A Review of Capacitor Placement Techniques on Distribution Feeders
J.C. Carlisle A.A. El-Keib
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, A1 35487-0286
Abstract
Optimal sizing and placement of shunt capacitors on
distribution feeders has received considerable attention
from researchers for many years. This paper presents an
extensive review of the different solution methods found
in the literature and is intended as a guide for those
interested in the problem or intending to do additional
research in the area. The assumptions made and a brief
description of the solution methods are presented.
Introduction
Transfer of electric energy from the source of
generation to the customer via the transmission and
distribution networks is accompanied by losses. The
majority of these losses occur on the distribution system.
It is widely recognized that placement of shunt capacitors
on the distribution system can lead to a reduction in
power losses. Increased competition in the industry has
created a renewed interest in improving efficiency by
reducing these losses. An overview of methods previously
considered for placement of capacitors is presented in this
paper. No attempt is made here to verify any of the claims
made by the authors, or to determine the effectiveness of
the methods described. A companion paper [l] describes
the general techniques in more detail and provides
additional insight into the problem.
Problem formulation
The problem, in general, is to determine the optimal
number, location, sizes, and switching times for
capacitors to be installed on a distribution feeder to
maximize cost savings subject to operating constraints.
Due to the complexity of the problem, the proposed
solution methods introduce one or more of the following
simplifying assumptions: (1) a uniform feeder, (2)
constant voltage profile, (3) linear capacitor cost, (4)non-
359
0-8186-7873-9197$10.00 0 1997 IEEE
D. Boyd K. Nolan
Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, A1 35291-0715
discrete capacitor sizes, ( 5 ) a radial feeder with no
laterals. The most commonly used assumption considers
capacitors to affect only the reactive current component.
Some of the proposed methods base the cost savings only
on reduction in peak power losses, while others consider
both peak power and energy loss reductions. Some
methods consider only fixed capacitors while others
consider both fmed and switched capacitors. Of the
methods which apply switched capacitors, there may be
limitations as to the switching times.
Review of existing solution approaches
Neagle and Samson [2] assume the load is uniformly
distributed along the feeder. They consider only peak
kilowatt loss savings with fixed capacitors and ignore the
cost of capacitors. Curves are presented which show the
reduction in losses as a function of capacitor size and
distance of capacitor from the substation. Where two
banks are to be installed, they consider equally sized
banks or one bank to be twice the size of the other. For
installation of three or four banks, equally sized
capacitors were assumed.
Cook [3] also addresses application of fixed capacitors
to a uniformly distributed load. However, instead of
considering reduction of peak power losses, savings are
based on energy loss reduction considering a time-varying
load. This analysis is extended in [4]to include switched
capacitors. Savings are calculated based on reduction of
both peak power losses and energy losses. An algorithm is
presented to calculate capacitor locations and savings as
total compensation is varied from 0.05 to 1.0 per unit of
feeder reactive load. The number of capacitors is varied
from one to four, assuming equally sized banks. A second
algorithm sizes and locates a fixed bank and a switched
bank as total compensation is varied from 0.05 to 1.0 per
unit. The optimal switching time is determined by
considering several switching times. In [5], Cook
 describes an incorrect method for calculating loss
reduction often used in the literature. The correct method
is also presented.
Maxwell [6] addresses the effects of capacitors on
reduction in kVA input, kW demand, and energy losses.
The algorithm presented is not based on an optimization
procedure, but is an aid in calculating savings due to
placement of capacitors.
Schmill [7] extends the work of Cook. Equations are
given for sizing and placement of n capacitors on a
uniform feeder with a uniformly distributed load. The
necessary conditions for optimal sizing and placement of
one or two capacitors on a feeder with discrete loads and
non-uniform resistance are presented. An iterative
approach is suggested to solve the problem.
Chang [8-111 assumes a feeder with a uniform load
and a concentrated end load. Accounting for both peak
power losses and energy losses, he determines the optimal
location of a fixed capacitor and the resulting savings,
given the capacitor size. The optimal solution is
determined by considering each of the available capacitor
sizes.
Duran [12] proposes a dynamic programming
approach to find the number, locations, and sizes of fixed
capacitor banks on a feeder with discrete loads.
Algorithms are presented for the special cases of no
capacitor cost, capacitor cost proportional to installed
capacity, and cost proportional to installed capacity plus a
fixed cost per capacitor bank. Alvarez and Molina [13]
also use dynamic programming. However, they propose
an approach to reduce the number of possible states to be
considered in order to reduce the solution time.
