Pocket Formula Guide

Combustion and Energy Systems

The SAACKE Group: Quality and Progress in Combustion Engineering

At SAACKE we combine series production and customised engineering to design and manufacture firing plants to customer specifications for industrial and marine applications. SAACKE products satisfy not only the demands of the industry but strict ecological standards as well. The SAACKE Group encompasses affiliates, production facilities, after-sales service centres and associated companies worldwide. Day by day, about a thousand employees devote themselves to making the best possible use of the world's energy and protecting our environment in the process.

This SAACKE Pocket Formula Guide is a collection of indispensable formulas, calculation bases and standards from the field of combustion engineering. It cannot substitute individual,customerspecific calculations but it does offer a basic tool for making rough calculations and collecting the key data to start with. The current issue has been reviewed thoroughly and new material has been added. We welcome any suggestions for improving the quality of our Pocket Formula Guide. Please feel free to contact us at the address on the back. Although we have checked the content carefully at SAACKE, it is impossible for us to rule out all chance of error. Since it is possible that we might have overlooked a printing error or that there are errors in the content of the formulae we have provided, SAACKE does not accept any liability or responsibility for the validity of the data that appear in this publication. Nor shall SAACKE be held liable for any property damage, personal injuries or pecuniary losses resulting from the use of these data.

1. General Formulae and Conversions 1.1 Decimal Powers 1.2 Conversion Formulae 1.2.1 Heating Values 1.2.2 Temperatures 1.3 Conversion Tables 1.3.1 Mass 1.3.2 Force 1.3.3 Pressure 1.3.4 Energy, Work 1.3.5 Capacity 1.3.6 Energy Units 1.3.7 Specific Energy Costs 1.4 Air Pressure, Density and Temperature 1.5 Conversion Table of Anglo-American Units 1.6 Electric Power 1.6.1 Direct Current and Non-Inductive Alternating or Three-Phase Current 1.6.2 Alternating and Three-Phase Current with Inductive Load 1.6.3 Star Delta Connection for Three-Phase Alternating Current 1.6.4 Star Delta Connection of a Three-Phase Motor

Page 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15

2. Capacities, Efficiency Rates, Steam Table 2.1 Boiler Output 17 2.2 Boiler Output, Burner Output and Fuel Consumption18 2.3 Calculation of the Fuel Consumption 18 2.4 Boiler Efficiency Rate 19 2.5 Determination of the Boiler Efficiency Rate from the Flue Gas Measurements 19 2.6 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation Conditions depending on Pressure 20 2.7 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation Conditions depending on Temperature 21 2.8 Enthalpy of Water and Superheated Steam 22 2.9 Enthalpy of Water Below the Boiling State 23

3. Fuels, Combustion Calculation 3.1 Density of Selected Fuels 3.2 Heating Values of Selected Fuels 3.3 Wobbe Index 3.4 Stoichiometric Air Demand 3.5 Characteristics of Liquid Fuels 3.6 Viscosity-Temperature Diagram 3.7 Characteristics of Various Utility Gases 3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds 3.9 Excess Air 3.10 Theoretical Adiabatic Flame Temperature 4. Overview of SAACKE Burners 5. Dimensioning a Plant 5.1 Power Consumption of Fans 5.1.1 Shaft Power in kW 5.1.2 Influence of the Fan Speed 5.2 Output Series for Electric Motors 5.3 Protection Classes with Enclosures (IP Code) 5.4 Power Consumption of Electric Preheaters 5.5 Calculation of the Furnace Heat Release Rate 5.6 Flue Gas Temperature for Boilers without Economisers 5.7 Conversion of an Air or Gas Flow Rate from Standard Conditions to Operating Conditions 5.8 Pressure Loss of a Liquid or Gas Flow 5.9 Fuel Oil Lines Tube Diameters and Pressure Losses 5.10 Velocity of Flow in Pipelines 5.11 Seamless Steel Tubes to EN 10220, Series 1 5.12 Dimensioning Saturated Steam Lines 5.13 Guide Values for Economisers 6. Emissions, Limits for Flue Gas and Noise 6.1 Emissions Limits for Firing Plants 6.2 Continuous Monitoring according to German "TA Luft" 6.3 Estimation of the Solid Content in the Flue Gas of Liquid Fuels 6.4 Estimation of the SOx Content in the Flue Gas

Page 25 25 26 26 27 28 29 31 33 34 36 38 38 38 38 39 40 40 40 40 40 41 42 43 44 45 47 48 48 48 3

Page 6.5 Conversion of Emissions Values 6.5.1 Equation for Correction to the O2 Reference Value 6.5.2 Factors for Conversion from ppm to mg/m 6.5.3 Correction of the Influence of the Temperature and Humidity of the Combustion Air on the NOx Emissions 6.5.4 Correction of the Influence of the Nitrogen Content in the Oil on the NOx Emissions Acid Dew Points and Minimum Flue Gas Temperatures Emissions Conversion Addition of the Sound Levels of Several Sound Sources 49 49 49 50 50 51 51 52 54 55 56

6.6 6.7 6.8

7. Basic Business Formulas 7.1 Pre-Investment Analysis, Static Method 7.2 Profitability Diagram for Firing Plants with Oxygen Control 7.3 Calculation of the Gross and Net Price of Heat

8. Overview of Important Standards and Directives 8.1 Overview of Important Standards and Directives 58 8.2 Explosion Protection Selecting and Marking Equipment 60 8.2.1 Definition of the Explosion Protection Zones 60 8.2.2 Selecting the Equipment Category 60 8.2.3 Equipment Marking 60 8.2.4 Explosion Group Classification 61 8.2.5 Ignition Protection Class 61 Nomenclature 62

1
General Formulae and Conversions

1.1 Decimal Powers Prefix peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto Decimal Power 1015 10
12

Symbol P T G M k h da d c m n p f a

109 10
6

103 10 10 10-1 10-2 10

-3 2

10-6 10
-9

10-12 10
-15

10-18

1.2 Conversion Formulae 1.2.1 Heating Values kWh kJ = 3600 . kg kg kcal kJ = 4.187 . kg kg kcal kWh = 0.001163 . kg kg

Also applies for heating values given per normal cubic meter.

1.2.2 Temperatures Conversion of temperature scales to Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) 5 . (F 32) 9

F 1.8 C + 32

0 C = 32 F 100 C = 212 F

1.3 Conversion Tables 1.3.1 Mass

kg 1 1 10-6 1,000 0.454 1,016.05 mg 1 106 1 1 109 4.53 105 1.016 109 out t 1 10-3 1 10-9 1 4.53 10-4 1.016 lb 2.2 2.2 10-6 2,204.6 1 2,240 tn l. 9.84 10-4 9.84 10-10 0.984 4.46 10-4 1

in

kg mg t lb tn l.

lb = pound tn l. = long ton

t = metric ton

1.3.2 Force
N kN daN kp lbf N 1 1,000 10 9.81 4.448 kN 1 10-3 1 0.01 9.81 10-3 4.45 10-3 daN 0.1 100 1 0.981 0.445 kp 0.102 102 1.02 1 0.456 lbf 0.225 225 2.25 2.205 1

in

lbf = pound-force

1.3.3 Pressure
Pa bar mbar mm WC psi Pa 1 1 105 100 9.81 6,894 bar 1 10-5 1 1 10-3 9.81 10-5 6.89 10-2 mbar 0.01 1 103 1 9.81 10-2 68.9 mm WC 0.102 1.02 104 10.2 1 703.5 psi 1.45 10-4 14.5 1.45 10-2 1.45 10-3 1

in

psi = pound-force per square inch

1.3.4 Energy, work

kJ kWh kcal PSh BTU kJ kWh 1 2.778 10-10 1 3.59 109 4.184 1.163 10-3 0.74 2.65 103 1.055 0.293 10-3 kcal 0.239 860 1 632 0.252 PSh BTU 3.776 10-4 0.948 1.36 3.412 103 1.58 10-3 3.97 1 2.51 103 0.398 10-3 1

in

BTU = British Thermal Unit

1 PSh = 1 hph (metric) = 0.986 hph (mechanical)

1.3.5 Capacity
kW MW kcal/h PS BTU/h kW MW 1 1 10-3 1,000 1 1.16 10-3 1.16 10-6 0.736 7.36 10-4 0.293 10-3 0.293 10-6 kcal/h 860 8.6 105 1 632 0.252 PS BTU/h 1.36 3.412 103 1,360 3.412 106 1.57 10-3 3.97 1 2.51 103 0.398 10-3 1

in

1 PS = 1 hp (metric) = 0.986 hp (mechanical)

1.3.6 Energy Units

out MWh MWh GJ Gcal tce 1 0.2778 1.163 8.141 GJ 3.6 1 4.187 29.31 Gcal 0.8598 0.2388 1 7 tce 0.1228 0.03411 0.1429 1

in

tce = tons of coal equivalent

1.3.7 Specific Energy Costs

out ct/kWh ct/kWh /MWh /GJ /Gcal / tce 1 0.1 0.36 0.08598 0.01228 /MWh 10 1 3.6 0.8598 0.1228 /GJ 2.778 0.2778 1 0.2388 0.03411 /Gcal 11.63 1.163 4.187 1 0.1429 /tce 81.41 8.141 29.31 7 1

in

1.4 Air Pressure, Density and Temperature (Standard Atmosphere) Based on the International Altitude Formula Values of the Standard Atmosphere Altitude m amsl 0 250 500 1,000 1,500 Pressure mbar 1,013 983 955 899 846 Density kg/m3 1.226 1.196 1.168 1.112 1.058 Temperature C 15.0 13.4 11.8 8.5 5.3

