WOMEN AND POLITICS IN BANGLADESH

Introduction
This study seeks to critically appraise the extent of womens participation in politics in Bangladesh. It also investigates the reasons for womens low rate of holding elected office. In short, the study attempts to address the following questions. Why are so few women elected to public office in Bangladesh? Why are women not welcomed enthusiastically in political and electoral processes? What are the impediments to womens participation in politics? Can theories propounded in the Western liberal democratic states explain the low level of womens representation in politics and government in Bangladesh? What strategies has the government adopted for increasing womens representation in politics? What have major parties done to increase the proportion of womens participation in politics? In recent years, it has been widely recognized that achievement of human development goals depends to a large extent on the quality of government that exists in a state. In this context, there have been vivid debates on the linkage between good government and gender equality. The political participation of women is an indicator through which the extent of the enjoyment of political rights by women is measured. In Bangladesh, it has been realized that without the active participation of women and the incorporation of womens perspectives at all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development, and peace cannot be achieved.; A balanced representation of women and men at all levels of decision making guarantees better government. Because of their history as a group, women have their own and unique perspective. They have different values and ideas and behave differently. Increased participation of women in decision-making will create a new culture and shed new light on how power should be exercised.

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Womens participation in politics in Bangladesh is at two levels, national and local. At the national level, they can play a role as law- and policy-makers, while at the local government level; they play a role only in development-related implementation. The two women, Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia, who dominated the politics of Bangladesh from 1991 to 2006, were related to powerful leaders and their political advancement did not ensure significant advances in government for women otherwise. Overall, womens position in politics has not been significantly improved. Women in Bangladesh live in such social system where socialization process plays an influential role to push them in an inferior and a subordinate position in society. This socialization process starts almost with the birth of a child. Through differential treatment in their everyday lives which vary by sex, a sex identity is acquired. This socialization process associates girls with the immediate environment inside home, and boys with wider environment. And this results in future with an unfavorable attitude of women towards politics. Womens equal participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the advancement of women. It is not only a demand for simple justice or democracy but can also be seen as a necessary condition for womens interests to be taken into account.

Five reasons why increasing womens representation and participation is necessary:

(i) It is a question of democracy and equality as well as a question of civil rights making the demand for proportional representation of women in politics unavoidable. (ii) Womens insignificant presence in politics raises questions about the legitimacy of the democratic process and of decision-making authorities. (iii) Women are well informed and experienced about their basic problems and needs. But they will be deprived of equal shares if they are not properly represented in politics. (iv) Womens increased participation in politics and decision-making bodies will facilitate more changes and open up more spaces for them. (v) Finally, for the efficient and maximum utilization of human resources, women should be increasingly allowed in politics.
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Women and Politics in Global Perspective

A truly democratic and representative government cannot be established without womens participation in the political processes. Political participation generally refers to those actions of people by which they want to influence or support the government and politics. Political participation can be both conventional and unconventional. Scholars and researchers suggest that people participate in politics for a variety of reasons such as,(a) to show support for their country(b) to achieve some advantages for themselves and (c) to influence broad public policy. In most countries, higher education is strongly related to political participation and skills. In a democracy, women should enjoy equal rights of political participation and exercise their rights fully. Historically, men have dominated the world of government and politics everywhere. . Parliament has been created by men and for men with little regard to women. Fashioned in the Western countries, the Parliament emerged as an indispensable political institution and integral organ of democratic government. Yet, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, women comprised only about 14.9 per cent of the members. Womens participation in politics in Asian countries and in other regions of the world is still very limited. A leading journalist of Bangladesh, Enayetullah Khan notes, The limitations in this regard are more or less universal in all societies developed or otherwise, bourgeois, democratic or socialist, and the emerging newly independent post-colonial societies in the Asian and African continents. In some developed democratic countries such as the U.K., Switzerland, United States and France womens representation in the national parliament still remains much below than that of some developing countries like Uganda, Tanzania, Vietnam, and Cuba. In fact, the goal of achieving adequate womens representation in national parliaments around the world remains a long-standing one. In October 2000, the UN adopted a resolution to increase womens representation at all levels of decision-making institutions. But the percentage of women legislators worldwide has not increased much since then.