Szabados and Burgess [14] address the problem of
inductive interference with communication circuits caused
by the addition of shunt capacitors to an unbalanced
distribution system. Procedures for applying capacitors
while minimizing this interference are given.
Bae [15] assumes a uniformly distributed load along
the feeder, a constant voltage profile, and capacitors of
equal size. Capacitors are first optimally located for a
fixed load level. The methodology is extended to
determine the optimal capacitor locations for all load
levels up to the fixed level, without accounting for the
time duration of each load level. Finally, an algorithm is
presented for determination of the optimum compensation
level for a load with typical yearly characteristics. In all
cases, energy loss reduction as a result of fixed capacitors
only is considered and capacitor cost is ignored.
Grainger and Lee [16] propose a methodology which
considers non-uniform feeders and non-uniform loads. It
transforms a feeder with different wire sizes into an
equivalent uniform feeder (or the normalized equivalent
feeder). It also accounts for non-uniform reactive load
360
distribution by introducing the concept of the normalized
reactive current distribution function. The objective
function used consists of the peak power loss reduction,
energy loss reduction, and a linear cost of capacitors.
Constant voltage is assumed and only fixed capacitors are
considered. The necessary conditions for optimality are
used to determine optimal capacitor locations and sizes.
This results in the decomposition of the problem into two
subproblems. The first subproblem solves for capacitor
locations given sizes, while the second subproblem solves
for sizes given locations. The overall solution process
begins by choosing the number of capacitors to be
installed. The two problems are solved sequentially using
their “Equal Area Criterion” to guide the interaction
between them. This process continues until convergence
is achieved.
In [17], Grainger, Lee, Byrd, and Clinard modify [16]
to determine capacitor sizes by solving a set of linear
equations representing the necessary conditions
corresponding to the optimal sizes. Again, to determine
the optimal locations and sizes, the two subproblems are
solved sequentially in an iterative manner until
convergence is reached. The paper also presents results of
a sensitivity analysis to determine the effect on savings of
choosing the nearest standard size capacitors to those
calculated. In addition, a sensitivity analysis of cost with
respect to small changes in location was also included.
In [ 181, Lee and Grainger extended the methodology in
[16] to consider both switched and fixed capacitors. The
proposed approach uses the load duration curve to account
for the time variation of the reactive load. Optimal sizes,
locations, and switching time are determined for a given
number of fixed and switched capacitors, assuming
capacitors are switched simultaneously. The problem is
decomposed into 3 subproblems: (1) given locations and
switching time, determine optimal sizes, (2) given sizes
and locations, determine optimal switching time, and (3)
given sizes and switching time, determine locations. The
three subproblems are solved alternatively until
convergence is obtained. As in the case of finding sizes
and locations, the switching time is determined using the
necessary conditions for an optimal solution. It is
suggested by the authors that several initial conditions
could be chosen, and the global solution selected from
among the local optimals. Different capacitor costs are
used for fixed and switched banks, but both costs are
linear functions of size with no fixed charge. When using
this algorithm, it is necessary to specify the number of
fixed and switched capacitors to be used and their relative
placement with respect to each other along the feeder.
In [ 191, Grainger and Lee extended [ 161 to incorporate
the effect of voltage variation along the feeder. An outer
loop is added in which the load and capacitor currents are
adjusted based on the voltages obtained from a load flow
solution. The inner loop contains the two subproblems as
before. After convergence of the inner loop, it is necessary
to check for convergence of the outer loop.
In [201, Grainger, Lee, and El-Keib extend 1181 to
allow for different switching times for different capacitor
banks. This is done by assigning the capacitors to
different “groups” such that the capacitors in each group
are switched together. The relative switching times of the
groups and the relative placement of the individual
capacitors along the feeder must be specified. A procedure
is presented for determining the switching times for
capacitors which have been already placed. It should be
noted that [ 16-20] do not consider laterals.
Ponnavaikko and Rao [21] include the effect of load
growth and energy cost increase into the objective
function and solve the problem using the Method of Local
Variations. In this procedure, the capacitor at each bus is
a state variable. The procedure starts with any solution
which satisfies all voltage constraints. A check is made to
determine if additional savings will result from increasing
the size of the capacitor at a bus by a discrete amount,
which is determined by the minimum available capacitor
size. If so, the capacitor is set to the new size. Otherwise,
a check is made to see if a decrease in size will result in
an increase in savings. If so, the capacitor size at the bus
is decreased, otherwise no change is made and the method
proceeds to the next bus. An iteration is complete when
all buses have been checked. Convergence is reached
when all state variables remain unchanged throughout an
entire iteration.