Values at Definite Temperatures Altitude m amsl 0 250 500 1,000 1,500 Pressure
at 10 C

Density
at 25 C at 40 C

mbar 1,013 983 955 899 846

kg/m3 1.25 1.21 1.17 1.1 1.03

kg/m3 1.18 1.15 1.11 1.05 0.98

kg/m3 1.13 1.09 1.06 1 0.93

Standard density of air / non-standard calculation basis std = 1.293 kg/m3 is the standard density at 0 C and 1013 mbar abs. = 1.15 kg/m3 is the air density that SAACKE uses for selection charts and capacity data for industrial plants. It is based on 250 m amsl at 25 C. = 1.2 kg/m3 is the air density fan manufacturers usually base their ratings on. It is based on 0 m amsl at 20 C.

10

1.5 Conversion Table of Anglo-American Units

Length

1 inch, in = 25.4 mm 1 foot, ft = 12 in = 0.3048 m 1 yard (yd) = 3 ft = 0.9144 m

1 mm = 0.03937 in 1m 1m = 3.281 ft = 1.094 yd

Area

1 square inch (sq.in, in) = 6.452 cm 1 square foot (sq.ft, ft) = 144 in = 0.0929 m 1 square yard (sq.yd, yd) = 9 ft = 0.8361 m 1 square mile (sq.mile, mile) = 640 acres = 2.59 km

1 cm = 0.155 in 1 m 1 m = 10.764 ft = 1.196 yd

1 km = 0.386 mile 1 m /h= 0.00981 ft3 /s 1 m /h= 0.5886 ft3 /min

Volume 1 ft3 /s = 102 m3 /h flow rate 1 ft3 /min. = 1.699 m3 /h United Kingdom 1 lmp.gal/min (lmp.gpm) = 0.0758 l/s = 0.273 m3 /h U.S. 1 U.S.gal/min (U.S.gpm) = 0.063 l/s = 0.227 m3 /h Mass flow 1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s = 1.633 t/h rate 1 short ton/h (tn.sh./h) = 907.2 kg/h 1 long ton/h (tn.l./h) = 1,016 kg/h Force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.4482 N

1 m /h= 3.66 lmp.gal/min

1 m /h= 4.40 U.S.gal/min 1 t/h = 0.6124 lb/s

1 kg/s = 2.2046 lb/s 1 kg/h = 1.102 10-3 tn.sh./h 1 kg/h = 0.984 10-3 tn.l./h 1N = 0.2248 lbf = 224.8 lbf

1 ton-force (long) = 2,240 lbf = 9.964 kN 1 kN

1 MN = 100.4 ton-force (long) Pressure 1 lbf/in (psi) = 6,895 Pa = 0.06895 bar 1 bar = 14.5 lbf/in 1 lbf/ft (psf) = 47.88 Pa = 0.04788 kPa 1 kPa = 20.89 lbf/ft 1 inch of mercury (in. Hg) = 3,386 Pa 1 inch of water (in. H2O) = 249.1 Pa 1 kPa = 0.2953 in. Hg 1 kPa = 4.015 in. H2O

11

1.6 Electric Power 1.6.1 Direct Current and Non-Inductive Alternating or Three-Phase Current
Direct or alternating current Power with direct or alternating current

P=UI 4 U R
Three-phase current

P = I2 R P= U2 R

L1 L2 L3 U I

R1 R2 R3

Power with three-phase current

P = 3 U I

P U I R

= = = =

power voltage (line-to-line voltage) amperage resistance

1. Example:
light bulb, U = 6 V; I = 5 A; P = ?; R = ?

P = U I = 6 V 5 A = 30 W R = U = 6 V = 1.2 I 5A 2. Example:
annealing Furnace, three-phase current, U = 400 V; P = 12 kW; I = ?

I=

P = 12,000 W = 17.3 A 3 U 3 400 V

Calculation of the star delta connection on page 14 12

1.6.2 Alternating and Three-Phase Current with Inductive Load Active power with Alternating current alternating current L1 N I P = U I cos U

Three-phase current L1 L2 L3 U I

Active power with three-phase current P = 3 U I cos

P U I cos Psh

= = = = = =

active power voltage (line-to-line voltage) amperage power factor motor efficiency mechanical power of the motor (shaft power)

Example: three-phase motor, U = 400 V; I = 21.5 A; cos = 0.85; P = ? P = 3 U I cos = 1.732 400 V 21.5 A = 12,660 W 12.7 kW The mechanical power delivered by the motor (shaft power) is less than the active power. Example: Psh = P = 87 %; P = 12.7 kW Psh = 12.7 kW 0.87 = 11.0 kW Calculation of the star delta connection on page 14 13

1.6.3 Star Delta Connection for Three-Phase Alternating Current (Rotary Current) Star connection Uph = 230 V I L1 Uph Rph L2 L3 U Iph Line-to-line voltage U = 3 Uph Delta connection Line-to-line current I = 3 Iph Iph Line-to-line voltage U = Uph Power P = 3 U I P = 3 U I cos 3 = interlinking factor P = active power cos = power factor with an inductive load Star connection Line-to-line current I = Iph

Delta connection Uph = 400 V I L1 U Uph Rph

L2 L3

Star or delta connection Phase current U Iph = Rph ph I U Iph Uph Rph = = = = = line-to-line current line-to-line voltage phase current phase voltage phase resistance

Example:
annealing furnace, Rph = 22 ; U = 400 V; P = ? with delta connection

Iph = I

Uph = 400 V = 18.2 A Rph 22

= 3 Iph = 3 18.2 A = 31.5 A

P = 3 U I = 3 400 V 31.5 A = 21,824 W = 21.8 kW 14

1.6.4 Star Delta Connection of a Three-Phase Motor Star delta connection with contactors L1 F1 S1A S2 K1 K2 S3 K3 N Control part K1 K2 K3 S1A network contactor delta contactor star contactor OFF button S2 S3 F1 F2 Power part star connection button delta connection button control part fuse power part fuse K1 K3 K1 K3 K2 V1 U1 M 3~ W1 V2 K3 K2 L1 L2 L3 PE F2

W2 U2

Motor connection with permanent wiring Star connection L1 L2 L3

U1 V1 W1

Delta connection L1 L2 L3
U1 V1 W1

PE

PE

W2 U2 V2

W2 U2 V2

15

2
Capacities, Efficiency Rates, Steam Table

2.1 Boiler Output - Steam Production 1 t/h saturated steam 0.65 MW boiler output*
*at 12 bar and 102 C feedwater

1 kg oil produces approx. 16 kg steam. 1 kg oil or 1 m3 gas produces the following amount of saturated steam in kg:
heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 efficiency rate in % 234,000

The following amount of oil or gas in kg or m3 is needed to produce 1t saturated steam:

2.34 108 heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 efficiency rate in %

17

2.2 Boiler Output, Burner Output and Fuel Consumption Dependent on the Boiler Efficiency Rate
Boiler Boiler output, amount of saturated steam produ- efficiency rate ced t/h 1 1 1 1 MW 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 % 85 88 90 92 Burner output MW 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.71 HFO flow rate kg/h 67.5 65.5 64.0 62.5 EL fuel oil flow rate kg/h 64.5 62.5 61.0 59.5