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Major Factors Affecting Womens Involvement in Politics in Bangladesh

The overall extent of womens participation in the political process is much lower than male counterparts, despite determined efforts to create change. One may ask why this situation persists, despite the many efforts by the government to increase womens participation. In fact, there are several factors hindering the process of womens participation in the political process: educational backwardness, lack of economic resources, inadequate mobility, structural deficiencies, religion, culture, and patriarchy. Education Education makes women knowledgeable, skilled, and self-confident in their participation in the ongoing development process of the country. However, most Bangladeshi women are still illiterate. They lack information on the political process and do not know how to mobilize for policies that respond to womens interests, or even how and where to vote or who to vote for. They are often ignorant about their right to vote and contest elections and to become members of political parties and social networks. Consequently, they lose interest in participating in political activities. They remain engaged in the informal economy or the subsistence sector at low wages or none it all, members of the low-skilled or unskilled labor force. Mobility An underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation system hampers the mobility of women. The location of polling booths and their relative distance from homes and workplaces often deter women from exercising their right to vote. Inconvenient times, location, distance, and the lack of an escort are impediments for women elected as representatives to attend meetings. Moreover, lack of access to transportation is also a factor. Women in Bangladesh do not ride bicycles, a popular and convenient means of transport at the village level. Male-dominated local cultures tend to portray womens use of bicycles as inappropriate and unwomanly. There are a few women in urban areas who ride bicycles, but their number is still too few to set an example.

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Religion Religion also plays a crucial role in keeping women at home. Islamic practices are patriarchal and are explicit about the sexual division of labor and responsibility, effectively sanctifying male dominance. According to this practice, man is the earner and woman is the server of man. Being the server of man, woman should be kept in the house and movement outside the house is restricted. Religious fundamentalism has grown stronger in the mainstream political space over the years Culture Cultural norms operate as both a restriction on a womans mobility and an impediment to her participation in the public sphere. These cultural norms are perpetuated and sustained by the powerful institutions of family, caste, and religion, and have significant impacts on gender related issues. It has been noted by the Center for Asia-Pacific Women in Politics that the empowerment of women in terms of access to decision-making positions is considerably affected by cultural stereotypes that exist in most societies. In the Asia-Pacific region, the major forms of cultural stereotypes include (1) that womens primary responsibility is to take care of the family and children, (2) that women lack experience, and thus are not capable of assuming leadership positions, (3) that the public domain is mainly for men, while the private household domain is for women, and (4) that womens involvement in the public sphere should be an extension of their roles in the family sphere. Patriarchy The traditional patriarchal society of Bangladesh is based on class and gender divisions. Class mobility allows movement between rich and poor, but the division of social space and the difference in behavioral norms between men and women are rigidly maintained. The family, which constitutes the basic unit of social organization and control, sets the norms for male and female roles. Within this system, the father, or in his absence, the next male kin is the head of the household. As a result, both decision-making powers and economic control are vested in the hands of men.
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Determinants of Womens Political Participation

International Politics

Recent shifts in international politics in favor of equality of women in all spheres of human life also partially account for the changes made governments in the national, as well as local levels. various donor agencies like World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and others have taken the issue of gender governance as their priority objectives. For instance, although the World Bank is mainly an economic institution that has to maintain political impartiality, the issue that good governance is essential for development is gaining importance within it.
Womens Organizations

Womens own agencies which are fighting to ensure equal social and political rights for women, have been important factors that led the governments of Bangladesh to bring about changes in policies regarding womens participation in politics. The experience Bangladesh demonstrates that womens activism gained them the space that they now have and which they also have to defend and protect.
Constitution

The Constitution plays a vital role for ensuring womens political participation. The Constitution of Bangladesh provides for equality of men and women. There is no legal barrier to women contesting for any elective office, including that of the head of the state. The Constitution promotes the special representation of women in local government Political Parities.
Media

Media plays an important role in bringing about changes in the society. The messages that are played and replayed through media go a long way in influencing the mindsets of the reader, audience and the viewer. Actually, the medias role is twofold. It brings womens issue to the governments arena on the one hand, it informs the general mass about the governments decision on a particular issue. The media highlights the issues of womens equal rights and demands government decisions in this regard.

