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CHAPTER 01
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The undergraduate project which is to be done within the period of the final year as the part of
Bachelor of Science of Engineering Program in Mechanical and Manufacturing field, which
gives an excellent opportunity to ourselves to apply theoretical knowledge, practical
experience etc to understand a real world problem and analyze it to find a better solution. Also
undergraduate project helps us to improve our analytical and design skills, written and oral
communication skills and presentation skills that are very helpful for our future engineering
career.

Relative to the final year undergraduate project in Department of Mechanical and

Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, we decided to “Design and
fabrication of a Jatropha oil extractor” as our undergraduate project in year 2006/2007.

The fast pace of economic development consequent with ever increasing consumption of
fossil fuel and petroleum products has been a matter of concern for the country as it is related
to huge outgo of foreign exchange on one hand and increasing emission causing
environmental hazards on the other. Public at large are raising their concerns over the
declining state of environment and health. With domestic crude oil output stagnating, the
momentum of growth experienced a quantum jump since 1990s when the economic reforms
were introduced paving the way for a much higher rate of development leading the demand
for oil to continue to rise at an ever increasing pace. The situation offers us a challenge as well
as an opportunity to look for substitutes of fossil fuels for both economic and environmental
benefits to the country.

Petroleum resources are finite and therefore search for alternative is continuing all over the
world. Development of bio-fuels as an alternative and renewable source of energy for
transportation has become critical in the national effort towards maximum self-reliance. Bio-
fuels like bio-diesel being environment friendly, will also help us to conform to the stricter
emission norms.

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Jatropha is a quick maturing plant species that starts bearing fruits within a year of its planting
and following the extraction of the oil can be blended with petroleum diesel for use. It is a
very hardy plant and grows in a wide variety of agro-climatic conditions from arid to high
rainfall areas and on lands with thin soil cover to good lands. It is also not browsed by cattle
and so its plantation can be easily under taken in the farmers’ fields and their boundaries,
under-stocked forests, public lands and denuded lands facing increasing degradation. Its
plantation, seed collection, oil extraction etc. will create employment opportunities for a large
number of people, particularly the poor, and will help rehabilitate unproductive and
wastelands and save precious foreign exchange by substituting imported crude.

The capacity of Jatropha and similar other oil seeds bearing plants to rehabilitate degraded or
dry lands, from which the poor mostly derive their sustenance, by improving their water
retention capacity, makes it an instrument for up-gradation of land resources and especially
for helping the poor. Thus, grown on a significant scale, they can clean the air and green the
country, add to the capital stock of the farmers and the community and promote crop
diversification which is imperative in agriculture. The chain of activities from raising
nurseries, planting, maintaining, primary processing and oil extraction is labor intensive and
will generate employment opportunities on a large scale, particularly for the rural landless and
help them to escape poverty.

1.2 Objectives

The Jatropha already grows widely in many rural villages in Sri Lanka where it is used as a
‘live fence’ to protect crops from livestock (the leaves are inedible). Its nuts are not currently
used for anything and have no commercial value.

 To design Jatropha oil extractor with easy operation than the existing oil extractor.
 To meet the higher oil yield than the existing oil extractor.
 Provide higher production rate and lower cost than the existing oil extractor.
 To avoid the difficulty of removing the husk of the Jatropha seed by crushing the seeds
with the husk.
 To minimize the size of oil extractor and provide easy moving in domestic areas.

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 To provide Jatropha oil in meeting domestic needs of energy services including

cooking and lighting;
 To provide rural communities with a new, cheaper, 100% renewable and 100% locally
produced fuel to substitute for diesel fuel.
 Potential of Jatropha as an additional source of household income and employment
through markets for fuel, fertilizer, animal feed medicine, and industrial raw material
for soap, cosmetics, etc.

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CHAPTER 02
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Jatropha is a tall bush or small tree (up to 6 m hight) and belongs to the euphorbia family. The
genus Jatropha contains approximately 170 known species1. The genus name Jatropha derives
from the Greek jatrós (doctor), trophé (food), which implies medicinal uses. The seeds are
toxic and they contain about 35 % 11of nonedible oil. The plant is planted as a hedge (living
fence) by farmers all over the world around homesteads, gardens and fieldes, because it is not
browsed by animals

Jatropha originates from Central America. From the Caribbean, Jatropha was probably
distributed by Portuguese seafarers via the Cape Verde Islands and former Portuguese Guinea
(now Guinea Bissau) to other countries in Africa and Asia.

The wood and fruit of Jatropha can be used for numerous purposes including fuel. The seeds
of Jatropha contains (. 50% by weight) viscous oil11, which can be used for manufacture of
candles and soap, in the cosmetics industry, for cooking and lighting by itself or as a
diesel/paraffin substitute or extender. This latter use has important implications for meeting
the demand for rural energy services and also exploring practical substitutes for fossil fuels to
counter greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere.

Jatropha is not browsed, for its leaves and stems are toxic to animals, but after treatment, the
seeds or seed cake could be used as an animal feed. Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is an
excellent source of plant nutrients. Various parts of the plant are of medicinal value, its bark
contains tannin, the flowers attract bees and thus the plant has honey production potential.
Like all trees, Jatropha removes carbon from the atmosphere, stores it in the woody tissues
and assists in the build up of soil carbon.

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2.2 Possible Uses of the Jatropha

Fig. 2.1. Jatropha press cake & Jatropha oil

 Traditionally the Jatropha plant is used as a medicinal plant.

 Jatropha is planted in the form of hedges around gardens and fields to protect the
crops against roaming animals like cattle or goats.
 Jatropha hedges are planted to reduce erosion caused by water and/or wind.
 Jatropha is planted to demarcate the boundaries of fields and homesteads.
 Jatropha plants are used as a source of shade for coffee plants (on Cuba).
 In Comore islands, in Papua New Guinea and in Uganda, Jatropha plants are used as a
support plant for vanilla.
 The seeds can be processed (oil, press cake) or sold directly as seed or for industrial
use.
 Because of its mineral content, which is similar to that of chicken manure, it is
valuable as organic manure. In practical terms an application of 1 ton of Jatropha press
cake is equivalent to 200 kg of mineral fertilizer.

2.2.1 Jatropha as an Energy Source

Fig. 2.2. Jatropha oil lamp & Cooking using jatropha oil

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Jatropha oil is an important product from the plant for meeting the cooking and lighting needs
of the rural population, boiler fuel for industrial purposes or as a viable substitute for diesel.
Substitution of firewood by plant oil for household cooking in rural areas will not only
alleviate the problems of deforestation but also improve the health of rural women who are
subjected to the indoor smoke pollution from cooking by inefficient fuel and stoves in poorly
ventilated space. Jatropha oil performs very satisfactorily when burnt using a conventional
(paraffin) wick after some simple design changes in the physical configuration of the lamp.