Fawzi, El-Sobki, and Abdel-Halim [22] propose an
approach which considers two distinct optimization
problems depending on whether the kVA released by the
capacitor is used to feed additional loads through the
same feeder or a different feeder. They consider placing a
single capacitor on a uniform feeder. First, the
optimization problem is formulated for a constant feeder
load. Because of the complexity of the problem, a number
of special cases were considered. These are (1) neglecting
cost of energy losses, (2) maximum energy loss reduction,
(3) optimum solution based on released kVA with
adjustment for energy losses, and (4) optimum solution
based on the cost of energy losses against the cost of
capacitors. Each case simplifies the problem of
determining capacitor size and location. The second
optimization problem is then formulated assuming an
increase in feeder load due to the released kVA. Here it is
assumed that the maximum saving obtained depends on
the amount of load which can be added due to the released
kVA. The capacitor size, therefore, is dependent on the
voltage drop on the feeder at maximum load and the
voltage increase along the feeder at light loads.
361
Grainger, Civanlar, and Lee [23] assume continuous
control of capacitor output. The problem is divided into
an optimal design subproblem and an optimal control
subproblem. Sizes are rounded to the nearest standard
size and voltage variations are not considered. The
authors suggest the use of lookup tables to implement
switching on a seasonal or daily load profile. The
equation needed for solving for the location of capacitors
is not given.
In [24], Grainger, Civanlar, Clinard, and Gale are
concemed only with control, assuming capacitors are
already placed. The cases of equal tap sizes and tap size
dependent on capacitor size are addressed. The first case
is solved directly, while the second uses a branch-and-
bound technique. Both problems begin with the
continuous control problem. In [25], they include design
and control problems assuming capacitors are
continuously controlled. Balanced loads which are
varying conformally are assumed. The authors introduce
the V-P model which they claim obviates the need for a
load-flow solution while allowing inclusion of the effects
of voltage variation on the design and control phases of
an optimal capacitor compensation scheme.
In [26], Grainger, El-Keib, and Lee extend [16,19] to
include unbalanced feeders, In [27], El-Keib, Grainger,
Clinard, and Gale further extend this work to include
switched capacitors and laterals.
Kaplan [28] presents a heuristic approach which is
claimed to make none of the simplifying assumption used
in much of the earlier work. The approach first
determines the “best” locations and types (fixed or
switched) for the smallest available standard capacitor
size. After placement of these initial capacitors, an
attempt is made to improve savings by the addition of
larger banks or by combination of smaller banks into
larger units.
Iyer, Ramachandran, and Hariharan [29] formulate the
problem as a mixed integer linear programming problem,
which is decomposed into two smaller subproblems. The
first is a pure integer programming problem with b i i
variables, while the second is a linear programming
problem.
Salama, Chikhani, and Hackam [30] assume a fixed
load condition and a uniform feeder. A concentrated load
at the end of the feeder is dealt with separately. They
transform a non-uniform feeder into an equivalent
uniform feeder using the “base resistance” technique. The
example feeder used satisfies the conditions of a
uniformly distributed load. The proposed solution
algorithm determines capacitor sizes and locations, given
the number of capacitors and considering all capacitors to
be of the same size. The objective function does not
include energy loss reduction and a linear capacitor cost is
assumed. Capacitor sizes are rounded to the nearest
available size and energy losses are then calculated. Re-
location of existing capacitors after a load growth and
inclusion of released thermal capacity into the savings
calculation are also addressed. The paper includes a
simplified equation for calculation of voltage along the
equivalent uniform feeder once the capacitors have been
placed. In [311, the authors extend this paper to consider a
time-varying load.
Grainger and Civanlar [32,33] propose a solution
approach to the problem of determining voltage regulator
placement and control setting as well as capacitor
placement. This approach is based on decoupling the
overall problem into two subproblems, assuming that the
voltage regulators hold the bus voltages relatively
constant. Lateral and sublateral branches are considered.
A closed-form solution is given for the’problem of
capacitor sizing once the locations are known. The non-
linear cost of capacitors is incorporated. The claim is
made that regardless of system size, the computational
effort required is a function only of the number of
capacitors. The proposed algorithm initially assumes all
capacitors are switched. After the sizes and locations are
determined, the switching times are determined. During
this procedure, it may be determined from the switching
times that some of the capacitors should be fixed.