2.3 Exact Calculation of the Fuel Consumption Given the Steam Output and the State of the Steam . ms (h hfw) 100% . . mF or VF = LHV b . . mF or VF . ms h hfw LHV b = = = = = = fuel consumption in kg/h or m /h steam output in kg/h enthalpy of the steam in kJ/kg enthalpy of the feedwater in kJ/kg lower heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m boiler efficiency rate in %

. If the steam output ms cannot be determined, it can be calculated from: . . . ms = mfw - mbd . mfw = feedwater flow rate in kg/h . mbd = blow-down rate in kg/h

18

2.4 Boiler Efficiency Rate b = . . (mfw - mbd) (h hfw) . mF LHV 100 in %

2.5 Determination of the Boiler Efficiency Rate from the Flue Gas Measurements* b = 100% Xf% 2%(max) in %

Xf

A 21 - O2,dry

+ B f a

)( )

in %

= Xf f = a = O2,dry =

flue gas loss flue gas temperature in C combustion air temperature in C O2 value measured in the dry flue gas in vol. %

A and B: constants EL fuel oil A B 0.68 0.007

1st

HFO 0.69 0.007

Nat. gas Liquid gas Town gas 0.66 0.009 0.63 0.008 0.63 0.011

* Calculation basis:

German Immission Control Act (1. BImSchV)

19

2.6 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation Conditions depending on Pressure

TemperAbs. pressure ature sat p bar C 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 35 40 50 60 80 100 60.07 81.35 99.63 111.37 120.23 133.54 143.62 151.84 158.84 164.94 170.41 175.36 179.88 187.96 195.04 201.37 207.11 212.37 217.24 221.78 226.04 230.05 233.84 237.45 242.52 250.33 263.91 275.55 294.97 310.96 Spec. volume water steam v v 3 /t m m3 /kg 1.0172 1.0301 1.0434 1.0530 1.0608 1.0712 1.0839 1.0928 1.1001 1.1082 1.1150 1.1213 1.1274 1.1386 1.1489 1.1586 1.1678 1.1766 1.1850 1.1932 1.2011 1.2088 1.2136 1.2237 1.2346 1.2521 1.2858 1.3187 1.3842 1.4526 7.650 3.240 1.694 1.159 0.8854 0.6056 0.4622 0.3747 0.3155 0.2727 0.2403 0.2148 0.1943 0.1632 0.1407 0.1237 0.1103 0.0995 0.0907 0.0832 0.0769 0.0714 0.0666 0.0624 0.0571 0.0498 0.0394 0.0324 0.0235 0.0180 Density steam kg/m3 0.1307 0.3086 0.5904 0.8628 1.129 1.651 2.163 2.669 3.170 3.667 4.162 4.655 5.147 6.127 7.106 8.085 9.065 10.05 11.03 12.02 13.01 14.01 15.03 16.02 17.54 20.10 25.36 30.83 42.51 55.43 Spec. enthalpy steam water h h kJ/kg kJ/kg 251.45 340.56 417.51 467.13 504.70 561.43 604.67 640.12 670.42 697.06 720.94 742.64 762.61 798.43 830.08 858.56 884.58 908.59 930.95 951.93 971.72 990.48 1,108.4 1,025.4 1,049.7 1,087.4 1,154.5 1,213.7 1,317.1 1,408.0 2,609.9 2,646.0 2,675.4 2,693.4 2,706.3 2,724.7 2,737.6 2,747.5 2,755.5 2,762.0 2,767,.5 2,772.1 2,776.2 2,782.7 2,787.8 2,791.7 2,794.8 2,797.1 2,799.1 2,800.4 2,801.4 2,802.0 2,802.2 2,802.3 2,801.9 2,800.3 2,794.2 2,785.0 2,759.9 2,727.7 Heat of
vaporisation

r kJ/kg 2,373.2 2,305.4 2,257.9 2,226.2 2,201.6 2,163.2 2,133.0 2,107.4 2,085.0 2,064.9 2,046.5 2,029.5 2,013.6 1,984.3 1,957.7 1,933.2 1,910.3 1,888.6 1,868.1 1,848.5 1,829.6 1,811.5 1,793.9 1,776.9 1,752.5 1,712.9 1,639.7 1,571.3 1,442.8 1,319.7

20

2.7 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation Conditions depending on Temperature

Abs. Temperature pressure p bar C 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 0.1992 0.2501 0.3116 0.3855 0.4736 0.5780 0.7011 0.8453 1.0133 1.4327 1.9854 2.7013 3.614 4.760 6.181 7.920 10.027 12.551 15.549 19.077 23.198 27.976 33.478 39.776 46.943 55.058 64.202 74.461 85.927 98.700 Spec. volume water steam v v 3 /t m m3 /kg 1.0171 1.0199 1.0228 1.0259 1.0292 1.0326 1.0361 1.0399 1.0437 1.0519 1.0606 1.0700 1.0801 1.0908 1.1022 1.1145 1.1275 1.1415 1.1565 1.1726 1.1900 1.2087 1.2291 1.2513 1.2756 1.3025 1.3324 1.3659 1.4041 1.4480 7.679 6.202 5.046 4,.134 3.409 2.829 2.361 1.982 1.673 1.210 0.8915 0.6681 0.5085 0.3924 0.3068 0.2426 0.1938 0.1563 0.1272 0.1042 0.0860 0.0715 0.0597 0.0500 0.0421 0.0356 0.0301 0.0255 0.02165 0.0183 Density steam kg/m3 0.1302 0.1612 0.1982 0.2419 0.2933 0.3535 0.4235 0.5045 0.5977 0.8265 1.122 1.497 1.967 2.548 3.260 4.123 5.160 6.397 7.864 9.593 11.62 14.00 16.76 19.99 23.73 28.10 33.19 39.16 46.19 54.54 Spec. enthalpy steam water h h kJ/kg kJ/kg 251.09 272.02 292.97 313.94 334.92 355.92 376.94 397.99 419.06 461.32 503.72 546.31 589.10 632.15 675.47 719.12 763.12 807.52 852.37 897.74 943.67 990.26 1,037.2 1,085.8 1,134.9 1,185.2 1,236.8 1,290.0 1,345.0 1,402.4 2,609.7 2,618.4 2,626.9 2,635.4 2,643.8 2,652.0 2,660.1 2,668.1 2,676.0 2,691.3 2,706.0 2,719.9 2,733.1 2,745.4 2,756.7 2,767.1 2,776.3 2,784.3 2,790.9 2,796.2 2,799.9 2,802.0 2,802.2 2,800.4 2,796.4 2,789.9 2,780.4 2,767.6 2,751.0 2,730.0 Heat of
vaporisation

r kJ/kg 2,358.6 2,346.3 2,334.0 2,321.5 2,308.8 2,296.5 2,283.2 2,270.2 2,256.9 2,230.0 2,202.2 2,173.6 2,144.0 2,113.2 2,081.3 2,047.9 2,013.1 1,976.7 1,938.6 1,898.5 1,856.2 1,811.7 1,764.6 1,714.6 1,661.5 1,604.6 1,543.6 1,477.6 1,406.0 1,327.6