About one-third of the energy in the fruit of Jatropha can be extracted as oil that has a similar
energy value to diesel fuel. Jatropha oil can be used directly in diesel engines added to diesel
fuel as an extender or trans-esterised to a bio-diesel fuel. In theory, a diesel substitute can be
produced from locally grown Jatropha plants, thus providing these areas with the possibility
of becoming self sufficient in fuel for motive power. There are technical problems to using
straight Jatropha oil in diesel engines that have yet to be completely overcome. Moreover, the
cost of producing Jatropha oil as a diesel substitute is currently higher than the cost of diesel
itself that is either subsidized or not priced at "full cost" because of misconceived and
distorted national energy policies. Nevertheless the environmental benefits of substituting
plant oils for diesel provides for make highly desirable goals.

Table 2.1. The chemical analysis of Jatropha oil

ITEM VALUE
Acid value 38.2
Iodine value 101.7
Viscosity (31oC) cp 40.4
Fatty acids composition
Table 2.2. The comparison of properties
Palmitic acid % of Jatropha
4.2 oil and standard specifications of diesel oil
Stearic acid % 6.9
Specification Oleic acidspecification
Standard % 43.1
of Standard specification of
Linoleic acid % 34.3
OtherJatropha
acids % oil 1.4 Diesel
Specific gravity 0.9186 0.82/0.84
Flash point 240/110°C 50°C
Carbon residue 0.64 0.15 or less
Cetane value 51.0 > 50.0
Distillation point 295°C 350°C
Kinematics Viscosity 50.73 cp > 2.7 cp
(Source: www.svlele.com)
Sulpher % 0.13 % 1.2 % or less

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Calorific value 9,470 kcal/kg 10,170 kcal/kg

Pour point 8°C 10°C
Colour 4.0 4 or less
(Source: www.svlele.com)

Table 2.3. Physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel and Jatropha oil

Property Jatropha Oil Diesel Oil

Viscosity (cp) (30°C) 5.51 3.60
Speciflc gravity (15°C/4°C) 0.917/ 0.923(0.881) 0.841 / 0.85
Solidfying Point (°C) 2.0 0.14
Cetane Value 51.0 47.8 to 59
Flash Point (°C) 110 / 340 80
Carbon Residue (%) 0.64 < 0.05 to < 0.15
Distillation (°C) 284 to 295 < 350 to < 370
Sulfur (%) 0.13 to 0.16 < 1.0 to 1.2
Acid Value 1.0 to 38.2
Iodine Value 90.8 to 112.5
Refractive Index (30°C) 1.47
(Source: www.svlele.com)

2.3 Features of Jatropha

2.3.1 Botanical Features

It is a small tree or shrub with smooth gray bark, which exudes whitish colored, watery, latex
when cut. Normally, it grows between three and five meters in height, but can attain a height
of up to eight or ten meters under favorable conditions.

2.3.2 Leaves

It has large green to pale-green leaves, alternate to sub-opposite, three-to five-lobed with a
spiral phyllotaxis.

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Fig. 2.3. Leaves

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2.3.3 Flowers

The petiole length ranges between 6-23 mm. The inflorescence is formed in the leaf axil.
Flowers are formed terminally, individually, with female flowers usually slightly larger and
occur in the hot seasons. In conditions where continuous growth occurs, an unbalance of
pistillate or staminate flower production results in a higher number of female flowers. More
number of female flowers are grown by the plant if bee keeping is done along with. More
female flowers give more number of seeds.

2.3.4 Fruits Fig. 2.4. Flowers

Fruits are produced when the shrub is leafless, or it may produce several crops during the
year if soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Each inflorescence yields
a bunch of approximately 10 or more ovoid fruits.

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Fig. 2.5.Fruits
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2.3.5 Seeds

The seeds become mature when the capsule changes from green to yellow, after two to four
months from fertilization. The blackish, thin shelled seeds are oblong and resemble small
castor seeds.

Fig.2.6. Seeds

2.3.6 Ecological Requirements for Production of Jatropha

Jatropha is a fast growing plant and can achieve a height of three meters within three years
under a variety of growing conditions. Seed production from plants propagated from seeds

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can be expected within 3-4 years2. Use of branch cutting for propagation is easy and results in
rapid growth; the bush can be expected to start bearing fruit within one year of planting.

Whilst Jatropha grows well in low rainfall conditions (requiring only about 200 mm of rain to
survive) it can also respond to higher rainfall (up to 1200 mm) particularly in hot climatic
conditions. Jatropha does not thrive in wetland conditions. The plant is undemanding in soil
type and does not require tillage. The recommended spacing for hedgerows or soil
conservation is 15cm - 25cm x 15cm-25cm in one or two rows respectively and 2m x 1.5m to
3m x 3mm for plantations. Thus there will be between 4,000 to 6,700 plants per km 2. for a
single hedgerow and double that when two rows are planted. The number of trees per hectare
at planting will range from 1,600 to 2,200. 2

In equatorial regions where moisture is not a limiting factor (i.e. continuously wet tropics or
under irrigation), Jatropha can bloom and produce fruit all year. A drier climate has been
found to improve the oil yields of the seeds, though to withstand times of extreme drought,
Jatropha plant will shed leaves in an attempt to conserve moisture which results in somewhat
decreased growth.

Seed production ranges from about 0.4 tons per hectare per year to over 12 t. /ha. /y after five
years of growth2. Although not clearly specified, this range in production may be attributable
to low and high rainfall areas... The practices being undertaken by the Jatropha growers
currently need to be scientifically documented along with growth and production figures. The
growth and yield of wood may be in proportion to nut yield and

Jatropha grows almost anywhere – even on gravelly, sandy and saline soils. It can thrive on
the poorest stony soil. It can grow even in the crevices of rocks. The leaves shed during the
winter months form mulch around the base of the plant. The organic matter from shed leaves
enhance earth-worm activity in the soil around the root-zone of the plants, which improves
the fertility of the soil. Climatically, Jatropha is found in the tropics and subtropics and likes
heat, although it does well even in lower temperatures and can withstand a light frost. Its
water requirement is extremely low and it can stand long periods of drought by shedding most
of its leaves to reduce transpiration loss. Jatropha is also suitable for preventing soil erosion
and shifting of sand dunes.

Analysis of the Jatropha seed shows the following chemical composition7:

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 Moisture 6.20 %
 Protein 18.00 %
 Fat 38.00 %
 Carbohydrates 17.00 %
 Fiber 15.50 %
 Ash 5.30 %

The oil content is 25 – 30%7 in the seeds and 50 – 60%7 in the kernel. The oil contains 21%7
saturated fatty acids and 79%7 unsaturated fatty acids. There are some chemical elements in
the seed, which are poisonous and render the oil not appropriate for human consumption.