In [34], Rao and Radhakrishna summarize the results
of their investigation of the compensation of rural Indian
feeders which have poor voltage profiles. They propose a
two-level compensation scheme which incorporates both
shunt and series capacitors.
Bishop and Lee [35] describe an algorithm which
starts with the 2/3 rule, then tries all combination of user-
specified (or fewer) locations. Constraints are placed on
power factor at each bus and the user is permitted to
specify the minimum and maximum size of the capacitor
allowed at any location. Their paper does not include
details of the algorithm.
Rinker and Rembert [36] claim the biggest problem in
placing capacitors is a lack of data concerning the
reactive current profile along the feeder. They address
acquisition and treatment of data which is used to
determine the size and placement of both fixed and
switched capacitors. The method used to size and locate
capacitors is attributed to Grainger and Lee. It is assumed
switched capacitors are switched ”ON” whenever the load
reaches 1/2 the capacitor rating.
Ertem and Tudor [37] use the Method of Approximate
Programming. This method uses the first order terms of a
Taylor series expansion of both the objective function and
constraints to construct a linear program.
Baran and Wu [38] formulate the problem as a non-
linear, mixed integer programming problem. Capacitor
362
cost is approximated by a linear function and a fixed
charge. The solution method is decomposed into levels.
The top level, called the “master problem”, is an integer
programming problem which determines the number and
location of capacitors. The bottom level, called the “slave
problem”, is used to determine the sizes of the capacitors.
The slave problem is further decomposed into smaller
problems referred to as base problems. These base
problems are solved by an algorithm developed for a
special capacitor placement problem called the “sizing
problem”. The sizing problem is solved using an
algorithm based on a Phase I - Phase I1 feasible directions
approach, the details of which are presented in [39].
Finally, a heuristic procedure determines whether the
capacitors are of the fixed or switched type.
Ertem [40] proposes a quadratic programming
approach in which a quadratic objective function and
linear bus voltage and line loading constraints are used.
The programming problem is solved using Beale’s
algorithm. An iterative optimization procedure is
necessary, with bus voltages and angles updated between
iterations by running a load flow program.
Santoso and Tan [41] divide the distribution system
into several smaller subsystems, each of which is
optimized. “Interaction” variables are updated and the
process is repeated until the absolute value in savings
between iterations is small. Capacitor cost is a
differentiable function of size. The subsystem problems
are solved by a gradient search method.
Chiang, Wang, Cockings, and Shin [42] modify the
formulation of [38] to treat capacitor cost as a step-like
function and capacitor sizes as discrete variables. The
formulation allows the switched capacitors to be switched
as a block or in several consecutive steps as load varies.
The proposed solution method is based on the simulated
annealing optimization technique. The method is further
extended to unbalanced systems by Chiang, Wang, Tong,
and Darling in [43,44].
Baghzouz and Ertem [45] present an algorithm for
optimizing shunt capacitor sizes on radial distribution
lines with distorted voltages, such that the R M S voltages
and their total harmonic distortion lie within prescribed
limits. A heuristic algorithm based on the Method of
Local Variations is employed. Since only a local optimal
solution is guaranteed, it is suggested that several runs
with different initial solutions be made to identify other
local optimal solutions.
Augugliaro, Dusonchet, and Mangione [46] use
nonlinear programming for optimization of the number,
size, location, and switching-on times of both fixed and
switched capacitors. The model incorporates constraints
on the voltage rise at each bus. Implementation consists of
a combination of Fortran and MINOS/Augmented (a
 general-purpose projected augmented Lagrangian code).
Once the solution is obtained, capacitor sizes are chosen
as the nearest standard size. In [47], these authors, along
with Morana, consider on-line control of switched
capacitors in addition to the design problem.
Salama and Chikhani [48] attempt to formulate the
problem in a simple manner, without the use of a
sophisticatedoptimization technique. Laterals are handled
by first treating each lateral as a separate feeder. The
shunt capacitor location and size is then determined to
reduce peak power and energy losses. If the savings for
the lateral is zero or negative, no capacitor is placed on
that lateral. After determining whether capacitors should
be placed on each lateral, the optimum size and location
for all the capacitors is determined using the methods
presented in [3 11.
Lehtonen [49] follows a procedure similar to [18],
where the problem is broken into smaller subproblems.