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Political parties Political parties everywhere control and choose who will represent the party in elections. Thus, they play an important role in shaping womens representation in politics. Strong party affiliation is one of the basic requirements to become selected as a candidate and eventually a position in national or local level politics. Before a woman could be assured of party support, she must be an active member and foster a relatively long relationship with a particular party. Studies on women and politics have often suggested that female quotas and affirmative action are instruments of womens successful entry into public office. Traditionally, the major political parties in Bangladesh have not encouraged or supported prospective women candidates who wish to enter into public office. However, major political parties such as the BNP and the AL have always been very keen on mobilizing women workers and supporters to launch political campaigns, anti-government protests, and rallies in the streets to ultimately seize political power. Despite the creation of womens branches or committees by the parties in recent years, women still primarily hold weak and non-influential decision-making positions in the central executive committee of the different political parties in Bangladesh. A lot of prejudice though unconscious, still exists among male leaders of most political parties against women candidates in Bangladesh, as is the case in other Asian countries. The critical barriers against womens successful entry into politics are: (a) huge campaign costs, (b) Not receiving nomination in expected winnable seats to the parliament, (c) lack of strong party backing and financial assistance, and (d) lack of powerful support base in the constituency she wanted to represent. Male politicians always occupy the top positions of the party.

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Theories on Womens Low Level Participation in Politics

Why do women show lower levels of political participation than men? Women have been depicted as politically ineffective, unmotivated, naive, invisible and dependent upon the wisdom of men. Additionally Almond and Jr. Powell, point out that universally Political leaders are drawn disproportionately from upperstatus occupations and privileged family back grounds. In fact, many reasons have kept the political position of women low globally. One major reason is womens weak access to political institutions whether due to formal or informal practices that denies women equal opportunity. Further, women face impediments in reconciling their family and public life. In addition, women often experience education that is inadequate in preparing women to take up politics as a career. In most contexts, there is a culture that imposes on women a role different from the one that is set-aside for men. Last but not the least, women often faces a lack of party support including financial support, which fails to facilitate womens participation in the decision-making process. A UN study observed that the level of development of a country as demonstrated by its demographic and social indicators limit the participation of women in politics. In those countries where female illiteracy is overwhelmingly substantial along with low living standards and high fertility rates, the prospect of womens participation is far less. This is partly true. Because, despite higher literacy rate and living standards and phenomenal development, women representatives in the Japans Diet are low compared to India and Uganda and Tanzania. Therefore, the study seems to have overlooked religious factors and social biases that limit womens participation in politics in both Muslim and non-Muslim societies around the world. Scholars such as McGlen and OConnor, Steuernagel and Ahern, and Fowler have advanced different theoretical approaches- legal/institutional, sociological, psychological, and rational choice - to explain the patterns of participation and non-participation in various types of political activities. Sociological theory stresses cultural reasons for the low proportion of public offices occupied by women. Conway argues that combined with social norms, limited educational and occupational opportunities have denied most women from achieving skills and resources essential to contest successfully for public office.
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Participation of Women in Political Decision Making: Symbolic or Real?