2.4 Analysis of national energy availability and consumption

(Source:www.energy.g
ov.lk)

Table 2.4. Primary Energy Supply (kTOE)

INDICATOR 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Primary Energy Supply (thousand TOE)
Biomass 4,469.8 4,291.8 4,310.5 4,371.8 4,513.2
1 4 7 3 5
Petroleum 3,577.1 3,498.2 3,652.5 3,955.7 4,131.9
3 1 3 6 0
Hydro 767.28 746.30 646.10 791.33 710.71
Non-conventional 1.92 1.87 2.34 3.15 3.60
TOTAL PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLY 8,816.1 8,538.2 8,611.5 9,122.1 9,359.5
Share of Biomass in Primary Energy 50.7% 50.3% 50.1% 47.9% 48.2%
Share of Renewable Energy in Primary 59.4% 59.0% 57.6% 56.6% 55.9%
Energy

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Fig. 2.7. Pie chart of primary energy supply in 2003

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Table 2.5. Energy Consumption by Sector (kTOE)

2002 % 2003 %
Industry 1,681.38 23.39 1,799.61 24.41
Transport 1,737.91 24.18 1,848.66 24.80
Household, Commercial & Others 3,767.03 52.48 3,806.50 51.10
Total 7,186.32 100.0 7454.77 100.00
0

Table 2.6. Electricity Generation by Resource (GWh)

2002 2003
Hydro 1,137.45 1,207.45
Diesel 4,135.60 4,320.00
Fuel Oil 711.90 588.32
Residuel Oil 1,365.40 1,354.70
Naptha 219 539.60
Non-conventional, CEB 3.60 3.40
Self-generation by Customers 140.80 -
Off-grid, Conventional 105.10 16.70
Off-grid, Non-conventional 9.70 10.90
Gross Generation Sri Lanka 7,087.00 7,661.40

Table 2.7. Petroleum Product Imports (Thousand Metric Tonnes)

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2002 2003
Crude Oil 2,281.01 1,995.71
LPG 137.00 141.61
Super Petrol 56.21 117.41
Jet A-1 174.56 144.40
Kerosene 19.68 3.14
Auto Diesel 1,081.46 1,055.43
Fuel Oil 96.82 37.28
Total Refine Products 1,565.73 1,499.28

Table 2.8. Sectorial Consumption of Petroleum Products (Thousand Metric Tonnes)

2002 % 2003 %
Domestic (LPG, Kerosene) 377.28 11.60 337.45 11.85
Transport (Gasoline, Auto Diesel, 1,530.53 47.12 1,608.18 50.50
Super Diesel, Furnance Oil)
Commercial (Auto Diesel, Super 46.71 1.44 44.76 1.41
Diesel, Furnance Oil)
Power Generation (Naphtha, Auto 986.99 30.83 918.73 28.85
Diesel, Super Diesel, Furnance Oil)
Industry (Kerosene, Auto Diesel, 306.31 9.43 275.33 8.64
Super Diesel, FurnanceTOTAL
Oil) GRID ELECTRICITY SALES BY SECTOR
Total 3,247.82 100.0 3,184.45 100.00
100%
0

80%

60%
(%)

40%

20% STREET LIGHTING

COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL
RELIGIOUS
DOMESTIC
0%
1993
1990

1996

1999

2002

Year

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Fig. 2.8. Total grid electricity sales by sector

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2.5 Current Status in the world

Oil extraction is isolation of oil from animal by-products, fleshy fruits such as the olive and
palm, and oilseeds such as cottonseed, sesame seed, soybeans, and peanuts. Oil is extracted
by three general methods: rendering, used with animal products and oleaginous fruits;
mechanical pressing, for oil-bearing seeds and nuts; and extracting with volatile solvents,
employed in large-scale…

Presently the edible oil is extracted through traditional oil extractors. The recovery of oil in
traditional oil extractors is lesser and of inferior quality. The capacity is also much less as
compared to the improved expellers. Oil extraction can be more effectively carried out by the
Pre-pressing of seeds lightly which can precede oil milling resulting higher capacity; lower
power consumption, lower wear & tear and maintenance and two-stage pressing. Different oil
expellers for Jatropha seed are build in many countries.

2.5.1 The Sayari Oil Expeller

The Sayari oil expeller has been developed by FAKT consulting engineers Dietz, Metzler,
Zarrate for the use in Nepal. Therefore it was designed out of iron sheets instead of cast iron

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Fig.2.9. Front View of Sayari oil expeller

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to limit the weight of the heaviest parts to 40 kg12 .It is now built in Tanzania by VYAHUMU
Trust, Morogoro, and in Zimbabwe by POPA, Harare

2.5.2 The Yenga press

The piston creates the pressure to force the oil out of the press cake. Sometimes the piston
gets stuck and is difficult to move. Then the press has to be taken apart and the piston and its
cylinder have to be cleaned thoroughly.

The cage is welded from iron bars with a fine gap between them. Before starting the pressing,
make sure that the gaps are free.

The outlet is the regulation part of the ram press. The more it is closed, the more difficult it is
to press the cake through the gap, the more oil is extracted (higher extraction rate). The outlet
should be regulated in such a way that one person can push down the lever without too much
force (not "hanging" on the lever).

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Fig.2.10.Yenga Press
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2.5.3 Komet Oil Expellers

Komet Vegetable Oil Expellers are manufactured in Germany, whose range of products covers
small hand operated as well as industrial machines. According to the product literature,
Komet oil expellers feature a special cold pressing system with a single conveying screw to
squeeze the oils from various oil-bearing seeds. The machines operate on a gentle mechanical
press principle that does not involve mixing and tearing of the seeds. Virtually all oil-bearing
seeds, nuts, and kernels can be pressed with the standard equipment without adjusting the
screws or oil outlet holes.

Fig. 2.11. Sectional view of KOMET oil expeller

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CHAPTER 03
3. CURRENT OIL EXTRACTION PROCESS IN SRI LANKA

As our main target is designing and fabrication of jatropha oil extractor, first we have studied
about the purpose and steps involving in oil extraction process. This was more beneficial at
the stage of the designing the maximum torque of the machine and determining the yield of
the oil. The brief description of oil extraction process is described as in the following section.

Fig.3.1: Current jatropha oil extractor

Oil can be extracted mechanically with an oil press, an expeller. Presses range from small,
hand-driven models that an individual can build to power-driven commercial presses.
Expeller pressing is the most popular method of jatropha oil extraction. Expellers have a
rotating screw inside a horizontal cylinder that is capped at one end. Jatropha seeds are fed
into a cylinder, and pressure is added as the screw turns and gradually increasing the pressure.
This forces the separate the liquid oil and vegetation water from the solid seed. Then oil
escapes from the cylinder through small holes or slots, the oil can be collected. Percentage oil
extraction form the current machine is approximately 18%. The major disadvantages of

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available machine are hard operation and less oil extraction. Also the husk of the seed wanted
to remove before fed into the machine that is more time consuming and hard work for
labours. By doing this project we hope to minimize the current difficulties and develop the
machine into a high yield oil extractor.

Preparation of the raw material often includes removing husks or seed coats from the seeds
and separating the seeds from the chaff. For successful pressing, the seed must be:

 Dry. Moist seed will lead to low yields and clog the cage (a part of the press). Moist
seed may also get moldy.
 Clean. Fine dust in the seed may clog the cage. The seed will absorb some of the oil
and keep it from getting squeezed out of the cage. Sand in the seed will wear the press
out. Stones badly damage the piston.
 Warm. Warm seed will yield the most oil for the least effort.