Given the number of capacitors to be installed, initial
locations are chosen. The first subproblem determines the
sizes and switching times using an iterative process. The
second subproblem attempts to relocate the capacitors one
by one without changing the control times. The two
subproblems are repeated successively until convergence
is reached.
Ajjarapu and Albanna [50], Boone and Chiang [51],
and Sundhararajan and Pahwa [52], propose the use of a
genetic algorithm for placement and sizing of fixed
capacitors.
Bengiamin, Swain, and Holcomb [53-551 focus on
extending [16] to include laterals. The laterals are
considered in a process referred to as “zoning” in which
the feeder is separated into sections or “zones” based on
the position of load transfer switches. Compensation of
each zone is accomplished by treating the zone as a
separate feeder. Compensation on the main feeder is then
performed while accounting for the loads and any
capacitors placed on the laterals.
Roytelman, Wee, and Lugtu [56] focus on real-time
control of capacitors and voltage regulators. The
algorithm is based on the “oriented discrete coordinate
descent method’. Emphasis is placed on optimization in a
small number of steps, resulting in convergence to a local
optimal solution. This paper suggests that decoupling the
volt/VAR problems is undesirable. The power-flow
problem is repeatedly solved within the algorithm. The
effect of voltage on customer demand is also included in
the objective function.
Chen, Hsu, and Yan [57] formulate the problem as a
nonlinear programming problem and solve using the
MINOS optimization package. The formulation includes
the effectsof system unbalance.
363
Yang, Huang, and Huang [58] use a Tabu Search in
which the search is biased toward solutions with a better
objective function, while special features of the algorithm
prevent the solution from being trapped at a local
optimum solution.
Jiang and Baldick [59] present an algorithm which
combines the control of capacitors with switch
reconfiguration to minimize losses. Simulated annealing
is used to optimize the switch configuration while a
discrete optimization algorithm is used to determine the
optimal capacitor control.
Shao, Rao, and Zhang in [60] propose an expert
system solution approach that is based on a heuristic
graph search method using an evaluation function. It uses
the power loss sensitivity vector to guide the search
procedure. In [61], Santoso and Tan, proposed a two-
stage Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to solve the
problem of real-time control of multitap capacitors
considering a non-conforming load profile. Gu and Rizy
[62], proposed an ANN to control shunt capacitors and
voltage regulators.
Ng and Salama [63], have proposed a solution
approach to the capacitor placement problem based on
fuzzy sets theory. Using this approach, the authors
attempted to account for uncertainty in the parameters of
the problem. They model these parameters by possibility
distribution functions. Chin [MI, uses a fuzzy dynamic
programming model to express real power loss, voltage
deviation, and harmonic distortion in fuzzy set notation.
Bortignon and El-Hawary [65] have also presented a
review of capacitor placement techniques.
Conclusion
The capacitor placement problem is quite complex.
Researchers have used a wide variety of methods in an
attempt to solve the problem. This paper presents an
overview of these methods. It is clear from the existing
literature that several issues associated with both the
design and control problems need to be addressed.
References
[11 J.C.Carlisle, A.A.El-Keib, D.Boyd, K.Nolan, “Reactive
Power Compensation on Distribution Feeders”,
Proceedings of the 29th Symposium on System Theory,
Mar.9-11,1997, Cookeville, Tennessee.
[2] N.M.Neagle and D.R.Samson, “Loss Reduction from
Capacitors Installed on Primary Feeders”, AIEE
Transactions, Vo1.75, pt.III, 1956, pp. 950-959.
[3] R.F.Cook, “Analysis of Capacitor Application as Affected
by h a d Cycle”, AIEE Transactions, Vo1.78,pt. III, Oct.
1959, pp. 950-957.
 R.F.Cook, “Optimizing the Application of Shunt Capacitors
for Reactive-Volt-Ampere Control and Loss Reduction”,
AIEE Transactions (Power Apparatus and Systems), Aug.
1961, pp. 430-444.
R.F.Cook, “Calculating Loss Reduction Afforded by Shunt
Capacitor Application, “IEEE Tran. PAS, Dec. 1964, pp.
1227-1230.
M.Maxwel1, “The Economic Application of Capacitors to
Distribution Feeders”, AIEE Transactions, 1960, pp. 353-
359.
J.V.Schmil1, “Optimum Size and Location of Shunt
Capacitors on Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Transactions
PAS, Sept. 1965, pp. 825-832.