21

2.8 Enthalpy in kJ/kg of Water and Superheated Steam

Abs. pressure bar 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350 400 500 600 800 Temperature C 200 2,875.4 2,855.1 2,826.8 2,791.3 852.6 852.8 853.0 853.2 853.4 853.6 853.8 854.2 854.6 855.1 855.5 855.9 856.8 857.7 858.6 859.5 860.4 862.8 865.2 867.7 870.2 875.4 880.8 891.9 250 2,974.5 2,961.1 2,943.0 2,921.5 2,902.4 2,879.5 2,854.8 2,828.1 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.8 1,085.9 1,086.1 1,086.3 1,086.5 1,086.7 1,087.5 1,088.4 1,089.5 1,090.8 1,093.6 1,096.9 1,104.4 300 3,074.5 3,064.8 3,052.1 3,037.6 3,025.0 3,010.4 2,995.1 2,979.0 2,962.0 2,944.2 2,925.5 2,885.0 2,839.4 2,786.8 1,344.5 1,343.4 1,341.2 1,339.2 1,337.4 1,335.7 1,334.3 1331,1 1328,7 1326,8 1325,4 1323,7 1323,2 1324,7 350 3,175.6 3,168.1 3,158.5 3,147.7 3,138.6 3,128.2 3,117.5 3,106.5 3,095.1 3,083.3 3,071.2 3,045.8 3,018.7 2,989.9 2,959.0 2,925.8 2,849.7 2,754.2 2,620.8 1,659.8 1,647.2 1625,1 1610,0 1598,7 1589,7 1576,4 1567,1 1555,9 400 3,278.2 3,272.1 3,264.4 3,255.8 3,248.7 3,240.7 3,232.5 3,224.2 3,215.7 3,207.1 3,198.3 3,180.1 3,161.2 3,141.6 3,121.2 3,099.9 3,054.8 3,005.6 2,951.3 2,890.3 2,820.5 2,582.0 2,161.8 1,993.1 1,934.1 1,877.7 1,847.3 1,814.2 450 3,382.4 3,377.2 3,370.8 3,363.7 3,357.8 3,351.3 3,344.6 3,338.0 3,331.2 3,324.4 3,317.5 3,303.5 3,289.1 3,274.3 3,259.2 3,243.6 3,211.4 3,177.4 3,141.6 3,104.0 3,064.3 2,954.3 2,825.6 2,676.4 2,515.6 2,293.2 2,187.1 2,094.1 500 3,488.1 3,483.8 3,478.3 3,472.2 3,467.3 3,461.7 3,456.2 3,450.6 3,445.0 3,439.3 3,433.7 3,422.2 3,410.6 3,398.8 3,386.8 3,374.6 3,349.6 3,323.8 3,297.1 3,269.6 3,241.1 3,165.9 3,085.0 2,998.3 2,906.8 2,723.0 2,570.6 2,397.4

22

2.9 Enthalpy of Water Below the Boiling State in kJ/kg

Abs. press. bar
2 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 400

Temperature C 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360

419.1 503.7 419.4 503.9 589.2 419.7 504.3 589.5 675.7 420.5 505.0 590.2 676.3 763.6 852.6 422.0 506.4 591.5 677.5 764.6 853.4 944.1 1,037.7 423.5 507.8 592.8 678.6 765.7 854.2 944.7 1,037.9 1,134.7 425.0 509.2 594.1 679.8 766.7 855.1 945.3 1,038.1 1,134.5 1,236.0 426.5 510.6 595.4 681.0 767.8 855.9 945.9 1,038.4 1,134.2 1,235.0 1,343.4 428.0 512.1 596.7 682.2 768.8 856.8 946.6 1,038.7 1,134.1 1,234.1 1,341.2 1,460.8 429.5 513.5 598.0 683.4 769.9 857.7 947.2 1,039.1 1,134.0 1,233.3 1,339.2 1,456.3 431.0 514.9 599.4 684.6 771.0 858.6 947.9 1,039.4 1,133.9 1,232.6 1,337.4 1,452.4 1,588.3 432.5 516.3 600.7 685.9 772.0 859.5 948.6 1,039.8 1,133.9 1,232.0 1,335.7 1,448.8 1,579.7 434.0 517.7 602.0 687.1 773.1 860.4 949.3 1,040.3 1,134.0 1,231.4 1,334.3 1,445.6 1,572.5 1,742.9 435.6 519.2 603.4 688.2 774.2 861.4 950.0 1,040.7 1,134.0 1,230.9 1,332.9 1,442.7 1,566.2 1,722.0 437.1 520.6 604.7 689.5 775.3 862.3 950.8 1,041.2 1,134.1 1,230.5 1,331.7 1,440.1 1,560.8 1,707.2 438.6 522.0 606.0 690.8 776.4 863.3 951.5 1,041.7 1,134.3 1,230.2 1,330.6 1,437.8 1555.9 1,695.6 440.1 523.5 607.4 692.0 777.6 864.2 952.3 1,042.2 1,134.5 1,229.9 1,329.6 1,435.6 1,551.6 1,686.1 441.6 524.9 608.7 693.3 778.7 865.2 953.1 1,042.8 1,134.7 1,229.7 1,328.7 1,433.6 1,547.7 1,678.0 449.2 532.1 615.5 699.6 784.4 870.2 957.2 1,045.8 1,136.3 1,229.2 1,325.4 1,425.9 1,532.9 1,650.5

23

3
Fuels, CombustionCalculation

3.1 Density of Selected Fuels 1 litre EL fuel oil 1 litre HFO 1 m3 nat. gas 1 m3 propane (at STP) 1 m3 butane (at STP) 0.84 kg at 15 C 0.94 kg at 90 C 0.80 kg (approx.) = 2.01 kg = 2.71 kg

3.2 Heating Values of Selected Fuels

Fuel kJ/kg HFO EL fuel oil Type L natural gas Type H natural gas Pulverised lignite Pulverised bituminous coal Propane Butane Tallow (example) Blast-furnace gas 40,700 42,700 21,200 30,000 46,350 45,700 36,000 kJ/m3 31,800 36,000 93,200 123,800 3,000 LHV heating values kcal/kg 9,700 10,200 5,050 7,150 8,600 kcal/m3 7,600 8,600 22,350 29,560 717 kWh/kg kWh/m3 11.3 11.9 5.9 8.3 12.9 12.7 10.0 8.83 10 25.9 34.4 0.83

25

3.3 Wobbe Index At a constant gas pressure, the Wobbe index is proportional to the amount of heat released at the burner orifice. At the same pressure at the burner, gases with different compositions and the same Wobbe index produce almost the same heat release rate. Upper / lower Wobbe Index Hs d Hi d

Ws =

Wi =

d = relative density G = density of the gas at standard temperature and pressure L = density of the air at standard temperature and pressure (1.293 kg/m) G L

d=

3.4 Stoichiometric Air Demand in m3/kg or m3/m3 (rough calculation) va,st 2.6 Hi* 10,000 in m3 air / kg or m3 fuel

* in kJ/kg or kJ/m3

va,st 942

m3/h MW

or 0.262

m3/s MW

26

3.5 Characteristics of Liquid Fuels (All values given for the standard physical state)
Characteristic Heating value Symbol LHV LHV LHV Density at 15 C Flash point Viscosity at 20 C at 50 C at 100 C mm/s mm/s mm/s max. 6 2 max. 50 30 90 max. 40 8 15 fl Unit MJ/kg kWh/kg Mcal/kg kg/l C EL fuel oil 42.7 11.86 10.2 0.84 70 HFO 40.7 11.3 9.72 0.96 120 Methanol Ethanol 19.4 5.39 4.63 0.791 26.5 7.36 6.33 0.789 11 Tallow (example) 36 10 8.6 0.91 200

Combustion values at =1 Air demand Flue gas volume (dry) Flue gas volume (wet) Water content in the flue gas va vf,dry vf,wet vH2O m3 /kg m3 /kg m3 /kg m3 /kg 11.0 10.3 11.8 1.5 15.5 10.7 10.0 11.4 1.4 15.9 4.93 4.59 5.96 1.30 15.2 6.85 6.37 7.80 1.43 15.1 9.56 8.97 10.32 1.35 15.8

Max. carbon dioxide CO2,max vol. %

Composition: Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Oxygen Nitrogen Water Total C H S O N H2O wt. % wt. % wt. % wt. % wt. % wt. % wt. % 86 13 0.2 0.4 0.02 0.4 100 84 12 2.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 100 37.5 12.5 50 100 52 13 35 100 76 12 0.02 11 0.05 0.93 100

27

3.6 Viscosity-Temperature Diagram

Example: - The given heavy fuel oil has a kinematic viscosity of 500 cSt at 50 C - Temperature required to pump it: >54 C (using tank preheater) - Temperature required for a rotary cup burner: >97 C (using tank preheater) Conversion of kinematic / dynamic viscosity: = 28

3.7 Characteristics of Various Utility Gases (All values given for the standard physical state)
Characteristic Heating value Symbol LHV LHV LHV Explosion limits (vol. % gas in air, at 20 C) Lower flammability limit Upper flammability limit Density Relative density Combustion values at =1 Air demand Flue gas volume (dry) Flue gas volume (wet) Max. carbon dioxide Water content in the flue gas (in rel. to the fuel gas volume) Dew point (dry combustion air) Composition: Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Methane Ethane Propane Butane Total N2 O2 CO2 H2 CO CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % 14.0 0.8 81.8 2.8 0.4 0.2 100 3.1 1.0 92.3 2.0 1.0 0.6 100 9.6 0.5 2.3 54.5 5.5 24.4 2.5 0.7 100 va vf,dry vf,wet m3 /m3 m3 /m3 m3 /m3 8.36 7.64 9.36 11.80 1.72 58 9.47 8.53 10.47 12.00 1.94 58 4.33 3.91 4.98 10.03 0.92 62 LFL UFL d vol. % vol. % kg/m3 5 15 0.829 0.641 4 16 0.784 0.606 5 30 0.513 0.397 Unit kWh/m3 MJ/m3 Mcal/m3 Type L Type H Town gas nat. gas nat. gas 8.83 31.80 7.59 10.0 36.0 8.6 4.89 17.59 4.20