Fig.3.2: Removing the jatropha husk

Seed that is slightly too damp may feel dry but will not press well. If it is too damp, but not
yet moldy, it can be dried in the sun. (Never press moldy seed. It is not safe for human
consumption.) Spread the seed out thinly on the ground, on plastic, or on roofing tin. At the
end of the day, pile the seed up to keep it from absorbing moisture in the cool night air, and

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spread it out again in the morning. If there is any chance of rain, or if the morning dew is
heavy, need to bag all the seed in the evening and put it back out the following morning. After
two or more sunny days, the husks will be dry. Then bag the seed and store it for a week. In
that time, the moisture in the seed will be drawn into the dry husk, and the entire seed will
become evenly dry.

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CHAPTER 04
4. EXPERIMENTS

4.1 Experiment 01

DATE : 14 / 12 / 2006
TITLE : Performance of existing oil extractor.
INTRODUCTION :
Percentage of weight of the oil extracted from Jatropa seeds is the most
critical factor in our project. Because our main objective is to increase
the yield, there fore at the beginning we do a small practical using
existing oil extractor to identify its performance.
RESULT :
Table 4.1. Performance of existing machine
Parameter Weight(g)
Test 01 Test 02 Test 03 Average %

Seeds total 450 450 450 450.00 -

weight
Husk 180 195 186 187.00 41.55
Core(Useful) 270 255 264 263.00 58.44
Disposal 218 205 210 211.00 80.23
Oil 47 44 48 046.33 17.61

4.2 Experiment 02

DATE : 18/12/2006
TITLE : Moisture Test for Jatropha
INTRODUCTION :
The moisture content of jatropha seed is very much important for oil
extraction process. High moisture level will lead to low yields and clog
the cage. First take the weights of the samples Then jatropha seeds kept
inside an oven under 100°C for 24 hours. Finally measure the weight
again. The difference gives the weight of the water content in jatropha
seed.

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RESULT :
Table 4.2. Moisture test details
Parameter Sample 01 Sample 02 Sample 03 Sample 04 Sample 05
Weight of the 9.592 9.690 26.550 9.451 26.554
container/(g)
Weight 50.262 50.124 50.120 50.290 50.760
(Before) /(g)
Weight 44.916 44.659 44.885 44.976 45.33
(After) /(g)
Weight of 5.346 5.465 5.235 5.314 5.43
Moisture/(g)
Percentage of 10.64 10.90 10.44 10.57 10.70
moisture
content/(%)

Average percentage of moisture = 10.65%

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CHAPTER 05
5. PROPOSED MODEL
Fig.5.1. shows the proposed model for the Jatropha oil extractor. It is a simple manual
operated machine for domestic uses. Here we mainly consider the increase of the yield from
jatropha seed and the easy operation.

5.1 Operation
When the shaft is rotated by means of the handle, the helical gear wheel that’s connected to
the shaft is rotated. Due to that, the other gear wheel which meshed with the drive gear also
begins to rotate in the opposite direction. The gear ratio between two gears is one. When
prepared Jatropha seeds put into the hopper as they slide through the hopper and fallen
between two meshing gears, which are in motion. When gears are rotating they catch Jatropha
seeds and then these seeds will move toward the exit side. Meanwhile due to the shear and
compression actions generated by the meshing gears Jatropha seeds are crushed and squeezed.
Because of these crushing and squeezing actions oil will expelled from the Jatropha seeds.
Mixture of this extracted oil and crushed Jatropha particles are then collected to a strainer
which has been placed outside of the main extractor. The collection will keep on the strainer
for some time to extract the oil and then put in to the secondary extractor.

Then the remaining is put in to the secondary extractor. After that crushed Jatropha particles
compressed by means of a screw attachment. When the screw is rotated the plate attached to
the end of this shaft will move downward and create squeezing action on the Jatropha
particles. Due to this squeezing action oil will extracted and strained through the strainer to
the collector

Fig.5.1. Proposed model

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5.2 Part list of proposed model

Table 5.1. Part list

Part Function

Main Extractor.

Hopper To put Jatropha seeds into the extractor.

Helical gears To crush & squeeze seeds.

Bearings To create friction less rotation of shafts.

To separate oil from crushed Jatropha
Strainer
particles
Handle To rotate the driving gear.(To input power)

Bearing capes To mount bearings

Shaft For power transmission

End covers To cover two ends of the machine

Exist two gears and generate shearing action
Housing
on Jatropha seeds
Clamping plates To clamp the extractor

Secondary extractor (Screw press)

Cylinder Provide space for squeezing operation

Screw To generate squeezing action

Plate To prevent escaping of particles

Stand To retain the extractor

5.3 3D modelling of proposed model

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Fig.5.2. Front view of the proposed model

Fig.5.3. Plan view of the proposed model

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Fig.5.4. Inside view of the proposed model

Fig.5.5. Helical gear wheel

Fig.5.6. Hopper

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Fig.5.7. Gear housing

Fig.5.8. Clamping plate

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Fig.5.9. Screw press

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CHAPTER 06
6. MATERIAL SELECTION

An important aspect of design for mechanical, electrical, thermal, chemical or other

application is selection of the best material or materials. Systematic selection of the best
material for a given application begins with properties and costs of candidate materials. For
example, a thermal blanket must have poor thermal conductivity in order to minimize heat
transfer for a given temperature difference.

Systematic selection for applications requiring multiple criteria is more complex. For
example, a rod which should be stiff and light requires a material with high Young's modulus
and low density. If the rod will be pulled in tension, the specific modulus, or modulus divided
by density E / ρ, will determine the best material. But because a plate's bending stiffness
scales as its thickness cubed, the best material for a stiff and light plate is determined by the

cube root of stiffness divided density .

6.1 Cost issues

Cost of materials plays a very significant role in their selection. The most straightforward way
to weight cost against properties is to develop a monetary metric for properties of parts.
However, the geography- and time-dependence of energy, maintenance and other operating
costs, and variation in discount rates and usage patterns between individuals, means that there
is no single correct number for this. Thus as energy prices have increased and technology has
improved, automobiles have substituted increasing amounts of light weight magnesium and
aluminium alloys for steel, aircraft are substituting carbon fiber reinforced plastic and
titanium alloys for aluminium, and satellites have long been made out of exotic composite
materials.

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6.2 Materials for Gear Wheels

The material used for the manufacture of gears depends on the strength and service conditions
like wear, noise etc. the gears may be manufactured from metallic or non-metallic materials.
The metallic gears with cut teeth are obtainable in cast iron, steel and bronze. The non-
metallic materials like wood, rawhide, compressed paper and synthetic resins like nylon are
used for gears, especially for reducing noise.

The cast iron is widely used for the manufacture of gears due to its good wearing properties,
excellent machinability and ease of producing complicated shapes by casting method. The
cast iron gears with cut teeth may be employed, where smooth action is not important.