Now an important questions needs to be addressed: Does the reservation of seats for women in the local government ensure their active participation in the political decision making process? The situation is perhaps not satisfactory as male members are more dominant and use their patronage networks to function as elected representatives because their role in the public world of politics is taken for granted. However, this is not so for women and herein lies the gender dimension of political representation. One may wonder how the researchers measure whether the participation of women member is symbolic or real? As the study is basically based on secondary materials, we will try to measure the extent of their participation by analyzing their involvement in the decision making process and from the attitude of the male members. Affirmative action does ensure that more women will come into politics, but it does not ensure that elected women will be seen as legitimate political actors. There are few women in local government bodies who have been effective in discharging their duties and responsibilities. But their number is so few that it does not represent the women community. One may query whether women who enter politics through patronage can make a difference once they are in a position to do so? It is important to clarify that entry into the political process and performances are different things. In most cases, women use patronage to get into the political process, but it does not help them while discharging their duties and responsibilities. At the same time it is not fair to say that patronage does not help women. In some cases women have strong linkage with political parties, are dominating the process of decision making. But their number is also too few to set as an example as these women work under the patriarchal societal structure too. Several studies were undertaken on womens participation in the political process in order to assess their role in decision making. According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB, 2008) more than 70% of women councilors interviewed in Bangladesh were not aware of their rights and responsibilities as representatives; an even higher percentage--more than 80%--expressed their lack of confidence in their ability to conduct meetings. Actually a patriarchal society offers little or no space for womens authority and agency. As a result women become handicapped and play a symbolic role in decision making.
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Arguments for Womens Representation in Politics in Bangladesh

Most constitutions now guarantee political equality of men and women at least in theory, if not in practice. The 1972 constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh has recognized and guaranteed equal rights to women to participate in all aspects of public life. Thus, Article 28(1) stipulates the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Again Article 28(2) states, Women shall have equal rights with men in all spheres of the state and public life. In addition, in order to safeguard womens rights, the Bangladesh government has also enacted various legislation such as the Women and Children Repression Act 1995 (amended in 2000) and the Dowry Prohibition Act 1980 (amended in 1982). Despite all these guarantees to protect womens rights and eliminate discrimination against women, Bangladeshi women are disadvantaged and denied equal rights with men. Consequently, women cannot participate in the equally in the development process. Moreover, popular history has not sufficiently documented the political contribution that women have made to Bangladesh society. One may recall here that Bangladeshi women did participate in the anti-British political movement in the 1930s and 1940s. In the aftermath of independence in 1947, women also participated in the autonomy and democratic movements when Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan. Although women have played a significant role in the liberation struggle of Bangladesh in 1971, their historical contributions remain largely invisible. Women for the first time exercised their voting rights in Bangladesh when it was a part of Pakistan. Women voted in the 1954 East Pakistan Provincial Assembly Elections where only one woman was elected despite that there was a provision for ten reserved seats for women at that time. Women also exercised their voting rights in the 1970 general elections of Pakistan. In fact Bangladesh is one of the few countries in the world that set up a separate ministry for women. Still, during the past decades, Bangladesh has one of the lowest levels of women participation in politics. In the first general election in 1973, only two women were nominated by the major parties and both women were defeated in the elections. Consequently, womens active participation in politics and government was unusual and minimal until the early 1980s. Womens participation in politics was widely discouraged and denied by the major political
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parties. In particular, the religious-based political parties such as the Jamat- e Islam did not believe in gender equality and viewed womens direct participation as anti-Islamic. This impelled analysts to argue that economic and social empowerment of women cannot be advanced unless Bangladeshi women are brought into and made a part of the political institutions. Undoubtedly, of the most vital resources of Bangladesh are its people. Women make up nearly half of the population and work force of Bangladesh. It is essential that they participate in sufficient numbers in politics and government to ensure a truly democratic and representative government. But womens participation in politics continues to be discouraged, denied and resisted. Only a small number have been able to enter positions of public decision making. Particularly in recent years, it is alleged that there is a set price for securing a partys nomination. With meager financial resources, women are highly disadvantaged to gain preference of the political parties. Even if they have money they may not gain party nomination because they are women. Population participation in national assembly, 1973-2008 Elected in general seats Year of National Election Women 1973 1979 1 1986 5 1991 4 1996 11 2001 6 2008 20

Men 300 299 295 296 289 294 280

No. of women elected in reserved seats 15 30 30 30 30 45 45

The electoral participation of women refers to participation in the public offices through election. The number of women elected in general assembly from 1973 and onward has revealed from the table. Only 1 Member of Parliament was elected in general seat for the first time in 1979. In 1986, five women were elected women increased 11 in 1996. In 2001 six members were elected in general seat. In 2008 twenty members were elected in general seat.

