Stress and Strain

Danial J. Neebel, Joseph R. Blandino, and David J. Lawrence, College of Integrated Science and Technology James Madison University

Instructors Portion
Summary
This lab illustrates the use of a strain gage. The gage is bonded near the clamped end of a cantilever beam. Weights are applied to the free end of the beam. The strain gage measures the axial elongation of the beam. The students plot a force vs. strain curve using LabVIEW. They then analyze the data and plot a stress vs. strain curve. From this curve, the students determine the modulus of elasticity of the beam. The students must determine the material used to fabricate the beam.

Uses
This exercise applies to mechanical engineering, physics, or a general instrumentation course.

Equipment List
Computer running Windows, Macintosh, Linux, Sun, or HP-UX (visit http://www.ni.com/labview/lv_sysreq.htm for requirements specific to your operating system) SCXI Bundle from National Instruments (part number 777448-37) LabVIEW Full Development System PCI-6024E Data Acquisition Board SCXI 1000 chassis SCXI 1349 cable SCXI 1180 feedthrough panel (not used in this experiment)

SCXI Module from National Instruments

 SCXI 1121 4 Channel Isolation Amplifier (part number 776572-21) SCXI Terminal Block from National Instruments SCXI 1321 For use with the SCXI 1121 (part number 777687-21) Strain Gage Cantilever beam Metal plate Clamp Mass hanger and variety of masses Balance for accurately measuring the masses Websites Omega www.omega.com National Instruments www.ni.com

Setup
Computer-based measurement systems are used in a wide variety of applications. In laboratories, in field services and on manufacturing plant floors, these systems act as general-purpose measurement tools well-suited for measuring voltage signals. However, many real-world sensors and transducers require signal conditioning before a computer-based measurement system can effectively and accurately acquire the signal. The front-end signal conditioning system can include functions such as signal amplification, attenuation, filtering, electrical isolation, simultaneous sampling, and multiplexing. In addition, many transducers require excitation currents or voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or high amplification for proper and accurate operation. Therefore, most computer-based measurement systems include some form of signal conditioning in addition to plug-in data acquisition (DAQ) devices. For more information on signal conditioning for computer-based data acquisition systems you can find National Instruments Application Note 48 online at www.ni.com. The LabVIEW VI is the Strain VI. Students input the beam dimensions and the applied load. The students must be careful to use consistent units. The bridge circuit is balanced using the offset potentiometer on the VI

Stress and Strain

front panel. Using the offset potentiometer is preferable to having the students adjust the offset on the SCXI-1321 terminal block.

Figure 1. Basic Setup for a Beam Under a Stress Load Follow the steps listed to prepare the workstations for this experiment. The instructions assume you are using the equipment list shown previously. Note: Most of the manuals that are referred to ship with National Instruments hardware and software. If you cant find your hardcopy of the manuals, you can get them online at http://www.ni.com/manuals. If you encounter problems during setup, contact technical support at http://www.ni.com/support. Before the Day of the Lab 1. Configure the cantilever beam and weight measurement device. a. The beam is made of 6061 aluminum, but other materials can be used. The beam dimensions are 12.5 1.0 0.125 inches. b. c. d. The weight is applied 0.25 in. from the free end. Attach the strain gage 10.188 in. from the free end. The beam is clamped 11.0 in. from the free end.

Stress and Strain

e. f.

The beam is clamped to the edge of a table. A metal plate is used between the beam and the clamp.

2. Install LabVIEW (see the LabVIEW Release Notes for your version of LabVIEW). 3. Install your PCI-6024E board (see the 6023E/6024E/6025E User Manual). 4. Configure the SCXI 1121 (see the SCXI 1121 User Manual). a. Enable shunt calibration for channel 0.

b. The SCXI 1121 has jumper settings that need to be made for this experiment. i. Set the gain to an appropriate value for your sensor. Think of the gain as a scaling factor that makes the sensor voltage fit well within the measurement system range. First, determine the maximum voltage output of the sensor for the temperature range it will experience. Then determine the maximum voltage the system can measure. The gain is found by dividing the system voltage by the sensor voltage. For example, if your sensor outputs a maximum of 0.01 volts and the measurement system has a range of 0 10 volts, you would set the gain to 1000. Set the jumpers for a half-bridge completion network for channel 0. Leave the rest of the jumpers in their factory settings. c. Install the SCXI 1121 into slot 0 of the SCXI 1000 chassis.

ii. iii.

d. Connect the strain gage to channel 0 of the SCXI 1321 terminal block. e. Connect the SCXI 1321 terminal block to the SCXI 1121 module. 5. Cable the PCI-6024E to the SCXI 1121 module with the SCXI 1349 (see the SCXI 1349 Shielded Installation Guide). 6. Configure the PCI-6024E board and the SCXI 1121 module (see the NI- DAQ Release Notes for your version of NI-DAQ).