CO2,max vol. % H2OA d m3 /m3 C

29

Characteristics of Various Utility Gases (All values given for the standard physical state)
Characteristic Symbol Unit Sewage Hydro- Methane Propane Butane Blast-fur- Carbon nace gas monoxide gas gen H2 CH4 C3H8 C4H10 (example) CO 6.4 23.0 1.158 0.896 2.99 10.76 0.090 0.069 9.97 35.9 0.718 0.555 25.9 93.2 2.011 1.555 34.4 123.8 2.708 2.094 0.83 3.0 1.36 1.05 3.51 12.64 1.25

Heating value

LHV LHV

kWh/m MJ/m kg/m

Density Relative density

Combustion values at =1 Air demand Flue gas volume (dry) Flue gas volume (wet) va vf,dry vf,wet m/m m/m m/m 6.12 5.84 7.05 16.85 2.38 1.88 2.83 9.56 8.55 10.44 11.65 24.37 22.81 26.16 13.7 32.37 29.74 34.66 14.0 0.57 1.43 1.45 28 2.39 2.88 34.7

Max. carbon dioxi- CO2,max vol. % de

Water content in the flue gas (in rel. to the H2OA fuel gas volume) Dew point (combustion air dry) d

kg/m C

1.03 57

0.80 71

1.61 58

3.29 54

4.20 53

0.02

Composition: Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Methane Ethane Propane Butane Total N2 O2 CO2 H2 CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % vol. % 1.2 34.6 0.2 64.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 58 18 2 22 100 100 100

Carbon monoxide CO

30

3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds

Molar Lower flamm. Vol. Upper flamm. Vol. mass limit limit LFL UFL (at STP) % g/m3 (at STP) % mg/mol g/m 16.04 30.07 44.1 86.18 170.34 84.16 138.25 28.05 26.04 54.09 70.13 78.11 128.17 92.14 106.17 104.1 32.04 46.07 60.1 74.12 88.15 100.16 94.11 108.14 144.17 30.03 44.1 56.06 58.08 29 31 31 35 40 35 50 29 24 31 40 39 48 42 43 42 32 45 80 52 52 47 62 50 58 87 73 65 60 4.4 2.4 1.7 1 0.6 1 0.7 2.4 2.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 0.9 1.1 0.97 1 0.8 0.6 0.7 6 3.1 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 7 4 2.8 2.5 113 182 202 319 326 280 388 365 255 280 315 300 335 334 310 665 480 350 385 460 370 910 1040 730 345 17 14.3 10.8 8.9 9.3 4.9 32.6 100 16.3 8.7 8.6 5.9 7.8 7.6 7.7 8.1 6.5 6 50 19 19.2 11.3 10.5 11.1 9.5 73 57 31 Flash Ign. point temp. ign fl C C -104 -20 74 -18 54 -85 -51 -11 80 6 30 32 -40 >55 35 186 317 220 267 9 12 15 35 43 61 82 81 125 32 - 61 < -20 -29 595 515 470 230 200 260 240 440 305 415 280 555 540 535 465 490 320 220 220 183 410 >250 440 400 385 325 320 300 595 555 510 424 155 215 535 HHV LHV

# Name 1 2 3 4 5 Methane Ethane Propane Hexane Dodecane

Formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C6H14 C12H26 C6H12 C10H18 C2H4 C2H2 C4H6 C5H10 C6H6 C10H8 C7H8 C8H12 C8H8 (mixture) (mixture) (mixture)
(C16 and C16-C18unsaturated)

MJ/kg 55.54 51.91 50.38 48.2 47.55 46.58 45.48 55.71 50.23 47.87 48.02 41.93 40.24 42.5 43.13 42.07 47 45.4 40 39.6 39.6 38.6 22.69 29.67 33.37 36.05 48.88 37.22 32.59 34.21 34.44 18.7 26.5 29.37 31.06

MJ/kg 49.85 47.48 46.34 44.99 44.49 43.83 42.92 52.54 48.56 45.44 45.19 40.68 39.46 41.04 41.45 40.77 43.56 42.6 37.1 36.9 36.9 36 21.17 27.72 31.14 33.72 45.77 35.03 31.9 33.14 33.75 17.29 25.09 28.31 29.34

6 Cyclohexane 7 Decahydronaphtalene 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Ethylene Acetylene 1,3-Butadiene 1-Pentene Benzene Naphtalene Toluene o-Xylene Styrene

17 Gasoline 18 EL oil 19 Turpentine oil Biodiesel 20 (rapeseed methyl ester)

(EN 14214)

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Rapeseed oil Palm oil Tallow Methanol Ethanol 1-Propanol 1-Butanol 1-Pentanol Cyclohexanol

(mixture) CH3OH C2H6O C3H7OH C4H10O C5H12O C6H12O C6H6O C7H8O C10H8O CH2O C2H4O C3H4O C3H6O

30 Phenol 31 o-Cresol 1-Naphthol 32 33 Methanal

(-naphthol) (formaldehyde)

34 Acetaldehyde 35 2-Propenal
(acrolein)

36 Acetone

14.3 < -20

31

3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds

Molar Lower flamm. Vol. Upper flamm. Vol. mass limit limit LFL UFL (at STP) % g/m3 (at STP) % mg/mol g/m 72.11 98.15 74.12 44.05 72.11 88.11 74.08 74.08 88.11 116.16 86.09 46.03 60.05 102.09 166.13 31.06 73.14 93.13 53.06 79.1 123.11 168.11 227.09 2.02 28.01 17.03 45 53 50 47 46 70 80 95 73 58 93 190 100 85 60 50 48 61 56 90 3.3 131 108 1.5 1.3 1.7 2.6 1.5 1.9 2.7 3.1 2 1,2 2,6 10 4 2 4,9 1,7 1.2 2.8 1.7 1.8 4 11.3 15.4 378 380 1,100 1,820 370 820 500 495 470 360 480 865 430 430 270 305 425 620 350 2,048 65 901 240 12.6 9.4 36 100 12.4 22.5 16.5 16 12.8 7,5 13.4 45.5 17 10.2 20.7 10.1 11 28 10.6 40 77 76 33.6 Flash Ign. point temp. ign fl C C -10 43 -20 -57 -20 11 -20 -13 -4 27 -8 45 40 49 168 -58 -23 76 -5 17 88 150 -191 475 430 175 435 230 375 455 505 470 390 385 520 485 330 430 310 630 480 550 480 490 270 560 605 630 HHV LHV

# Name 37 2-Butanone
(ethylmethylketone)

Formula C4H8O C6H10O C4H10O C2H4O C4H8O C4H8O2 C3H6O2 C3H6O2 C4H8O2 C6H12O2 C4H6O2 CH2O2 C2H4O2 C4H6O3 C8H6O4 CH5N C5H11N C6H7N C3H3N C5H5N C6H5NO2 C6H4N2O4 C3H5O9N3 H2 CO NH3

MJ/kg 33.82 36.85 28.71 26.68 22.16 21.54 25.61 5.72 14.4 17.68 18.41 34.48 41.32 36.5 34.94 25.14 6.77 141.87 10.1 22.5

MJ/kg 31.94 34.23 27.47 25.04 20.85 20.23 24 5.4 13.53 16.9 18.93 31.81 38.47 35.38 34.08 24.72 6.55 120.04 10.1 18.56

38 Cyclohexanone 39 Diethyl ether 40 Ethylene oxide 41 Tetrahydrofuran 42 1,4-Dioxane 43 44 45 46 47 Ethyl methanoate

(ethyl formate)

Methyl acetate
(methyl ethanoate)

Ethyl acetate
(ethyl ester)

Butyl acetate
(n-butyl ester)

Vinyl acetate
(ethenyl acetate)

48 Formic acid 49 Acetic acid 50 Acetic anhydride 51 Phthalic acid 52 Methylamine 53 Diethylamine 54 Aniline 55 Acrylonitrile 56 Pyridine 57 Nitrobenzene 58 m-Dinitrobenzene 59 Nitroglycerin 60 Hydrogen 61 Carbon monoxide 62 Ammonia

