Location Physical Research Laboratory Description

Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and Ahmedabad hydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.[38] An observatory at Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[38] Research & Development in the field of semiconductor technology, micro-electromechanical systems and Chandigarh process technologies relating to semiconductor processing. The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences.

SemiConductor Laboratory National Atmospheric Research Laboratory

Chittoor

Raman Research Bangalore Institute (RRI)

RRI carries out research in selected areas of physics, such as astrophysics and astronomy.

Space Applications Centre

The SAC deals with the various aspects of practical use of space technology.[38] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy, satellite based Ahmedabad telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing, meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[38] The SEC additionally operates the Delhi Earth Station.[39] Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research.

North EasternSpace Shillong Applications Center [edit] Test facilities Facility Location

Description

Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre

The LPSC handles testing and implementation of Bangalore, liquid propulsion control packages and helps develop Thiruvananthapur engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[38] The am, and testing is largely conducted at Mahendragiri.[38] The Nagercoil LPSC also constructs precision transducers.[40]

[edit] Construction and launch facilities Facility Location

Description

ISRO Satellite Centre

Bangalore

The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[38] The satellites Ayrabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here.[40] The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of attitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites including Chandrayaan-1 are developed at this laboratory. Located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bangalore. With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[38] The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[40] The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[40]

Laboratory for ElectroOptics SystmsLEOS

Bangalore

Satish Dhawan Space Centre

Sriharikota

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre Thumba Equatorial Rocket

The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue of development of the SLV-3, Thiruvananthapu ASLV, and PSLV series.[38] The base supports India's ram Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the Rohini Sounding Rocket program.[38] This facility is also developing the GSLV series.[38] Thiruvananthapu TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets. ram

Launching Station [edit] Tracking and control facilities Facility Location Indian Deep Space Network Bangalore (IDSN)

Description

This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon. The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study aerial surveying.[38] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has training facilities at Dehradun in form of the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.[38]

National Remote Hyderabad Sensing Centre Bangalore (headquarte rs) and a number of ground stations throughout India and World.[39]

Indian Space Research Organisation Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network

Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[38] ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.

Master Control Hassan; Facility Bhopal

Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[41] The MCF has earth stations and Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[41] A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[41]

[edit] Human resource development Facility Location Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Indian

Description

Dehradun

Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) under National Remote Sensing Centre, Department of Space, Govt. of India is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professional in the field of Remote Sensing, Geoinformatics and GPS Technology for Natural Resources, Environmental and Disaster Management.

Thiruvananthapu The institute offers undergraduate and graduate

Institute of Space Science and ram Technology (IIST) Developmen t and Educational Ahmedabad Communicati on Unit

courses in Aerospace engineering, Avionics and Physical Sciences. The students of first batch of IIST are going to be recruited into different ISRO centres by end of July. The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with the INSAT program.[38] The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[40] The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[39]

[edit] Commercial wing Facility Location Antrix Corporation Bangalore

Description The marketing agency under government control markets ISRO's hardware, manpower, and software.[41]

Other facilities include:

Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) Orissa INSAT Master Control Facility (IMCF) Bhopal ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) Thiruvananthapuram Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) Aerospace Command of India (ACI) Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) Indian Department of Space (IDS) Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC) Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC) Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)

[edit] Vision for the future

A model of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle III.

A model of the RLV-TD

ISRO plans to launch a number of new-generation Earth Observation Satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicles and spacecraft. ISRO has stated that it will send unmanned missions to Mars and Near-Earth Objects.