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Representation without Participation

Although, as we have seen, successive governments in Bangladesh have introduced quotas for women in order to ensure their participation in the political process, it remains an important question to determine whether these provisions have in fact ensured the representation of women in decision-making or have simply ensured the attendance of some women in government institutions. Male members use their patronage networks to influence the decision-making process. At the same time, we should not imagine that it is impossible for some women politicians to have a real impact on politics. As noted, the leaders of two major Political parties in Bangladesh are. There are also a few successful women in local government who have been elected chairs of their union parishad, although their number is so small that they are viewed as exceptions. The patriarchal society offers little space for women to develop their authority and agency. As a result, women play a largely symbolic role in the decision-making process. Moreover, society is not yet ready to accept women dominating the process of decision-making or playing a positive role. The sufferings of women members are not restricted to problems of identity only. Sometimes they are treated badly if they speak up for their rights. At the local government level, womens marginalization is reinforced by the paternalistic and discriminatory attitudes of male representatives and male chairmen, and their belief that women should not get involved in local politics and that while men get into office on merit, women get in through institutionalized favors in the form of quotas and so forth.

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What should be done to increase women participants?

Genuine participation by women in decision-making remains limited despite the introduction of quotas for them. The major causes of such poor representation of women have been sociocultural, political, structural, educational, and economic factors. These factors have restricted womens participation within the quota system. In such a situation, several improvements are required in order to ensure greater female representation in the process of politics in Bangladesh. First, cultural norms and perceptions have stereotyped womens role as limited to the family domain. It is essential to bring changes to such cultural norms by initiating appropriate cultural, educational, and informational policies. Discrimination against women should be made clearly unacceptable and educational curricula should be redesigned to highlight the significance of womens participation in development at all levels. Second, it is the responsibility of the government to initiate further reforms in constitutional and legal provisions intended to ensure gender equality in every sphere. Additional legal measures need to be passed in order to implement enacted legislation effectively. The Ministry of Women and Childrens Affairs must focus on issues of importance to women in every sector. Third, since womens representation in the legislative and executive bodies greatly depends on their representation in political parties, there is a need for the major political parties of Bangladesh to take appropriate initiatives to expand such party representation. The use of quotas for women should be adopted in political parties as well. In the case of Bangladesh, it might be easier to bring about such reforms in the political parties as both the largest political parties are directed and steered by two women. Finally, government-initiated policy measures intended to empower women cannot go beyond rhetoric if adequate funding, in the form of budget allocations, is not provided. In order to be effective, political will must be translated into both policies and resources. At the same time, in order to develop and strengthen womens capacity as political leaders, develop media relations, and help women generate their own resources, the government should work to ensure womens equal access to career patterns in Bangladesh.
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Conclusion
Although women have made some advancement in many fields that were previously dominated by men, a career in politics is not one of them. The reasons and barriers why few Bangladeshi women are there in politics can be attributed to the social biases, situational barriers and attitudes based on gender roles and stereotypes, economic resources, and dependency, social and political violence, religious problems, and lack of education and political knowledge that persist even today. Recruitment process of the party also explains womens continued under-representation in the parliament. Inequity against women in Bangladeshi society remains common. Along with sociocultural obstacles, structural deficiencies and attitudinal problems remain the major obstructions to greater participation by women in the political process. Although the constitution guarantees equal opportunity for men and women in every sphere, the women of Bangladesh are still fighting to enter the political process. The introduction of quotas for women in Parliament as well as in local government has increased the number of women in the political process, but has not yet ensured their genuine representation in the decision-making process. It is true that the battle for womens active participation in the political process has just started. Illiteracy and cultural restrictions must not prevent women representatives from grasping the new opportunities offered to them. As they overcome these obstacles, they will create a strong political ground for improving the lot of women in Bangladesh. Quotas as a strategy to ensure womens political participation are as controversial in Bangladesh as elsewhere. But the fact is beyond doubt that where quotas have been implemented, the popular political culture has gradually become more accepting of women taking part in politics. Womens issues have been nurtured well in emerging democracies in which the governments of these countries have shown commitment to womens increased representation. In fact, enhanced political representation of women depends more on the political will of the government than on a nations world economic standing or any other economic factor.

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