N.E.Chang, “Optimum Allocation of Shunt Capacitors and
Voltage Regulators on Primary Feeders”, presented at
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N.Y., Jan. 29 -
Feb. 3, 1967.
N.E.Chang, “Determination of Primary-Feeder, Losses”,
IEEE Tran. PAS, Dec. 1968, pp. 1991-1994.
[lo] N.E.Chang, “Locating Shunt Capacitors on Primary Feeder
for Voltage Control and Loss Reduction”, IEEE Trun. PAS,
Oct. 1969, pp. 1574-1577.
[I 11 N.E.Chang, “Generalized Equations on Loss Reduction
with Shunt Capacitor”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Sept./Oct. 1972 ,
pp. 2189-2195.
[I21 H.Duran, “Optimum Number, Location and Size of Shunt
Capacitors in Radial Distribution Feeders - A Dynamic
Programming Approach”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Sept. 1968, pp.
1769-1774.
[ 131 C.Alvarez, R.Molina, “Distribution Networks Loss
Reduction: Capacitor Allocation and Operation”, IFAC
Symposia Series, 1992, pp. 287-292.
[14] B.Szabados, E.J.Burgess, “Optimizing Shunt Capacitor
Installations Using Inductive Co-ordination Principles”,
IEEE Tran. PAS, JanJFeb. 1977, pp. 222-226.
[15] Y.G.Bae, “Analytical Method of Capacitor Allocation on
Distribution Primary Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS, July/Aug.
1978, pp. 1232-1238.
[16] J.J.Grainger and S.H.Lee, “Optimum Size and Location of
Shunt Capacitors for Reduction of Losses on Distribution
Feeders”, IEEE rran. PAS, Mar. 1981, pp. 1105-1 118.
[17] J.J.Grainger, S.H.Lee, A.M.Byrd and K.N.Clinard, “Proper
Placement of Capacitors for Losses Reduction on
Distribution Primary Feeders”, Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, 1980, pp. 593-603.
[18] S.H.Lee and J.J.Grainger, “Optimum Placement of Fixed
and Switched Capacitors on h m a r y Distribution Feeders”,
IEEE Tran. PAS, Jan. 1981, pp. 345-352.
[ 191 J.J.Grainger and S.H.Lee, “Capacity Release by Shunt
Capacitor Placement o n Distribution FeedGrs: A NGW
Voltage-Dependent Model”, IEEE Tran. PAS, May 1982,
pp. 1236-1243.
[20] J.J.Grainger, S.H.Lee, A.A.El-Keib, “Design of a Real-
Time Switching Control Scheme for Capacitive
Compensation of Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS,
Aug. 1982, pp. 2420-2428.
[21] M.Ponnavaikko and K.R.Prakasa Rao, ”Optimal Choice of
Fixed and Switched Shunt Capacitors on Radial
364
Distributors by the Method of Local Variations”, IEEE
Trans. PAS, June 1983, pp. 1607-1614.
[22] T.H.Fawzi, S.M.El-Sobki, M.A.Abde1-Halim, “New
Approach for the Application of Shunt Capacitors to the
Primary Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Jan. 1983,
pp. 10-13.
[23] J.J.Grainger, S.Civanlar, S.H.Lee, ”Optimal Design and
Control Scheme for Continuous Capacitive Compensation
of Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Trun. PAS, Oct. 1983, pp.
327 1-3278.
[24] J.J.Grainger, S.Civanlar, K.N.Clinard and L.J.Gale,
“Discrete-Tap Control Scheme for Capacitive
Compensation of Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS,
Aug. 1984, pp. 2089-2107.
[25] J.J.Grainger, S.Civanlar, K.N.Clinard, L.J.Gale, ”Optimal
Voltage Dependent Continuous-Time Control of Reactive
Power on Primary Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Sept. 1984,
pp. 2714-2722.
[26] J.J.Grainger, A.A.El-Keib, S.H.Lee, “Optimal Capacitor
Placement on Three-phase Primary Feeders: Load and
Feeder Unbalance Effects”, IEEE Trun. PAS, Oct. 1983,
pp. 3296-3305.
[27] A.A.El-Keib, J.J.Grainger, K.N.Clinard and L.J.Gale,
“Placement of Fixed and/or Non-Simultaneously Switched
Capacitors on Unbalanced Three-phase Feeders Involving
Laterals”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Nov. 1985, pp. 3298-3305.
[28] M.Kaplan, “Optimization of Number, Location, Size,
Control Type, and Control Setting of Shunt Capacitors on
Radial Distribution Feeders”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Sept. 1984,
pp. 2659-2665.