6.3 Some Benefits and Advantages of Cast Irons

• A family of materials capable of meeting a wide variety of engineering and

manufacturing requirements (the "family" includes Gray Iron, Ductile Iron,
Compacted Graphite Iron, Malleable Iron, and White Iron)

• Available in a wide range of mechanical/physical properties, i.e. tensile strength from

20 KSI to over 200 KSI, hardness from 120 to about 300 Brinell in standard grades
and up to about 600 Brinell in special abrasion resistant grades

• Good strength to weight ratio

• Typically lower cost than competing materials and relatively low cost per unit of
strength than other materials

• Lower density and higher thermal conductivity than steels at comparable tensile
strength levels

• Excellent machinability, allowing for high speeds and feeds and reduced (minimal)
energy due to the presence of free graphite

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• Many iron castings can be used without heat treatment (as-cast) but, when needed, can
be heat treated to enhance overall properties or localized properties such as

• Surface hardness

• Excellent damping capacity, especially in Gray Irons

• Chemical analysis can be modified to provide improved special properties such as

corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, wear or abrasion resistance, etc.

• Rapid transition from design to finished product

• Capability of producing highly complex geometries and section sizes in a wide range
of sizes, from ounces to over 100 tons

• Flexibility in design and ability to optimize appearance for sales appeal

• Possibility of casting intricate shapes as well as very thin to very thick section sizes

• Capability of redesigning and combining two or more components from other

materials into a single casting, thus reducing assembly cost and time

• Capability of casting with inserts of other materials

• Variety of casting processes for low, medium or high production

• Reduced tendency toward residual stresses and warpage than some competitive
materials

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CHAPTER 07
7. DESIGN

Concerning our proposed machine, two helical gears are the most important component. So
that in our designing process we give special attention on designing a helical gear, Apart from
that there are few another parts to be design. They are;
a) Shaft
b) Bearings
c) Keys

7.1 Design of the helical gear

A helical gear has teeth in form of helix around the gear. Two such gears can be used to
connect two parallel shafts in place of spur gears. The helixes may be right handed on one
gear and left handed on other gear. The pitch surfaces are cylindrical as in spur gear, but teeth
instead of being parallel to the axis, wind around the cylinders helically like screw threads.
The teeth of helical gears with parallel axis have line contact, as in spur gearing. This
provides gradual engagement and continuous contact of the engaging teeth. In our design to
extract maximum amount of oil from ‘Jatropha’ seeds it required to generate better crushing
and continuous squeezing action by using two gear wheels. Due to that reason we select two
helical gears to obtain these actions because it can generate gradual engagement and
continuous contact of the engaging teeth.

7.1.1 Gear Terms Used in Gears

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Fig. 7.1. Gear Terminology
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Pitch circle : The intersection of the pitch surface with a plane perpendicular the
axis of rotation
Addendum circle : It is the circle which bounds the outer ends of the teeth.
Addendum : The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
Dedendum circle : The circle which bounds the bottom of the teeth.
Dedendum circle. : The radial distance between the pitch circle diameter and the
addendum
Total depth of tooth : The sum of addendum and addendum.
Clearance : The difference between the dedendum and the addendum of mating
gear teeth.
Base circle : A circle from which the tooth profile curve is generated.
Tooth thickness : The chord length measured along the pitch circle between the
opposite faces of the same tooth.
Module : The ratio of the pitch circle diameter to the number of the teeth, i.e.
the reciprocal of the diametral pitch (DP).
Diametral pitch : The ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter.

Backlash : The space between two consecutive teeth, measured along the
pitch circle.
Circular pitch : The distance measured along the pitch circle from a point on one
tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.

P = πd1/Z1
Where;
d1 : the pitch circle diameter of the pinion.
Z1 : is the number of the teeth of the pinion.

Helical angle : It is a constant angle made b the helices with the axis of rotation.
Axial Pitch : It is the distance, parallel to the axis, between similar faces of
adjacent teeth.

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Normal Pitch : It is the distance between similar faces of adjacent teeth along a
helix on the pitch cylinder normal to the teeth.

7.1.2 Strength of Helical Gears

In helical gears contact between mating teeth is gradual, starting at one end and moving along
the teeth so that at any instant the line of contact runs diagonally across the teeth. therefore in
order to find the strength of helical gears, a modified Lewis equation is used. It is given by;

WT = (σ 0 × CV ).b.π .m.Y /

Where;
WT = Tangential tooth load
σ0 = Allowable static stress
CV = Velocity factor
b = Face width.
m = Module
Y/ = Tooth form factor or Lewis factor

The values of the velocity factor ( CV ) are given as follow:

3
CV = , for ordinary cut gears operating at velocities up to 12.5 m/s.
(3 + V )
4.5
CV = , for carefully cut gears operating at velocities up to 12.5 m/s.
(4.5 + V )
6
CV = , for very accurately cut and ground metallic gears operating at
(6 + V )
velocities up to 20 m/s.
0.75
CV = , for non-metallic gears
(0.75 + V )

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7.1.3 Assume Data for the Design

By doing some experiments we have identify that the maximum force required to crush and
squish the ‘Jatropha’ seeds in order to extract maximum amount of oil is about 2600N.
Considering a helical gear this force represents the Tangential Tooth Load ( WT ).

There fore take;

WT = 2600 N
But considering the safety of the gear teeth take safety factor as 3
Then take;
S .F . = 3
φ = 20 0
α = 30 0

Since our machine is designed for domestic use, it is prefer to operate it manually. Therefore
maximum speed of the gear wheel cannot be a large value. So that we take that as 30 rpm.
Then;
N = 30rpm
Also we select our material as ‘Cast Iron’. Ten from Table 11.1
σ 0 = 105 N / mm 2
Take the optimal length of the axel which used to introduce the torque as 400mm (0.4m)

7.1.4 Gear Design Calculations

From data we know

WT (Re quired ) = S .F . × WT = 3 × 2600 = 7800 N
Then the peripheral velocity (v);
πDN π × 0.06 × 30
ν = = = 0.0942m / s
60 60
Since we use ordinary cut gear and having ν < 12.5 m/s

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3
Cν = = 0.9695 (1)
3 +ν

Also;
D 60
T= =
m m
But equivalent number of teeth in spur gear ( TE );
T 60 92.38
TE = = =
cos α m × cos 30
3 3 0
m
For 200 Stub teeth;
0.841
Y / = 0.175 −
TE

Y / = 0.175 − 0.00496m (2)

Take;
b = 20m
Then from Lewis equation
WT = (σ 0 × Cν )(bπ m)Y /
7800 = 105 × 0.9695 × (20m)(π m)(0.175 − 0.00496m)

1.219 = 0.175m 2 − 0.00496m 3

0.00496m 3 − 0.175m 2 + 1.219 = 0
m=3

There fore;
b = 20 × 3 = 60mm
But considering over extracting process it should have lengthy process to extract oil
Take;
b = 30 × m = 90mm
Because maximum face width bm
20 m < bm < 30 m
Then face width = 90 mm
D 60
Number of teeth = = = 20
m 3
T T
WT = =
D 0.03
2