32

3.9 Excess Air = va CO2,max 21 % CO2,meas 21 %-O2,meas va,st

= 1+

( (

CO2,max CO2,gem. O2 21 O2

vdry,st va,st

= 1+

vdry,st va,st

Approximate values for vdry,st / va,st Hydro- Nat. gas Propane EL fuel gen oil vdry,st va,st 0.79 0.91 0.93 0.93 HFO Coke

0.94

1.0

Actual volume of dry flue gas vdry = vdry,st + ( - 1) va,st Actual volume of wet flue gas vwet = vwet,st + ( - 1) va,st va va,st = excess air ratio = actual volume of air in m3 (at STP)/kg = stoichiometric volume of air in m3 (STP)/kg or m3 (STP)/m3 (at STP) vf = actual volume of wet flue gas in m3 (at STP)/kg CO2,max = max. CO2 content during stoichiometric combustion in vol. % CO2,meas = CO2 content in vol. % vdry,st = volume of dry flue gas during stoichiometric combustion in m3 (STP)/kg O2 = O2 content in vol. % 33

3.10 Theoretical Adiabatic Flame Temperature Temperature C

2000 without dissociation with dissociation with dissociation

fuel oil combustion

natural gas combustion

1500

1000

500 1.2 2 4 6 % % 15 13 11 12 10 8 1.6 8 9 7 6 4 2.0 10 12 3.0 Excess air factor na* 4.0 14 5 O2 content* CO2 content fuel oil* CO2 content nat. gas*

% 16 % 4

* related to dry flue gas

34

4
Overview of SAACKE Burners

4
Burner

SAACKE Burners
Fuel HFO HFO EL fuel oil EL fuel oil Gas Gas HFO / gas HFO / gas EL fuel oil / gas EL fuel oil / gas 2 gases HFO / 2 gases EL fuel oil / 2 gases HFO HFO / gas EL fuel oil Gas EL fuel oil / gas Natural gas EL fuel oil EL fuel oil / natural gas EL fuel oil Gas EL fuel oil / gas EL fuel oil Gas EL fuel oil / gas EL fuel oil Gas EL fuel oil / gas EL fuel oil Gas EL fuel oil / gas HFO EL fuel oil Gas HFO / gas EL fuel oil / gas HFO Gas HFO / gas EL fuel oil / gas Sulphur Sulphur Pulverised coal Pulverised coal / HFO Pulverised coal / EL fuel oil Pulverised coal / gas Low calorific gas

SKV SKV-A SKV SKV-A SG SG-A SKVG SKVG-A SKVG SKVG-A SGD SKVGD SKVGD SKVJ SKVJG JL JG JGL EUROTHERM HG EUROTHERM HL EUROTHERM HLG TEMINOX LS Mono TEMINOX GS Mono TEMINOX GLS Mono TEMINOX LS Duo TEMINOX GS Duo TEMINOX GLS Duo TEMINOX TL TEMINOX TG TEMINOX TGL TF-DDZ TF-DDG TF-DDZG DDZ DDZ DDG DDZG DDZG SSBS SSBG SSBGS SSBGL SSKV SSK SSB-D SSBS-D SSBL-D SSBG-D SSB-LCG

up to 2

up to 4

Capacity range approx. MW (guide values) up up up up up up up up up up to up to to to to to to to to to to 100 134 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50

36

5
Dimensioning a Plant

5.1 Power Consumption of Fans 5.1.1 Shaft Power in kW* . Vstd (psta + 3) 4 Psh 105
*Valid for approx. 20 C air temperature and 75% fan efficiency rate

in kW

Psh = shaft power in kW psta = static pressure increase in mbar . Vstd = volume flow rate in m3 (STP)/h Note: The drive motor should be dimensioned with an adequate power margin. 5.1.2 Influence of the Fan Speed . 2 V2 n2 n2 p2 . = = V1 n1 n1 p1

( )

P2 n2 = P1 n1

( )

5.2 Output Series for Electric Motors

Output series for electric motors (standard motor) to EN 50347

0.18 kW 0.25 kW 0.37 kW 0.55 kW 0.75 kW 1.1 kW 1.5 kW 2.2 kW 3.0 kW

4.0 kW 5.5 kW 7.5 kW 11.0 kW 15.0 kW 18.5 kW 22.0 kW 30.0 kW 37.0 kW

45 kW 55 kW 75 kW 90 kW 110 kW 132 kW 160 kW 200 kW

38

5.3 International Protection Classes according to EN 60529 (IEC 529 / VDE 047 T1) IP x y
x 0 1 Protected against... No protection Protected against solid objects over 50mm e.g. accidental touch by hands Protected against solid objects over 12mm e.g. fingers Protected against solid objects over 2.5mm (tools and wires) Protected against solid objects over 1mm (tools, wires and small wires) Protected against dust limited ingress (no harmful deposit) y 0 1 Protected against... No protection Protected against vertically falling drops of water Protected against direct sprays of water up to 15 from the vertical Protected against sprays up to 60 from the vertical Protected against water sprayed from all directions limited ingress permitted Protected against low pressure jets of water from all directions limited ingress permitted Protected against strong jets of water e.g. for use on ship decks limited ingress protected Protected against the effects of temporary immersion between 15cm and 1m. Duration of test 30 minutes Protected against long periods of immersion under pressure

2 3

2 3

Totally protected against dust

39

5.4 Power Consumption of Electric Preheaters . mF (2 1) 1,585

in kW

P = power consumption in kW 2 = outlet temperature in C . 1 = inlet temperature in C mF = oil flow rate in kg/h 5.5 Calculation of the Furnace Heat Release Rate . . mF (or VF) LHV 3.53 . qft 2 Dft Lft 107 . mF or VF LHV Dft Lft = = = = in MW/m3

fuel consumption in kg/h or m3 /h heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 inner flame tube diameter in m flame tube length without reversal chamber in m

5.6 Flue Gas Temperature for Boilers without Economisers f saturated steam or hot water temperature + 40 C 5.7 Conversion of an Air or Gas Flow Rate from Standard Conditions to Operating Conditions . V in m3 /h 1,013 . . 273 + V(at OTP) = V(at STP) p in mbar 1,013 + p 273 in C 5.8 Pressure Loss of a Liquid or Gas Flow p = p = = = w = 40 1 w2 2 100 in mbar

pressure loss resistance coefficient (if unknown: use 1) density flow rate

5.9 Fuel Oil Lines Tube Diameters and Pressure Losses

V Di = 0,354 w .

in mm . V in l/h w in m/s

5 11.5 5

38 8 75 5 170 70 70 340 40 0 780 80 80

Example: delivery rate: tube: liquid velocity: viscosity: pressure loss:

1,000 l/h DN 40 0.2 m/s 38 cSt 0.3 bar per 100 m straight line 41

5.10 Velocity of Flow in Pipelines

Fluid (medium) Type of pipeline Potable and non-potable water - main lines long distance lines local lines house lines Pressure water lines (depending on the length) Feedwater suction lines Feedwater pressure lines Condensate lines upstream of the steam trap Steam lines Exhaust steam lines Pressure lines Long-distance gas lines Suction lines Pressure lines Suction lines Pressure lines up to 2 bar up to 5 bar above 5 bar < 10 bar 10 40 bar 40 125 bar m/s 12 up to 3 0.6 0.7 2 15 30 0.5 1 1.5 2.5 12 15 20 20 40 30 60 15 25 15 25 4 20 11 35 15 40 1 1.5 2 0.1 0.5 0.5 1

Water

Steam

Air

Gas

EL fuel oil

HFO

42

5.11 Seamless Steel Tubes to EN 10220, Series 1

Nominal bore Suitable for BSPT pipe thread Outer diameter Wall thickness Inner Tube weight Volume flow cross-section rate at 1 m/s . Di in mm A in cm G1 in kg/m V in m3 /h Inner diameter

DN in mm 10 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400

R in inches 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 5

Do in mm 17.2 21.3 26.9 33.7 42.4 48.3 60.3 76.1 88.9 114.3 139.7 168.3 219.1 273.0 323.9 355.6 406.4

d in mm 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.5 6.3 6.3 7.1 8.0 8.8

13.6 17.3 22.3 28.5 37.2 43.1 54.5 70.3 82.5 107.1 131.7 159.3 206.5 260.4 309.7 339.6 388.8

1.45 2.35 3.90 6.37 10.9 14.6 23.3 38.8 53.5 90.0 136.0 199.0 334.0 532.0 753.0 906.0 1,180.0

0.684 0.952 1.40 1.99 2.55 2.93 4.11 5.24 6.76 9.83 13.4 18.2 33.1 41.4 55.5 68.6 86.3

0.52 0.85 1.40 2.30 3.92 5.25 8.40 14.0 19.3 32.4 49.0 71.8 122.0 192.0 270.0 327.0 426.0

. V = volume flow rate in l/h w = velocity in m/s Example: . V = 5.25 m3 /h = 5,250 l/h w = 1 m/s . D = 0.354 V = 43.1 mm DN 40 =
i w

43

5.12 Dimensioning Saturated Steam Lines

44

5.13 Guide Values for Economisers

A = return flow / feedwater B = flue gas Guide value Lowering the flue gas temperature by 30 C improves the efficiency rate by approx. 1%. Using an economiser increases the boiler efficiency rate by approx. 4 - 5%. Flue gas temperature limits Hot water boilers: minimum return flow temperature operating on gas > 60 C minimum return flow temperature operating on oil > 65 C With steam boilers the flue gas temperature must be approx. 60 - 80 C higher than the steam temperature.