[29] S.Rama Iyer, K.Ramachandran and S.Hariharan, “Optimal
Reactive Power Allocation for Improved System
Performance”, IEEE Trans. PAS, June 1984, pp. 1509-
1515.
[30] M.M.A.Salama, A.Y.Chikhani, R.Hackam, “Control of
Reactive Power in Distribution Systems with an End-load
and Fixed Load Condition”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Oct. 1985,
pp. 2779-2788.
[31] M.M.A.Salama, A.Y.Chikhani, R.Hackam , “Control of
Reactive Power in Distribution Systems with an End-load
and Varying Load Condition”, IEEE Tran. PAS, Apr. 1985,
pp. 941-947.
[32] J.J.Grainger, S.Civanlar, “Volt/Var Control on Distribution
Systems with Lateral Branches Using Shunt Capacitors and
Voltage Regulators: Part I, Part II, Part ID”,IEEE Tran.
PAS, Nov. 1985, pp. 3278-3297.
[33] S.Civanlar, “Real-Time Volt/VAR Control on Distribution
Systems with Lateral Branches using Shunt Capacitors and
Voltage Regulators”, Ph.D. Dissertation, 1985, North
Carolina State University.
[34] M.V.Krishna Rao and CRadhakrishna, “Optimal
Capacitive Compensation of Distribution Feeders - A Two
Level Optimisation Approach”, Modelling, Sinzulation &
Control A: General Physics (Matter &Waves), 1985, pp.
15-30.
[35] M.T.Bishop, R.E.Lee,“Distribution System Line Loss
Reduction Through Enhanced Capacitor Location
 Techniques”, IEEE Tran. Power Systems, Apr. 1986, pp.
190-197.
[36] R.E.Rinker, D.L.Rembert, “Using the Reactive Current
Profile of a Feeder to Determine Optimal Capacitor
Placement”, Presented at IEEEPES Winter Power
Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, Feb. 2, 1987.
[37] S.Ertem, J.R.Tudor , “Optimal Shunt Capacitor Allocation
by Nonlinear Programming”, IEEE Tran. on Power
Delivery, Oct. 1987, pp. 1310-1316.
[38] M.E.Baran, F.F.Wu, “Optimal Capacitor Placement on
Radial Distribution Systems”, IEEE Tran. on Paver
Delivery, Jan. 1989, pp. 725-734.
[39] M.E.Baran, F.F.Wu , “Optimal Sizing of Capacitors Placed
on a Radial Distribution System”, IEEE Tran. on Power
Delivery, Jan. 1989, pp. 735-743.
[40] S.Ertem, “Optimal Shunt Capacitor Sizing for Reduced
Line Loading, Voltage Improvement and Loss Reduction of
Distribution Feeders”, Proc. of the Twenty-First Annual
North American Power Symposium, 1989, pp. 262-269.
[41] N.I.Santoso, O.T.Tan, “ Piecewise Method for Optimal
Sizing of Distribution Capacitors” Proc., IASTED
International Symposium on Simulation and Modelling,
Lugano, Switzerland,June 19-22, 1989.
[42] H.D.Chiang, J.C.Wang, O.Cockings, H.D.Shin, “Optimal
Capacitor Placements in Distribution Systems: Part I, Part
II”, IEEE Tran. on Power Delivery, Apr. 1990, pp. 634-
649.
[43] H.D.Chiang, J.C.Wang, J.Tong, G.Darling, “Optimal
Capacitor Placement, Replacement and Control in Large-
Scale Unbalanced Distribution Systems: System Modeling
and a New Formulation”, IEEE Tran. Power Systems, Feb.
1995, pp. 356-362.
[44] H.D.Chiang, J.C.Wang, J.Tong, G.Darling, “Optimal
Capacitor Placement, Replacement and Control in Large-
Scale Unbalanced Distribution Systems: System Solution
Algorithms and Numerical Studies“, IEEE Tran. Power
Systems, Feb. 1995, pp. 363-369.
[45] Y.Baghzouz, S.Ertem, “Shunt Capacitor Sizing for Radial
Distribution Feeders with Distorted Substation Voltages”,
IEEE Tran. on Power Delivery, Apr. 1990, pp. 650-657.
[46] A.Augugliaro, L.Dusonchet, S.Mangione, “Optimal
Capacitive Compensation on Radial Distribution Systems
Using Nonlinear Programming”, Electric Power Systems
Research, July 1990, pp. 129-135.
