Chapter 35,36,39 I. II.

Plant organs- several types of tissues that carry out a particular function, have vegetative growth (production of non-reproductive leaves stems and roots) Reproductive growth- production of flowers Roots- functions a. Anchor the plant b. Absorption (root hair) c. Storage d. Conduction- transport i. Types of root systems 1. tap roots- large vertical root usually dicot used for storage 2. fibrous root- mat of thread like roots adventitious (root comes from stem or leaf) 3. modified rootsa. prop roots-used for support advantageous roots come of stem b. Storage roots- store food and water c. Aerial roots- buterous roots, crop roots d. Pneumatophores- air roots projecting above water surface to get oxygen e. Buttress roots- really big support f. Suckers root- above ground stems that develop from buds on roots Stems a. Produce leaves b. Support leaves c. Transport of water mineral food d. Storage i. Parts of the stem 1. node- point where the leaf attaches 2. internode- stem segment between the nodes 3. axillory bud- can form lateral shoots or branches 4. apical bud- at the apical tip at the meristmatic tissue (rapidly dividing) ii. Modified 1. Rhizomes- horizontal stem underground 2. Bulb- short underground stem with fleshy storage leaves 3. Stolons- horizontal stem above the ground ex: strawberry plants 4. Tubers- underground stems that are enlarged for food storage ex: potato 5. Corm- come from the axillory bud on a short thick storage organ Ex: crocus, gladiolus Leaves

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a. Location- located on stem above or below or the stem occur at nodal area of the stem b. Parts of a leaf i. Blade- photosynthesis has a large surface area as compared to the volume good for gas exchange and maximum amount of light ii. Petiole- part that attaches blade to the stem longer at the base of the stem than they are at the tip of the stem so they can make sure that the blades are in position for optimum position of light sessilehave no petiole iii. Stipule- thorn can be axillary bud axil between stem and axillary bud c. Types of leaves based on blades i. Simple leave- blades in one piece may have little folds in it ii. Compound leaf- blade in several pieces and each piece called leaflet iii. Doubly compound- have leaflets that are part of leaflets d. Phyllotaxy- alternate or spiral phyllotaxy one leaf per node opposite phylotaxy two leafs per node e. Whorled- three or more leafs per node f. Venacious patterni. Find them in monocots ii. Netted find that in dicots 1. pinnately- have one central vein and have branches coming off that 2. palmately- multiple main branches and branches coming of that looks like hand g. modified leavesi. tendrils- extension of leaf that cause plant to bring closer to what its support is ii. spines- like on a cactus iii. Storage leaves- fleshier leaves iv. Reproductive leaves- have merisotmatic tissue right on leaf edges fall off and give rise to new plants v. Bracts- are brightly colored Tissue systems a. Dermal- plants outer protective covering epidermis tightly packed cells root hairs are extension of the empidermis trichomes- are extensions of the shoot epidermis b. Periderm- woody plants angiosperm c. Vascular tissue system- long distance transport between the root and the shoot consist of xylem (transport water and minerals upward only) Phloem (transport sugar goes both ways) Stele- xylem+phloem d. Ground- rest of the tissue can be call pith- if internal to vascular system called cortex if external to vascular system functions- depends on where its at and what its doing Plant cells

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a. Parenchyma- beside enchyma (fusion) find it all over the plant it is everywhere unspecialized for most part very pliable walls are very thin many sided living cells have a variety of function i. Structural parenchyma called arenchymaii. Photosynthesis choricyma iii. And storage called a lot of names some used for secretion b. Collenchyma- provide support living cells have long strands of it just under the stem epidermis i. Lamellar- primary wall no secondary walls impregnated with pectine glue like polysachride that binds cellous fibers together ii. Angular- strengthen corners both have pectin c. Schlerenchyma- non living at maturity primary and secondary walls function is support lignini. Non conducting1. Sclereid- short kind of irregular shape have gritty texture form seed coat seed pits coconut 2. fiber cell- longer then sclereid occur in bundles major supportive cells tend to be tapered at the ends use them commercially ii. Conducting 1. Tracheids- tapered occur in bundles they are for water conduction and support 2. vessel element- wider and shorter compared to trachieds thinner wall less tapered end walls break down to form pipe line 3. xylem- tarchieds fibers, parenchyma d. sugar conduction cells of phloem-sieve tubes, companion cells fiber i. sieve tube elements- only primary walled non nucleated at maturity still alive dont have control over anything have sieve plates at the end ii. companion cells- connect by plasmodesmada nucleus and ribosomes serves as nucleus for sieve tube elements as well Terms a. Annuals- complete life cycle in a year or less herbaceous plants b. Biennials- life span of 2 years first year vegetative growth 2nd year for flowering and reproduction c. Perennials- live many years have secondary growth trees, shrubs, some grasses, d. Meristems- rapidly dividing cells i. Apical- at the tip of the root or the shoot also found in axillory buds provide for primary growth which is longitudinal growth provide for most mass of the plant body if not all ii. Lateral- find in woody plants provide for secondary growth secondary growth adds girth consist of vascular cambium which add secondary xylem and secondary phloem vascular or cork cambium