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Since WT required =2600 N

Torque = 2600 × 0.03 = 78 Nm

T 78
Force required to rotate = = = 195 N
l 0.4
Force required to rotate axel in order to extract maximum amount of oil from ‘Jatropha’ seeds
is = 195 N ≈ 200 N
Axial thrust ( W A ) = Wt Tanα
= 7800 × Tan30 0
= 4503.33 N
= 4500 N

Tanα Wt
Normal Force ( W N ) = Wt =
Sinα Cosα
= 9006.66 N
= 9000 N
Dynamic Tooth Load (Wd)

21.ν (b.c.Cos 2α + WT ) cos α

WD = WT +
21.ν + b.c.Cos 2α + WT

WD = 7800 +
{(21× 0.0942)(75 × 714(Cos30 ) + 7800)Cos30 0
0 2
}
(21 × 0.0942) + (75 × 714(Cos30 0 ) 2 + 7800)

1.9782 × (47962.S × Cos30 0 )

WD = 7800 +
1.9782 + 47962.S
WD = 8171.83N

Wear load
DP × b × Q × K
Ww =
Cos 2α
2T0
Q=
T0 + TP
But;
T0 = TP , Q = 1

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Therefore;
σ 2 es × Sinφ 1 
K=  E × 2
1.4
But
Tanφ n = Tanφ × Cosα = Tan 20 0 × Cos 20
φ n = 17.5 0

630 2 × Sin 20 0  2 
K=  3
1.4  200 X 10 
K = 0.85

Then;
60 × 90 × 1 × 0.85
Ww =
Cos 2 30 0
Ww = 6120 N

Gear Parameters.
m=3
φ = 20 0
α = 30 0
T = 20
b = 90mm
Troque = 78 Nm
WT = 7800 N
W A = 4500 N
W N = 9000 N
Axel = 400mm
Axel Force( Max ) = 20 N
S .F . = 3

Addendum =0.8m = 2.4 mm

Dedendum = 3mm
Working depth =1.6m = 4.8 mm
Tooth thickness = 1.5708m = 4.7124 mm
Minimum Clearance = 0.2m = 0.6 mm

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Fillet radius at root = 0.4m =1.2 mm

7.2 Designing the Shaft

Shaft design is another important task in our project. Though shaft is a rotating machine
element which is used to transmit power from one place to another, it required various
members such as pulley, gears etc... in order to transmit power from one shaft to another. In
other words, we can say that a shaft is used for the transmission of torque and bending
moment. Here there are two shafts to support two gear wheels.

Shaft can be divided in to two major parts.

Transmission Shaft : These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines
absorbing power.
Machine shaft : These shaft form an integral part of the machine it self. (crank shaft)
7.2.1 Standard sizes of Transmission shaft.

The standard sizes of the transmission shaft are;

25mm to 60mm with 5mm steps
60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
10 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
40 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

7.2.2 Design methods

Shafts can be designed on the basis of

a) Strength
b) Rigidity and stiffness

In designing shaft on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered;

Shaft subjected to twisting moment or torque only.

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• Shaft subjected to bending moment only.

• Shaft subjected to combined twisting and bending moments.
• Shaft subjected to axial loads in addition to combine torsional and bending
load.

Shaft subjected to axial loads in addition to combine torsional and bending load

In our case the main shaft is subjected to an axial force (due to helical gear) in addition to
torsional and bending loads. There fore we used following method to calculate shaft diameter.
From Maximum shear stress theory
2 2
1  32 M  16T 
τ max = + 4
2  πd 
3  πd 3 

16
τ max = M 2 +T 2
πd 3
Where;
M = Bending moment
T = Torsion
d = Diameter of the shaft

τ max = Maximum shear stress

M 2 + T 2 = Te = Equivalent twisting moment

For failure,
τ max = τ allowable = τ
πd 3
τ× = T2 +M2
16
According to the maximum normal stress theory,
1 1
Maximum normal stress in the shaft σ b (max) = σ b + σ b 2 + 4τ 2
2 2
32 1 2 
 2 ( M + M + T )
2
=
πd 3
π 1
[
× σ b (max) × d 3 = M + M 2 + T 2 ]
32 2        
EquivalantB . M .

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Finally if σ a is maximum allowable bending stress σ b

π
32
1
[
×σ b × d 3 = M + M 2 + T 2
2
]
When shaft is subjected to an axial load( F ) in addition to torsion and bending loads, then the

stress due to axial load must be added to the bending stress ( σ b )

The stress due to axial load
4F
=
π d2

Then resultant stress σ b res

32  1  4F
σ b res = 3 
( M + M 2 + T 2 ) +
π d 2  πd
2

R/2 R/2

65 65

Fig 7.2. Bearing arrangement

Take;
Considering the gear width and operational feasibility, in our design we decided to fix two
bearings, 130mm apart. As shown in Fig.7.2.

Then;
L = 130mm
Wt = 7800 N
W = Wt .Secα = 7800 × Sec30 0 = 9000 N
Wr = W .Tanφ = 900 × Tan 20 0 = 3275.73 N
Wa = F = 4500 N

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Assumption: Since compare to the load applied due to squishing action self weight of the
gear wheels is very much small, self weight of the gear is neglected.
Then;
2 2
R = Wt + Wr = 8459.9 ≅ 8460 N
R = 4230 N
2

R L 65
M max = × = 4230 × = 274.95mm
2 2 1000

Maximum torque transmit = 78 Nm

Maximum Bending Moment = 274.95 Nm

Equivalent Bending Moment =

1
2
{ M 2 +T 2 + M }
=
1
2
{
274.95 + 274.95 2 + 78 2 }
= 280.37 Nm

For Mild Steel ( σ b = 56 Mpa = 56 N / mm )

2

π
× 56 × 10 6 × d 3 =280.37+562.5.d
32
d =.0380 m
d = 38.00 mm
Select Mild steel shaft with diameter = 40 mm

7.3 Bearing Selection

Since in our design it has to handle radial force and little amount of axial thrust we select
single raw deep grove ball bearing to mount two helical gears.

Data
Axial thrust = W A =4500N

Radial Load = R 2 = 4230 N

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W R = 4230 N
W A = 4500 N
N = 30rpm

Since we are designing this machine for domestic use, we assume that people will prefer to
extract oil per day by operating this machine maximum two hours. Also we predict that the
machine will last for minimum five years which are having maximum 300 operating days.
Then bearing life in hours ( LH ) given as;
LH = 2 × 300 × 5 = 3500hours
Life of the bearing in revolution (L)
L = 60 × N × LH
= 60 × 30 × 3500
= 6.3 × 10 6 rev
Basic dynamic equivalent radial load (W),
W = X .V .WR + Y .W A

Where;
V = A rotational factor
= 1, for all type of bearings when the inner race is rotating
= 1.2 for all types of bearings except self aligning, when inner race is stationary.
X = Radial load factor
Y = Axial load factor

Then;
WA 4500
= = 1.0638
WR 4230
WA
Take = 0.5 ;( we don’t know C 0 )
C0
Then from data sheets (Table 10.4)
X = 0.56 & Y = 1.0
Also V= 1; because for all type of bearings when the inner race is rotating V=1

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W = X .V .WR + Y .W A
= (0.56 × 1 × 4230) + (1 × 4500)
= 6868.8
= 6.869 KN

For uniform & steady load, service factor K s = 1 (From Table 11.3)
Basic dynamic load rating,

1
 L  3
C =W 6 
10 
1
 6.3 × 10 6  3
= 6868.8 6 
 10 
= 12686.08 N
= 12.7 KN

In this point we have to consider about both bearing loads as well as shaft diameter. Because
if the shaft diameter is much lesser value than bearing bore then it gives designing failure.
there fore in our case we have to select bearing which is having its bore closer to 30mm or
less than that. By considering these two factors with Table 11.5 and Table 11.6.