[47] A.Augugliaro, L.Dusonchet, S.Mangione, G.Morana,
‘Optimal Design and On-line Control of Switched
Capacitors in MV Radial Distribution Networks”, Proc. of
the Tenth Power Systems Computation Conference, Graz,
Austria, Aug. 19-24,1990.
[48] M.M.A.Salama, A.Y.Chikhani, “A Simplified Network
Approach to the Var Control Problem for Radial
Distribution Systems”, IEEE Tran. on Power Delivery, July
1993, pp. 1529-1535.
[49] M.Lehtonen, ”A Method for Optimal Sizing and Placement
of Remote Controlled Capacitors on Distribution Systems”,
Proc. of the Tenth Power System Computation
Conference, Graz, Austria, Aug. 19-24, 1990.
365
[50] V.Ajjarapu and Z.Albanna, “Application of Genetic Based
Algorithms to Optimal Capacitor”, Proc. of the First
International Forum on Applications of Neural Networks
to PowerSystems, 1991, pp. 251.
[51] G.Boone, H.D.Chiang, “Optimal Capacitor Placement in
Distribution Systems by Genetic Algorithm”, International
Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems, June
1993, pp. 155-162.
[52] S.Sundhararajan and A.Pahwa,” Optimal Selection of
Capacitors for Radial Distribution Systems Using a Genetic
Algorithm”, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Aug. 1994, pp.
1499-1507.
[53] N.N.Bengiamin, NSwain and F.H.Holcomb, “Reactive
Power Compensation in Distribution Networks - Case
Study”, IEE of Japan Power & Energy Conference, Tokyo,
July 1994.
[54] N.Swain, N.N.Bengiamin, F.H.Holcomb, “Computer Aided
Design for Reactive Power Compensation” , 30th Annual
Minnesota Power Conference, Oct. 4-6, 1994.
[55] N.K.Swain, “Design Methodologies for Energy and Power
Loss Reduction in Electric Distribution Networks”, Ph.D.
Dissertation, 1995, University of North Dakota.
[56] LRoytelman, B.K.Wee, R.L.Lugtu, “Volt/Var Control
Algorithm for Modem Distribution Management System”,
IEEE Tran. Power Systems, Aug. 1995, pp. 1454-1460.
[57] C.S.Chen, C.T.Hsu, Y.H.Yan, “Optimal Distribution
Feeder Capacitor Placement Considering Mutual Coupling
Effect of Conductors”, IEEE Tran. on Power Delivery, Apr.
1995, pp. 987-994.
[58] H.T.Yang, Y.C.Huang, C.L.Huang, “Solution to Capacitor
Placement Problem in a Radial Distribution System Using
Tabu Search Method”, Proc. of the Int’l Conf. on Energy
Management and Power Delivery, 1995, pp, 388-393.
[59] D.Jiang, R.Baldick, “Optimal Electric Distribution System
Switch Reconfiguration and Capacitor Control”, IEEE
Tran. Power Systems, May 1996, pp. 890-897.
[60] JShao, N.D.Rao, Y.Zhang , “A Capacitor Placement
Expert System”, International Journal of Engineering
Intelligent Systems for Electrical Engineering and
Communications,June 1994, pp. 105-114.
[61] N.I.Santosa and O.T.Tan, “Neural-Net Real-Time Control
of Capacitors Installed on Distribution Systems”, IEEE
Tran. on Power Delivery, Jan. 1990, pp. 266-272.
[62] Z.Gu, D.T.Rizy, “Neural Networks for Combined Control
of Capacitor Banks and Voltage Regulators in Distribution
Systems”, presented at 1996 IEEEPES Winter Meeting,
Jan. 21-25, 1996, Baltimore, MD.
[63] H.N.Ng, M.M.A.Salama ,‘‘Fuzzy Optimal Capacitor Sizing
and Placement”, Canadian Conference on Electrical and
Computer Engineering, 1995, pp. 680-683.
[64] H.C.Chin, “Optimal Shunt Capacitor Allocation by Fuzzy
Dynamic Programming”, Electric Power Systems Research,
NOV.1 9 9 5 , ~133-139.
~.
[65] G.A.Bortignon, M.E.El-Hawary, “Review of Capacitor
Placement Techniques for Loss Reduction in Primary
Feeders on Distribution Systems”, Canadian Cogerence
on Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1995, pp. 684-
687.