Stress and Strain

 When configuring the SCXI 1121 make sure the software settings match the jumper settings on the physical module. 7. Create the following directory in your LabVIEW folder:
\\LabVIEW\Experiments\Stress and Strain.

8. Copy Stress and Strain.llb into the Stress and Strain folder you just created. 9. Conduct a run-through of the lab procedure the students will perform. On the Day of the Lab 1. Power up the computer and SCXI chassis. 2. Make sure the students have enough masses at their workstations.

References
John A. Allocca, Transducers: Theory and Applications, Reston Pub. Co. Wheeler, Anthony J. and Ganji, Ahmad R. (1996), Introduction to Engineering Experimentation, Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Students Portion
Introduction
Strain gages are important to any device under stress or strain. Strain gages provide solutions to many real world systems and testing. In this lab, you will apply various loads to the cantilever beam and measure the strain using a pre-written LabVIEW program.

Objective
To use strain gages for measurement of strain. To determine the modulus of elasticity of a cantilever beam.

To use Hookes Law to determine the modulus of elasticity of an unknown material.

Stress and Strain

Theory
Design of Strain Gages Strain gages are used as sensing elements in displacement or load measurement systems. They can be used to measure extremely small deformations. Strain gages are made of fine wire with a certain crosssectional area (A), initial length (L), and resistivity ( ). The resistance of the wire changes when the wire is displaced due to stress. The stress is an applied load acting over the cross-sectional area of the wire. The following equation defines the resistance (R) of the strain gage wire:
R=

L
A

It is common to use a gage factor (G) to describe the changes in resistance ( R) of the strain gage due to changes in length ( L) of the wire. The gage factor is also used to compare various strain-gage materials: gage factor = G =
R / R where L / L

L is defined as strain L

So, strain is the change in length over the original length. The units are typically mm/mm or in/in. Sometimes the term strain (micro-strain) is used, meaning 10-6 in/in. Stress and Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus) By mounting strain gages to the surface (top and/or bottom) of a cantilever beam, you can measure the axial deformation of the beam (the deformation along the length of the beam) when a transverse load is applied to the end of the beam. The amount of deformation can be related to the strain using the previous gage factor equation. Figure 2 shows a strain gage bonded to the top surface of the cantilever beam.

Figure 2. Cantilever Beam with a Strain Gage Mounted on the Top When a load (P) is applied at the end of the beam, the tensile stress ( ) along the x-axis at the top surface is given as:

Stress and Strain

 = where:

M c I

(1)

M = bending moment (units of N-m). M is the product of the effective beam length and the force (P) applied at the end of the beam. c = distance from neutral axis of beam (m), Typically c = t/2, where t is the beam thickness. I = moment of inertia for a cross section of the beam (units are m4).
bt 3 . 12

The moment of inertia is I = P = load (N).

L = effective beam length = distance between the point where the load is applied and the center of the strain gage (m). b = beam width (m). t = beam thickness (m).

You can find the stress from the applied force and beam geometry, as given by equation 1, and measure the strain with a strain gage. Conveniently, a relationship exists between the two. The modulus of elasticity (E) is an index of the stiffness of the material. When a load (that is, force) is applied to metal such as an aluminum alloy or steel, the strain of the material changes linearly as a function of the stress over a certain, usually small, range. Within this range, the beam exhibits elastic deformation (that is, elastic or reversible strain). When the deformation is not permanent, it is called elastic deformation. That is, when a force is applied, the beam will bend downward and elongate. When the force is removed, the beam will return to its original shape. The modulus of elasticity (E) is the ratio of stress to elastic strain and has units of N/m2: E=

(2)

For this lab, strain will be measured by a strain gage bonded to the top surface of a beam. By applying a known load, the stress is calculated using Equation 1. After applying several different loads and measuring the strain directly using a strain gage, you can plot the stress-strain graph. The slope of this graph is the modulus of elasticity as predicted by Equation 2.

Stress and Strain

Note: The location and position of the strain gage is critical. You must know if the position of the gage will result in axial, shear, torsional, or bending strains, or any combination. Bridge Circuits Usually, strain gages are connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in Figure 3. The change in resistance of the strain gage due to an applied force can be measured as the output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The bridge circuit shown has a single strain gage and three fixed resistors and is called a quarter-bridge circuit.