Select bearing number as 205 which gives following values

C 0 = 7.1 , C = 11

Then
WA 4500
= = 0.63
C0 7.1 × 10 3
But using Table.11.1 we have to select
WA
= 0.5
C0
This gives same X & Y values as in our first case
There fore we select deep groove ball bearing which is having bearing number 205

7.4 Designing of Key -Way

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7.4.1 Force acting on a Sunk Key

When a key is used in transmitting torque from a shaft to a rotor or hub, the following two
type of force act on the key:

1. Force (F1) due to fit of the key in its keyway, as in a tight fitting straight key or in a
tapered key driven in place. These forces produce compressive stresses in the key
which are difficult to compute in magnitude.

2. Forces (F) due to the torque transmitted by the shaft. These forces produce shearing
and compressive (or crushing) stresses in the key.

The distribution of the forces along the length of the key is not uniform because the forces are
concentrated near the torque-input end. The non-uniformity of distribution is caused by the
twisting of the shaft within the hub.

The forces acting on a key for a clockwise torque being transmitted from a shaft to hub are
shown in Fig.7.3

Fig.7.3. Forces acting on a sunk key

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In designing a key, forces due to fit of the key are neglected and it is assumed that the
distribution of forces along the length of key is uniform.

7.4.2 Strength of a Sunk Key

T = Torque Transmitted by the shaft

Let
F = Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft
d = Diameter of shaft
l = Length of key
w = Width of key
t = Thickness of key
τ and σ c = Shear and crushing stresses for the material of key

Little consideration will show that due to power transmitted by the shaft, the key may fail due
to shearing or crushing.

Considering shearing of key, the tangential shearing force acting at the circumference of the
shaft,

F = Area resisting shearing × Shear stress = l × w × τ

∴ Torquetransmitted by shaft ,

d d
T =F× = l × w ×τ × ................................................( i )
2 2

Considering crushing of the key, the tangential crushing force acting at the circumference of
the shaft,

t
F = Area resisting crushing × Crushing stress = l × × σ c
2

∴ Torquetransmittedbyshaft ,

d t d
T =F× = l × × σ c × .................................................( ii )
2 2 2

The key is equally strong in shearing and crushing, if

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d t d
l × w ×τ × = l × ×σ c ×
2 2 2

w σc
= ................................................................................( iii )
t 2π

The permissible crushing stress for the usual key material is at least twice the permissible
shearing stress. Therefore from equation (iii), we have w = t. In other word, a square key is
equally strong in shearing and crushing.

In order to find the length of the key to transmit full power of the shaft, the shearing strength
of the key is equal to the tensional shear strength of the shaft.

We know that shearing strength of the shaft,

d
T = l × w ×τ × .................................................( iv )
2

and tensional shear strength of the shaft,

π
T= × τ 1 × d 3 ..................................................( v )
16

In our design the shaft diameter is 60mm then from the table 11.7 we select width and
thickness as 20 mm and 12 mm. In our case we select material as mild steal then permissible
shear ( )and crushing stresses( c) are 56N/mm and 112 N/mm
Then considering shearing of the key. From equation iv
60
T = l × 20 × 56 × = 33600l ............................................................( a)
2

And torsion shearing strength of the shaft. From equation v

π
T = × 42 × 60 3 = 1.78 × 10 6 ..........................................................(b)
16

Solving above two equations we get

l = 52.98mm
Now considering crushing of the key. We know that shearing strength of the key
12 60
T =l× × 112 × = 20160 l .........................................................(c)
2 2
From equation (b) and (c)

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l = 88.29mm

Taking larger of these two we select the length of the key-way used at gear wheel as
l = 88.29 Say 90 mm
There Fore the two key-ways have following dimensions
w = 20
t = 12
l = 90

CHAPTER 08
8. Fabricating of Oil Extractor

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8.1 Main Shaft

50 20
25

20

130

Fig.8.1. Front View of Main Shaft

Manufacturing of the main shaft is the most important part of the manufacturing process
because the gear wheel, bearings and handle are mounted on this shaft. To manufacture the
shaft we have to use the lathe machine. There we can use the turning, facing & parting
operations to make the main shaft to the required dimensions as shown in the Fig.8.1.

Then we have to prepare the driven shaft also, there the machining operation is similar to the
main shaft only difference is dimensions.

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8.2 Helical Gear

Fig.8.2. Helical Gear Wheel

Manufacturing of helical gear is somewhat difficult but using CNC milling machine can make
the gear wheel according to the required profile as given in the design. We have chosen the
material as Cast iron so the casting operation also can use to manufacture the gear wheel
because this operation does not need very carefully cut teeth.

8.3 Gear housing

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Fig.8.3. Gear Housing

Manufacturing of gear housing is somewhat easier comparing with earlier manufacturing

parts because this needs only drilling & boring operations. First we need to cut a metal piece
and shaped into required dimensions. Then using CNC milling machine can drill & bore the
holes as shown in the Fig.8.3.

8.4 Clamping Plate

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Fig.8.4. Clamping Plate

By using metal plates we can prepare clamping plate to required dimensions as shown in
Fig.8.4. This requires welding & drilling operations. First we have to cut two metal plates to
required dimensions & then we can drill to make the holes need. After that we can weld the
two plates to finish the part.

8.5 Hopper

Fig.8.5. Hopper

Hopper can be made by using alluminium sheet. There we can draw the development of
hopper on alluminium sheet. Then cut the development and revert it to a hopper.

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8.6 Other Parts

Manufacturing of key is very simple because it need only cut a metal piece & sized it. Handle
can be made using two metal pieces & casing by using alluminium sheet. Metal mat can be
placed below the machine to collect the crushed seed particles.

CHAPTER 09
9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Designing of a Jatropha Oil Extractor is very important task because here we were
concern mainly about poor people in domestic areas. In those areas jatropha planted in their
fences. These jatropha seeds not used for any purposes because there poisonous. So by doing
this kind of project we can encourage people living in rural areas to cultivate jatropha plant as
an energy crop.

Finding an alternative fuel to petroleum is world’s trend in these days so jatropha oil
also one of a bio-fuel using & researching in nowadays. Some of non- government
organizations also make their concern about this area in Sri Lanka. In last few months we had
contact with people who are interested in this field and got very important information about
the future projects which will be implemented in Sri Lanka.