Forthcoming Satellites

Satellite Name

Details Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) is a microwave remote sensing satellite carrying a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

RISAT - 1

The satellite weighing around 1850 kg is in the final stages of development for a launch in 2011 into a 536 km orbit with 25 days repetitivity with an added advantage of 12 days inner cycle for Coarse Resolution ScanSAR mode.
ISRO and French National Space Centre (CNES) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in 2004-05 for the development and implementation of Megha-Tropiques (Megha meaning cloud in Sanskrit and Tropiques meaning tropics in French). The launch of Megha-Tropiques is planned during mid 2011.Megha-Tropiques is aimed at understanding Meghathe life cycle of convective systems and to their role in the associated Tropiques energy and moisture budget of the atmosphere in the tropical regions. The satellite will carry an Imaging Radiometer Microwave Analysis and Detection of Rain and Atmospheric Structures (MADRAS), a six channel Humidity Sounder (SAPHIR), a four channel Scanner for Radiation Budget Measurement (SCARAB) and GPS Radio Occultation System (GPS-ROS). INSAT-3D is a meteorological satellite, planned to be launched on-board GSLV in 2011. The satellite has many new technology elements like star sensor, micro stepping Solar Array Drive Assembly (SADA) to reduce the spacecraft disturbances and Bus Management Unit (BMU) for control and telecomm and/telemetry function. It also incorporates new features of biannual rotation and Image and Mirror motion compensations for improved performance of the meteorological payloads. The Satellite for ARGOS and ALTIKA (SARAL) is a joint ISRO-CNES mission and planned to be launched during 2011. The Ka band altimeter, ALTIKA, provided by CNES payload consists of a Ka-band radar altimeter, operating at 35.75 GHz. A dual frequency total power type microwave radiometer (23.8 and 37 GHz) is embedded in the altimeter to correct tropospheric effects on the altimeter measurement. Doppler Orbitography and Radio-positioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) on board enables precise determination of the orbit. A Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) helps to calibrate the precise orbit determination system and the altimeter system several times throughout the mission.

INSAT 3D

SARAL

ASTROSA ASTROSAT is a first dedicated Indian Astronomy satellite mission, which T will enable multi-wavelength observations of the celestial bodies and cosmic sources in X-ray and UV spectral bands simultaneously. The scientific payloads cover the Visible (3500-6000 ), UV (1300-3000 ), soft and hard X-ray regimes (0.5-8 keV; 3-80 keV). The uniqueness of

ASTROSAT lies in its wide spectral coverage extending over visible, UV, soft and hard X-ray regions. The primary goal of GSAT-6/INSAT-4E, which is a Multimedia broadcast satellite, is to cater to the consumer requirements of providing GSAT-6 / entertainment and information services to vehicles through Digital INSAT-4E Multimedia consoles and to the Multimedia mobile Phones. The satellite carries a 5 spot beam BSS and 5 spot beam MSS. It will be positioned at 83 East longitude with a mission life of 12 years. GSAT-7/INSAT-4F is a multi-band satellite carrying payloads in UHF, SGSAT-7 / band, C-band and Ku band. The satellite weighs 2330 kg with a payload INSAT-4F power of 2000W and mission life of 9 years. GSAT-9 will carry 6 C band and 24 Ku band transponders with India coverage beam. The satellite is planned to be launched during 2011-12 with a mission life of 12 years and positioned at 48 East longitude. This I2K satellite has a liftoff mass of 2330 kg and payload power of 2300 W. GSAT-I0 will carry 12 Normal C-band, 12 Extended C-band and 12 Ku band transponders. It will also carry GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) payload. The satellite is planned to be launched during 2011 with a mission life of 15 years and positioned at 83 East longitude. This I3K satellite with liftoff mass of 3435 kg and payload power of 4500 W will be launched on board ARIANE-5. GSAT-11 is based on I-4K bus which is under advanced stage of development. The spacecraft can generate 10-12 KW of power and can support payload power of 8KW. The payload configuration is on-going. It consists of 16 spot beams covering entire country including Andaman & Nicobar islands. The communication link to the user-end terminals operate in Ku-band while the communication link to the hubs operate in Ka-band. The payload is configured to be operated as a high data throughput satellite, to be realised in orbit in 2013 time frame. GSAT-14 is intended to serve as a replacement for EDUSAT as the spacecraft is configured with 6 Ku and 6 Ext C band transponders providing India coverage beams. In addition, the spacecraft also carries Ka band beacons, which are planned to be used to carry out studies related to rain and atmospheric effects on Ka band satellite communication links in Indian region. The spacecraft weighs around 2050 kg and is planned to be launched by GSLV with indigenous cryogenic upper stage. Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)-1, the first of the seven satellites of the IRNSS constellation, carries a Navigation payload