Figure 3. Wheatstone Bridge with Strain Gage, R3 R3 is the strain gage resistance. Therefore,
R3 R4 V0 = R +R R +R 3 1 4 2 Vs

When V0 = 0, the bridge is said to be balanced. The only way to balance the bridge is to set:
R3 R4 =0 R2 + R3 R1 + R4

or R1R3 = R2R4 R4 is typically a variable resistor used to balance the bridge. In this experiment, the offset potentiometer on the front panel of the LabVIEW VI is used to balance the bridge. Assuming the bridge is initially balanced, then when the strain gage is strained, R3 = R3 + R . The output of the bridge circuit becomes:

Stress and Strain

V0 =

R1 R V ( R2 + R3 + R )( R1 + R4 ) s

Because R is usually small compared to R3, it can be neglected from the denominator of the equation. Then, V0 becomes:

V0 =

R1 R V ( R2 + R3 )( R1 + R4 ) s

Note that V0 is a linear function of R. Now you can relate strain with the output voltage based on the following derivation. Because the gage factor (G) is equal to ( R/R))/( L/L), and strain ( ) is equal to L/L=( R/R)/G, the conversion from strain to output voltage is:

( R2 + R3 )( R2 + R4 ) V0
R1 R3 G Vs

You must know the gage factor (G) to get meaningful results.

Pre-Lab Preparation
Read through the theory section from this experiment to understand how strain gages are used to measure deformations. Find a reference and read about the modulus of elasticity. Find a table with the modulus of elasticity for common metals. You will need this table to complete the lab. Bring a ruler and a formatted virus-free disk to the lab.

Workstation Details
Your workstation should have the following items: A computer with National Instruments LabVIEW software National Instruments DAQ board (inside computer). National Instruments SCXI chassis.

Cantilever beam with mounted strain gage connected to SCXI input channel 0. Masses for hanging on the cantilever beam.

Stress and Strain

Balance for weighing masses.

Lab Procedure
1. Set up the software: a. Launch LabVIEW. b. Open the Stress and Strain.llb. The file is under
\\LabVIEW\Experiments\Stress and Strain on your

computer. c. On the front panel of Strain VI, under Output File, enter the filename a:\strain.dat. d. Put a formatted, virus-free disk into the drive. e. On the front panel of the Strain VI, set: Scan rate = 512. Gage factor = The gage factor provided with the manufacturers data for the gages used. Ask your instructor if you do not know the proper gage factor. Gage resistance = the resistance provided with the manufacturers specifications. This is not critical for this experiment, but you should know this information. Applied weight = 0. Bridge circuit type = Quarter.

f. Measure the width, thickness, and effective beam length (distance from the point where the mass is applied to the center of the strain gage). Enter the values on your data sheet and on the Strain VI front panel. 2. Balance the bridge: a. Run the Strain VI and watch the strain output display beneath the graph.

g. Use the offset potentiometer (use the dial as the coarse control and the arrows next to the digital indicator as the fine control) to set the strain output display to zero. Make sure the value is within 0.000002. h. Press the Keep Data button. 3. Take measurements with different loads or weights:

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a.

Choose a mass and weigh the entire mass and hanger on the balance to get an accurate measurement.

i. Hook the mass and the holder on the end of the cantilever beam and input the applied weight into the program. Be sure that the units you use are consistent! Be sure the mass is not swinging. j. When you are sure the mass is not moving and the strain measurement is stable, press the Keep Data button. k. Repeat steps a through c for at least five more weights. Make sure you get values across the range of 0 to 400 g. DO NOT EXCEED 450 g TOTAL! l. Take one last data point with no weight on the beam. The strain reading again should be within 0.000002. Press the Keep Data button. If you followed the lab instructions carefully, you did not exceed the elastic limit of the beam, so any change in the zero load strain of the beam can be attributed to drift in the bridge circuit. Any difference in the two no-load readings should be noted in your lab report. m. When finished gathering data, press the Save and Quit button on the front panel. n. Clean up your area and place the weights back into the rack. o. Exit LabVIEW. p. Retrieve your floppy disk with the strain.dat file for later data analysis.

Lab Report
You should submit an informal lab report. Your lab report should include the following information: Type all data into Excel and format it into tables.

Calculate the stress for each load applied and enter it into the Excel table you create. Graph the stress vs. strain and perform a linear regression on the data. Determine the modulus of elasticity from your graph and linear regression. From the value of the modulus of elasticity, determine the beam material. Make sure you label units for each variable. If the units are not consistent, you will not get the right modulus of elasticity. Show all

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your calculations, including conversion of units. Work in SI units (that is, kg, m, sec, N). Staple your data sheet to the back of your report.

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Data Sheet
1. Record the beam dimensions: Effective length:______________ Width:______________________ Thickness:___________________

4. Give two applications of strain gages.

5. Why do you need to set the offset potentiometer until output strain is zero when there is no weight on the beam? What function does it provide?

6. ____________ Demonstration of strain measurement.

(instructors initials)

7. Perform a sample calculation of the modulus of elasticity using one set of your strain and load measurement values. Show units throughout the calculation.

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8. Choose at least six different masses to span a range of loads from 0 to 400 grams.
Load (g) Strain

9. Plot stress vs. strain.

10. From the plot of stress vs. strain, determine the modulus of elasticity.

11. Based on the modulus of elasticity and physical appearance of the beam, what material is the beam?

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