45

6
Emissions, Limits for Flue Gas and Noise

6.1 Emissions Limits for Firing Plants

(The German Federal Immission Control Acts ("BImSchV") are among the worlds strictest. The limits given in this table are valid in Germany at the time of printing. They are subject to ongoing revision. )

EL fuel oil / liquid fuels

German Emmissions Regulation

NOx mg/m3
1)

NOx CO mg/kWh mg/m3 120 2) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

SO2 mg/m3 0.85 g/m3 3) 850 400-200 4) 200

Dust Soot Remarks mg/m3 no. 50 20 20 20 20 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1st BlmSchV 120 kW 2003-08-14 > 120 kW < 10 MW 10 < 20 MW 4th BlmSchV 20 < 50 MW 2003-08-14 ("TA Luft") 1 (5) < 50 MW 13th 50 100 MW BlmSchV > 100 MW 2004-07-20 50 100 MW > 100 300 MW > 300 MW

180 200 250 0.18 g/m3 2) 0.20 g/m3 2) 0.25 g/m3 2) 0.35 g/m3 2) 200 200 350 200 150

operating temp. operating temp. operating temp. operating temp. operating temp. operating temp.

< 110 C 110 210 C > 210 C < 110 C 110 210 C > 210 C

all oils except EL fuel oil EL fuel oil, quality acc. to 3. BlmSchV all oils except EL fuel oil quality acc. to 3rd BlmSchV

1) "state of the art" standard 2) The NOx emissions for EL fuel oil are based on a fuel nitrogen content of 140 mg/kg acc. to EN 267. 3) The SO2 emissions for a burner output of up to 5 MW must not be any higher than those from EL fuel oil. 4) linear decrease The emissions limits given are based on a residual oxygen content in the flue gas of 3% O2,dry.

Natural gas / other gaseous fuels 1st BlmSchV 120 kW 2003-08-14 > 120 kW < 10 MW 10 < 20 MW NOx mg/m3
1)

4th BlmSchV 20 < 50 MW 2003-08-14 ("TA Luft")

13th BlmSchV

2004-07-20

50 300 MW

> 300 MW

100 110 150 0.10 g/m3 0.11 g/m3 0.15 g/m3 100 2) 110 2) 150 2) 100

NOx mg/kWh 80

CO mg/m3 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 3) 50 3) 50 3) 50 3)

SO2 mg/m3 10 10 10 35 4) 35 4) 35 4) 35 4)

Dust Soot Remarks mg/m3 no. 0 0 0 operating temp. 0 operating temp. 0 operating temp. 5 0 operating temp. 5 0 operating temp. 5 0 operating temp. 5) 5 operating temp. 5 5) operating temp. 5 5) operating temp. 5 5)

< 110 C 110 210 C > 210 C < 110 C 110 210 C > 210 C < 110 C 110 210 C > 210 C

1) "state of the art" standard 2) 200 mg/m3 for other gaseous fuels 3) 80 mg/m3 for other gaseous fuels; 100 mg/m3 for blast-furnace gas or coke-oven gas 4) 5 mg/m3 when firing liquid gas; 200 mg/m3 for blast-furnace gas with a low heating value; 350 mg/m3 for coke-oven gas with a low heating value 5) 10 mg/m3 when firing blast-furnace gas or coke-oven gas The emissions limits given are based on a residual oxygen content in the flue gas of 3% O2,dry.

Solid or liquid waste

17th BlmSchV

2003-08-14

NOx mg/m3 200 400

NOx CO mg/kWh mg/m3 50 100

SO2 mg/m3 50 200

Dust C H Remarks mg/m3 x y 10 10 daily average 30 20 half-hour average

The emissions limits given are based on a residual oxygen content in the flue gas of 11% O2,dry.

47

6.2 Continuous Monitoring acc. to "TA Luft"*

Liquid fuels 1) Flue-gas opacity Dust CO SO2 NOx 1) Performance data: burner output of the individual firing plants 2) When fuels other than EL fuel oil are fired, a record must be kept of the sulphur content. * The German Clean Air Act goes beyond EU requirements and is among the strictest in the world. 5 up to 25 MW 5 MW EL fuel oil > 25 MW except for EL fuel oil > 25 MW
2)

Gaseous fuels 1)

> 50 MW

6.3 Estimation of the Solid Content in the Flue Gas of Liquid Fuels solid content = ash content 830 + X solid content in mg/m3 dry flue gas ash content in % X = depending on the plant : from 10 to 40 in mg/m3

6.4 Estimation of the SOx Content in the Flue Gas SOx content in mg/m3 = fuel sulphur content in wt. % 1700 fuel sulphur content: HFO approx. 0.3 wt. % 3000 mg/kg = EL fuel oil approx. 0.015 wt. % 150 mg/kg =

48

6.5 Conversion of Emissions Values Depending on the fuel and the type of firing plant, the emissions values are based on a defined oxygen concentration in the dry flue gas (O2, dry in vol. %). The conversion of ppm to mg/m3 , based on the prescribed O2 value, is done in two steps: 6.5.1 Equation for Correction to the O2 Reference Value E= 21 X Emeas 21 O2, meas

E emission, based on X% O2 e.g. NO, SO2, CO = X = O2 reference value in volume percent 6.5.2 Factors for Conversion from ppm to mg/m3

1 ppm CO = 1.25 mg CO/m3 1 ppm NO 2.05 mg NO2/m3* 1 ppm NO = 1.34 mg NO/m3 1 ppm SO2 = 2.93 mg SO2/m3
*Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are understood as the mixture of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The NOx concentration is calculated in mg NO2/m3

49

6.5.3 Correction of the Influence of the Temperature and Humidity of the Combustion Air on the NOx Emissions*
NOx,ref = NOx,meas +

0.02 NOx,meas - 0.34 1 - 0.02 (hmeas - 10)

(hmeas - 10) + [0.85 (20 - meas)]

NOx,meas = NOx value in mg/kWh, measured at hmeas and meas in the 50 mg/kWh to 300 mg/kWh range hmeas = humidity during measurement of NOx,meas in g/kg in the 5 g/kg to15 g/kg range meas = temperature in C during measurement of NOx,meas NOx,ref = corrected NOx value in mg/kWh at a humidity of 10g/kg and a temperature of 20 C (reference conditions). For this calculation the temperature meas must be within a tight range: - for EL fuel oil between 15 and 30 C - for public utility gases between 15 and 25 C

6.5.4. Correction of the Influence of the Nitrogen Content in the Oil on the NOx Emissions* To correct the NOx value, the actual nitrogen content Nmeas of the oil must be known (e.g. from an analysis). NOx(EN267) = NOx,ref - (Nmeas - Nref) 0.2 NOx(EN267) = NOx value in mg/kWh corrected to the reference value for nitrogen in the oil NOx,ref = NOx value calculated according to [6.5.3] Nmeas = measured nitrogen content of the oil Nref = reference value for the nitrogen content in the oil (140 mg/kg)
*According to EN267, symbols harmonised