GSAT-9

GSAT-10

GSAT-11

GSAT-14

IRNSS-1

and a C-band ranging transponder. The spacecraft employs an optimised I-1K structure with a power handling capability of around 1600W and a lift off mass of 1380 kg, and is designed for a nominal mission life of 7 years. The first satellite of IRNSS constellation is planned to be launched onboard PSLV during 2012-13 while the full constellation is planned to be realised during 2014 time frame. [edit] Future launch vehicles

GSLV-Mk III GSLV-Mk III is envisaged to launch four tonne satellite into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with a 110 tonne core liquid propellant stage (L-110) and a strap-on stage with two solid propellant motors, each with 200 tonne propellant (S-200). The upper stage will be cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonne (C-25). GSLV Mk-III will have a lift-off weight of about 626 tonne and will be 43.43 m tall. The payload fairing will have a diameter of 5 metre and a payload volume of 100 cubic metre. GSLV Mk III is planned to be launched during 2013. Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) As a first step towards realizing a Two Stage To Orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose a Winged Reusable Launch Vehicle technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLVTD will act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies viz., hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials is the hypersonic flight experiment (HEX). Human Space Flight Mission Programme
[edit] Space exploration

Lunar exploration program Following the success of Chandrayaan-1, the country's first moon mission, ISRO is planning a series of further lunar missions in the next decade, including a manned mission which is stated to take place in 2020 approximately the same time as the China National Space Administration (CNSA) manned lunar mission and NASA's Project Constellation plans to return to the moon with its Orion-Altair project.[citation needed]

Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: -) Indias second unmanned mission to the Moon, will have an Orbiter and Lander-Rover module. ISRO will have the prime responsibility for the Orbiter and Rover; Roskosmos, Russia will be responsible for Lander. Chandrayaan-2 will be launched on Indias Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-MkII) around 2012-13 timeframe. The science goals of the mission are to further improve the

understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon using instruments onboard Orbiter and in-situ analysis of lunar samples using Lander and Rover.

Mars exploration program

ISRO plans to carry out an unmanned mission to Mars in this decade. According to ISRO, the Mars mission remains at a conceptual stage but is expected to be finalised shortly. The current version of India's geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle will be used to loft the new craft into space.[42]

Solar exploration program

ISRO plans to carry out an unmanned mission to Sun by the year 2014. The probe is named as Aditya-1 and will weigh about 700kg.[43]

[edit] Space Science Missions

Space Capsule Recovery Experiment II The main objective of SRE II is to realize a fully recoverable capsule and provide a platform to conduct microgravity experiments on Microbiology, Agriculture, Powder Metallurgy, etc. SRE-2 is proposed to be launched on board PSLV. Aditya (spacecraft) The First Indian space based Solar Coronagraph to study solar Corona in visible and near IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission is planned during the next high solar activity period ~ 2012. The main objectives is to study the Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) and consequently the crucial physical parameters for space weather such as the coronal magnetic field structures, evolution of the coronal magnetic field etc. This will provide completely new information on the velocity fields and their variability in the inner corona having an important bearing on the unsolved problem of heating of the corona would be obtained.
[edit] Satellite navigation

GAGAN The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS)/Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN - GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was successfully completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Center (MCC) located near Bangalore. The first GAGAN navigation payload has been fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT-4 during Apr 2010. However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV-D3 could not

complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads will be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-8 and GSAT-10. IRNSS
Main article: IRNSS

The Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation which would be under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to Global Navigation Satellite Systems like GPS are not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO plans to launch the constellation of satellites between 2010 and 2012.