In our design some assumptions were made. Actually the testing of existing machine
was very difficult because there were no any facilities to test the performance at
Thanamalwila area. How ever we were able to get the some measurements relating to the
design from that machine.

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There are more methods of oil extracting available in world. Here we have considered
about mechanical method. We hope that in our design we could obtain more oil yield than the
existing oil extractor in Sri Lanka also we reduce the size and weight of the extractor which
would be very easy for operators. Most importantly we have avoid the removing of husk in
our extractor but we couldn’t test the conditions with and without husk as we fail to fabricate
the complete oil extractor because of no any fund provided by the university.

Our design can develop up to the industrial level by introducing suitable electric
motor. Finally we were disappointed because we have no enough money for fabricate the oil
extractor which we have design and check whether the performance of our machine.

CHAPTER 10

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

10.1 Web

1. http://home.t-online.de/home/320033440512-0002/downloads/jcl-manual,30.07.2006
2. www.jatropha.de/zimbabwe/rf-concept-paper.doc,30.07.2006
3. www.jatropha.org,24.07.2006
4. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatropha ,24.07.2006
5. www.jatrophaworld.org/,24.07.2006
6. www.biodieseltoday.com,24.07.2006
7. www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy,28.07.2006
8. www.svlele.com,28.07.2006
9. www.energy.gov.lk,02.08.2006
10. www.ceb.lk,02.08.2006
11. www.oregonstate.edu/international/outreach/rlc/resources/Jatropha.pdf,04.08.2006
12. www.jatropha.de/documents/jcl-booklet.pdf,04.08.2006

10.2Books

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1. R.S.Khurmi & J.K.Guptha, A Textbook of Machine Design, 1st ed. (S.Chand &
Company Ltd, 2004), Ch 28 & 29.

CHAPTER 11
11. ANNEXURE

Table 11.1.Values of Allowable Static Stress

Material Allowable static stress ( σ 0 ) MPa or N/mm2
Cast iron, ordinary 56
Cast iron, medium grade 70
Cast iron, highest grade 105
Cast steel, untreated 140
Cast steel, heat treated 196
Forged carbon steel-case hardened 126
Forged carbon steel-untreated 140 to 210
Forged carbon steel-heat treated 210 to 245
Alloy steel-case hardened 350
Alloy steel –heat treated 455 to472
Phosphor bronze 84
Non-metallic materials
Rawhide, fabroil 42
Bakellite, Micarta, Celoron 56

Table 11.2.Minimum no. of teeth on the pinion in order to avoid interference

S. No System of gear teeth. Minimum no. of teeth on the pinion
1. 14 1/20 composite 12

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2. 14 1/20 Full depth involutes 32

3. 200 Full depth involutes 18
4. 200 stub involutes 14

Table 11.3.Values of Service Factor (Ks)

S.No. Type of service Service Factor (Ks) for radial ball bearing
1 Uniform and steady load 1.0
2 Light shock load 1.5
3 Moderate shock load 2.0
4 Heavy shock load 2.5
5 Extreme shock load 3.0

Table 11.4.Vales of X and Y for Dynamically Loaded Bearing

Bearing Specifications WA WA e
WR < e WR >e
type
X Y X Y
WA 2.0 0.22
= 0.025 1.8 0.24
C0
Deep 1.6 0.27
= 0.04
groove = 0.07 1.4 0.31
= 0.13 1 0 0.56 1.2 0.37
ball 1.0 0.44
= 0.25
bearing = 0.50

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Table 11.5.Principal Dimensions for Radial Ball Bearing

Bearing No. Bore(mm) Outside diameter(mm) Width(mm)
200 10 30 9
300 35 11
201 12 32 10
301 37 12
202 15 35 11
302 42 13
203 17 40 12
303 47 14
403 62 17
204 20 47 14
304 52 15
404 72 19
205 25 52 15
305 62 17
405 80 21
206 30 62 16
306 72 19
406 90 23
207 35 72 17
307 80 21
407 100 25
208 40 80 18
308 90 23
408 110 27
209 45 85 19
309 100 25
409 120 29
210 50 90 20
310 110 27
410 130 31

Table 11.6.Basic Static and dynamic capacities of various types of radial ball bearing

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Bearing Basic Capacities in kN

No. Single row deep Single row angular Double row angular Self-aligning ball
groove ball bearing contact ball bearing contact ball bearing bearing
Static Dynamic Static Dynamic Static Dynamic Static Dynamic
(Co) (C) (Co) (C) (Co) (C) (Co) (C)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
200 2.44 4 - - 4.55 7.35 1.80 5.70
300 3.60 6.3 - - - - - -
201 3 5.4 - - 5.6 8.3 2.0 5.85
301 4.3 7.65 - - - - 3.0 9.15
202 3.55 6.10 3.75 6.3 5.6 8.3 2.16 6
302 5.20 8.80 - - 9.3 14 3.35 9.3
203 4.4 7.5 4.75 7.8 8.15 11.6 2.8 7.65
303 6.3 10.6 7.2 11.6 12.9 19.3 4.15 11.2
403 11 18 - - - - - -
204 6.55 10 6.55 10.4 11 16 3.9 9.8
304 7.65 12.5 8.3 13.7 14 19.3 5.5 14
404 15.6 24 - - - - - -
205 7.1 11 7.8 11.6 13.7 17.3 4.25 9.8
305 10.4 16.6 12.5 19.3 20 26.5 7.65 19
405 19 28 - - - - - -
206 10 15.3 11.2 16 20.4 25 5.6 12
306 14.6 22 17 24.5 27.5 35.5 10.2 24.5
406 23.2 33.5 - - - - - -
207 13.7 20 15.3 21.2 28 34 8 17
307 17.6 26 20.4 28.5 36 45 13.2 30.5
407 30.5 43 - - - - - -
208 16 22.8 21.6 25 32.5 39 9.15 17.6
308 22 32 34 35.5 45.5 55 16 35.5
408 37.5 50 - - - - - -
209 18.3 25.5 21.6 28 37.5 41.5 10.2 18
309 30 41.2 34 45.5 56 67 19.6 42.5
409 44 60 - - - - - -
210 21.2 27.5 23.6 29 43 47.5 10.8 18
310 35.5 48 40.5 53 73.5 81.5 24 50
410 50 68 - - - - - -
211 26 34 30 36.5 49 53 12.7 20.8
311 42.5 56 47.5 62 80 88 28.5 58.5
411 60 78 - - - - - -

212 32 40.5 36.5 44 63 65.5 16 26.5

312 48 64 55 71 96.5 102 33.5 68
412 67 85 - - - - - -

Table 11.7.Proportions of Slandered parallel, tapered and gib head keys.

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Shaft Diameter (mm) up to Key cross-section

With(mm) Thickness(mm)
and including.
6 2 2
8 3 3
10 4 4
12 5 5
17 6 6
22 8 7
30 10 8
38 12 8
44 14 9
50 16 10
58 18 11
65 20 12
75 22 14

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