50

6.6 Acid Dew Points and Minimum Flue Gas Temperatures Acid dew point Natural gas EL fuel oil HFO*
*1% sulphur content

Min. flue gas temperature > 100 C > 150 C > 180 C

approx. 55 C approx. 120 C approx. 155 C

6.7 Emissions Conversion

ppmv 0% O2, ppmv 3% O2, mg NOx/kg mg NOx/m dry dry fuel (at STP) fuel ppmv 0% O2, dry ppmv 3% O2, dry mg NOx/kg fuel mg NOx/m (at STP) fuel mg NOx/m (at STP) dry flue gas 3% O2 mg NOx/MJ (LHV) mg NOx/kWh or g NOx/MWh 1 1.15 0.043 0.050 0.87 1 0.037 0.043 23.39 27.29 1 1.18 19.84 23.15 0.85 1 mg NOx/m (at STP)
dry flue gas , 3% O2

mg NOx/MJ mg NOx/kWh (LHV) or g NOx/MWh 0.49 0.57 0.021 0.025 1.76 2.05 0.075 0.089

1.78 2.05 13.29 0.089

0.562

0.488

0.075

11.24

0.28

1.0

2.045 0.568

1.754 0.487

47.62 13.30

40.00 11.20

3.6 1

1 0.28

3.6 1

51

6.8 Addition of the Sound Levels of Several Sound Sources

Example: 2 sound sources with 80 dB each

difference in level : 3 dB total level : 83 dB

Example: sound source 1: 80 dB sound source 2: 75 dB 52

difference in level : 5 dB increase in the level : 1.2 dB total level : 81.2 dB

7
Basic Business Formulae

7.1 Pre-Investment Analysis, Static Method There are a number of key figures you can calculate in order to estimate the costs of an investment (e.g. a plant modernisation). The following calculation is simplified but it is close enough for a rough estimate. Proceed step by step: 1. 1a. 1b. 1c. 1d. Collect the basic data. Determine the fuel costs per year up to now. Determine the expected fuel costs per year. Calculate the fuel savings [F] per year. Estimate roughly the plant investments [C].

2. Calculation of the debt service [CD] of the investment [C]* - (assumed interest rate: 10%)
*simplified calculation of the average capital expenditure

CD = C . 10% 2 100% 3. Calculation of the write-off for depreciation [W] of the investment [C] for the service life (example: 10 years) W= C 10

4. Calculation of the annual cost savings [S] S = F + CD + W 5. Calculation of the annual cash return [CR] CR = S + W 6. Calculation of the amortisation / pay-off period / pay-back period [PB] PB = C CR 7. Calculation of the return on investment [ROI] / yield*
C *You can also use 2 instead of C.

ROI = S C

54

7.2 Profitability Diagram for Firing Plants with Oxygen Control

Example: original efficiency rate efficiency rate improvement from O2 control average boiler output operating hours per year

88 % 1% 6 MW 5,000

Savings of 32.5 metric tons of EL fuel oil per year. 55

7.3 Calculation of the Gross and Net Price of heat

price of the mass (volume) unit of fuel [ /100 l] or [ /m]
lower heating value of the mass (volume) unit of fuel (LHV)

gross heat price [ /GJ]

[kJ/kg] or [kJ/m]

net heat price[ /GJ]

gross heat price [ /GJ] 100% annual operating efficiency rate %

Average annual operating efficiency rates* with EL fuel oil 82% with HFO 81% with natural gas and liquid gas 83%
*assuming an optimum combustion efficiency rate

Example calculation:
fuel: EL fuel oil, LHV = 42,700 kJ/kg price: 85 /100 l density: 0.83 kg/l gross heat price = 85 /100 l 106 kJ/GJ 42,700 kJ/kg 83 kg/100 l
23.98 /GJ 0.82

= 23.98 /GJ

net heat price =

= 23.98 /GJ

56

8
Overview of Important Standards and Directives

8.1 Overview of Important Standards and Directives* EN 267 EN 676 EN 230 EN 298 Automatic forced draught burners for liquid fuels Automatic forced draught burners for gaseous fuels Automatic burner control systems for oil burners Automatic gas burner control systems for gas burners and gas burning appliances with or without fans Electrical equipment for furnaces and ancillary equipment. Requirements for application, design and installation Water-tube boilers and auxiliary installations Shell boilers Industrial thermoprocessing equipment. Safety requirements for combustion and fuel handling systems (IEC 529 / VDE 047 T1) Specifications for degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)

EN 50156

EN 12952 EN 12953 EN 746-2

EN 60529

58

Directive 94/9/EC

of the European Parliament concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres of the European Parliament on minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres of the European Parliament on Machinery ("Machinery Directive") of the European Parliament on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning pressure equipment ("Pressure Equipment Directive") of the Council on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to applicances burning gaseous fuels ("Gas Appliance Directive") of the European Parliament on the harmonisation of the laws of the Member States relating to electrical equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits ("Low Voltage Directive")

Directive 1999/92 EC

Directive 2006/42/EG Directive 97/23/EG

Directive 90/396/EWG

Directive 2006/95/EG

*The Technical Rules for Steam Boilers (TRD) rulebook is obsolete and is no longer listed here.

59

8.2 Explosion Protection Selecting and Marking Equipment *

*Based on ATEX Directive 94/9/EC for the EU. Although international harmonisation is in progress (IEC), certain country-specific standards apply elsewhere.

8.2.1 Definition of the Explosion Protection Zones

Explosive mixture present continuously, for long periods or frequently in normal operation occasionally in normal operation unlikely or only briefly Zone for gases zone 0 zone 1 zone 2 Zone for dusts zone 20 zone 21 zone 22

8.2.2 Selecting the Equipment Category

Explosion protection for gases Zone 0 1 2 Category 1G 1G or 2G 1G, 2G or 3G Explosion protection for dusts Zone 20 21 22 Category 1D 1D or 2D 1D, 2D or 3D

8.2.3 Equipment Marking

(minimum requirements acc. to 94/9/EC) General information on the manufacturer CE mark EX mark Name, address of the manufacturer, series, model, serial number, year of manufacture CE with the number of the notified body

Equipment group

I mines (methane, dusts) II all other potentially explosive areas 1G, 2G, 3G or 1D, 2D, 3D for zones 0, 1, 2 respectively or for zones 20, 21, 22

Category

60

8.2.4 Explosion Group Classification

Explosion Group Example material Maximum experimental safe gap > 1.1 mm > 0.9 mm > 0.5 mm < 0,5 mm

I IIA IIB IIC

methane propane ethylene hydrogen

8.2.5 Ignition Protection Class

Identifier* Ex p Ex c Ex d Ex de Ex ia Ex ib Ex em Ex b Ex k Ex nA Ignition protection class pressurized enclosure constructional safety pressure-tight enclosure pressure-tight enclosure with increased connection safety intrinsically safe for zone 0 Example application ventilated control cabinet new, for non-electrical components in particular for motors local control boxes instrumentation

intrinsically safe for zones 1 and 2 instrumentation increased safety / encapsulation pilot valves protection by control of ignition sources liquid immersion non-sparking new, for non-electric components transformers electric motors

* As of 2008-10-01; 'EEx' on equipment marked according to the previous standard

61

Nomenclature
Conventions EL fuel oil light fuel oil to DIN 51603-1 HFO heavy fuel oil to DIN 1603-3 Abbreviations and Symbols A area cos electric power factor d relative density d wall thickness D diameter DN nominal diameter E emission G weight h enthalpy h humidity HHV higher heating value I electric amperage L length LFL lower flammability limit LHV lower heating value . m mass flow rate, consumption MSL mean sea level n number, quantity n rate of revolution OTP operating temperature and pressure p pressure P power / wattage . q heat release rate . Q burner output r latent heat of vaporisation R pipe thread R electric resistance STP standard temperature and pressure U voltage UFL upper flammability limit V volume v specific volume . V volume flow rate, consumption w speed, flow rate X an arbitrary value, result of a calculation Greek Letters dynamic viscosity efficiency rate difference excess air factor kinematic viscosity density temperature in C resistance coefficient Subscripts a air abs absolute b boiler bd blow-down d dew point dry dry dyn dynamic eff effective f flue gas F fuel fl flash ft flame tube fw feedwater g gas i inner ign ignition L sound level (volume) max maximum value meas measured min minimum value o outer ph phase ref reference s steam sat saturation sh shaft st stoichiometric sta static std standard wet wet

62

Notes

Notes

6th Edition Editorial team: J.P. Arning W. Peters B. Rieger T. Schmidt Dr. N. Schopf J. Sternberg Published by: SAACKE GmbH Suedweststrasse 13 28237 Bremen Germany Phone: +49 - 421- 64 95 0 Fax: +49 - 421- 64 95 224 www.saacke.com E-mail: info@saacke.com

SAACKE 2009