[edit] Applications
India uses its satellites communication network one of the largest in the world for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[44] Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NICNET) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[44] Dinshaw Mistryon the subject of practical applications of the Indian space programwrites: The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for organizations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by Indias state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. Indias EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B. The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with regional Remote Sensing Service Centers in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centers in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analyzing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning. Indias satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While Indias 93124 mile (150250 km) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space program, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programs SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, however, the Defence Research and Development (DRDO)based missile program borrowed human resources and technology from

ISRO. Missile scientist A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct Indias missile program. About a dozen scientists accompanied Abdul Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where Abdul Kalam designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3s solidfuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missilederived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhis Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by Indias environmental and agricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles near Indias borders. In 1997 the Indian air forces Airpower Doctrine aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[45] Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and the Indian Institute of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications.[46] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological program using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[47] This experimentnamed Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[47] ISRO has applied its technology to "telemedicine", directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites.[46] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analyzed by doctors in urban centres in real time via video conferencing.[46] The patient is then advised medicine and treatment.[46] The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor.[46] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.
[46]

ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[48] Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modelling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1 : 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database which links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[48] The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[9] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[9] The CARTOSAT2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera which supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeed the CARTOSAT-1 project.[49]

[edit] Global cooperation

ISRO has had the benefit of International cooperation since inception.

Establishment of TERLS, conduct of SITE & STEP, launches of Aryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, IRS-IA and IRS-IB/ satellites, manned space mission, etc. involved international cooperation. ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue. India has established a Center for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations. India hosted the Second UN-ESCAP Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific in November 1999. India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[50] Chandrayaan-1 carried scientific payloads from NASA, ESA and the Bulgarian Space Agency. The Russian Space Agency is cooperating with India in developing the rover for Chandrayaan-2 and also in the Indian manned mission. The United States on 24 January 2011, removed several Indian government defense-related companies, including ISRO, from the so-called Entity List, in an effort to drive hi-tech trade and forge closer strategic ties with India.[51]

ISRO and the Department of Space have signed formal Memorandum of Understanding agreements with a number of foreign political entities, including:

Australia Brazil China Canada Egypt European Union France Germany Hungary Israel

Italy Japan Kazakhstan Netherlands Norway Russia Sweden Ukraine United Kingdom United States

India carries out joint operations with foreign space agencies, such as the Indo-French MeghaTropiques Mission.[50] On 25 June 2002 India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.[52] A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development.[52] India holds observer status at CERN while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Center is due at Bangalore.[52]

Indian human spaceflight program

The Indian human spaceflight program is a proposal by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to develop and launch the ISRO Orbital Vehicle, which is to carry a two-member crew to Low Earth Orbit by 2016.[1] The spaceship would be launched by India's GSLV-Mk II launcher.

Preparations
On August 9, 2007 the then Chairman of the ISRO, G. Madhavan Nair, indicated the agency is "seriously considering" a human spaceflight mission. He further indicated that within a year ISRO would report on its development of new space capsule technologies.[2] Development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle to carry a two-member crew into a low Earth orbit has already begun. ISRO sources said the flight is likely to be in 2016. Government had allocated 95 crore (US$21.2 million) for pre-project initiatives for 2007 through 2008. A manned mission into space would require about 12,400 crore (US$2.8 billion) and a period of seven years. Planning Commission estimates that a budget of 5,000 crore (US$1.1 billion) is required for initial work on the manned mission during the eleventh five year plan (200712). A project report prepared by ISRO has been cleared by space commission.[3][4] In February 2009 the Government of India has given the green signal for the Manned Space flight Program due to launch in 2016.[1] MC Dathan, director of Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) stated that ISRO will set up a fullfledged training facility in Bangalore for training astronauts. ISRO is also planning to build a third launch pad at Sriharkota for manned missions with extra facilities like entry into the crew capsule and an escape chute.[4] The trials for the manned space missions began with the 600 kg Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later. This demonstrates India's capability to develop heat resistant materials necessary for re-entry technology. In 1984, Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to go into space, flying aboard a Soviet mission. Sharma was one of the scientists who endorsed the 2006 proposal for an Indian manned space program.