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Primary growth a. Roots- prtoderm becomes epidermis pericycle gives rise to lateral roots the root cap- protects merristem it also secretes a polysaccharide slime it lubricate the soil so easier for root to push down through it ground meristem become the cortex and the procambium becomes vascular tissue b. Quiescent center- tip of the root center of the apical meristem has a population of cells that divide much slower than the other meristamatic cells because DNA checked no mistakes protected from environmental toxic and stuff do to being at the center c. Dicot root- outside epidermis- no waxy cuticle root hairs extension of epidermis as you move in have cortex- for storage no collenchyma mainly parachynma aranchema specifically then endodermis made up of tightly packed cell that fit snuggly together for of the sides have casparian strip special band suberin-waxy substance on side and end walls purpose of it to force everything to go through the walls tangential right inside the endodermis is a pericyle- single layer of parachnma maintains mersticmatic properties and produce a lateral root steled. Monocot- everything is same till the stele the pith is parenchyma no vacular cambiem has pith in the center dicot central core and remains small no later because of vascular cabmieum e. Vascular cambium no vascular cambiou arragemtno f st f. Leaves- start with epidermis mainly chornemyma have no clorplast have thick cell wall made of cuticle or waxy covering prevent desiccation g. Mesophyll i. Palisade mesophyll- stacked really tight together ii. Spongy mesophyll- have spaces to allow photosynthesis?? iii. Vein- within the mesophyll area not part of it surrounding it is the bundle sheet iv. Xylem and phloem- continous with vascular tissue in stem Secondary growth- increases girth in both stem and root only in woody not herbaceous gets increased because of lateral meristems vascular cambiumforms rings between the wood which is xylem and bark which is phloem Cork cambium (Phellogen)- located in the outer bark region forms the outer bark tissues a. Vascular rays- connect secondary xylem with secondary phloem for the transport between the two also to store carbohydrates and also assist in repair b. Lenticels- spaces between cork cells for gas exchange Trees and terminology a. Heartwood- oldest in the center darker in color very dense good for support reason its darker in color because trachieds are plugged up b. Sapwood- newer wood lighter in color has functional xylem c. Harwood- get from angiosperms because they have fibers and vessels and harden the wood d. Soft wood- are gemnosperms because they lack fibers and vessels

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e. Spring wood- early wood vessels and trachieds water is very plentiful in spring part of xylem f. Summer wood- they are thick walled smaller diameter vessels and trachieds not as much water available External structure of a twig a. Bud scale scar- form one a year at the end of each years growth b. Leaf scar- where the leaf was attached protection layer c. Bundle scar- scar within the leaf scar where the vascular bundle was d. Lintsels- for gas exchange Translocation- takes from minerals from sores to sink a. Phloem sack- made of sucros has amino acids hormones and minerals b. Sugar source- any plant organ were sugar is produced getting ready c. Sugar sink- organ that consumes or stores sugar d. Pressore flow theory- ??? Chapter 39

VI. Signal Transduction pathway a. det-etiolationb. phytochrome- cause proteins and second messengers to activate of cellular responses VII. hormones- signaling molecule produced in tiny amount by one part of an organisms body and transported to other parts where it binds to specific receptors and triggers responses in target cells and tissues a. Auxins- cell elongation in coleoptiles and have a role in phototropism and gravtropism part of the development of fruit induces cell division in vascular cambium promotes the formation of adventicious (come out of stem) roots produced in apical mersitem and leaves? b. Acid growth hypthesis- auxin triggers a proton pump in plasma membranes in the zone of elongation cause proton to flow through cell wall and will lower ph c. Cell divison in the root and the shoot also control apical dominance if there is more axuin then cytokin then apical bud would be dominat if cytokinin is higher then it is opposite in the root if auxin is higher is gonna promote branch growth anti aging delays senescence stimulates RNA and protein syth d. Gibberellins- found by the Japanese cause bolting rapid growth of a floral stock also have fruit growth causes germination the embryo produces gibberellin cause the production of enzymes sends a signal to aleurone (thin outer layer of endosperm) will cause synthesis of digestive enzymes causes the synthesis of digestive enzymes that digest starch in endosperm so sugar is available for embryo to use also substitute for cold requirement for biennials also breaks the dormancy of some seeds and buds e. Brassinosteriods- all plants produce

i. General info- chemically similar to cholesterol and sex hormone in animals doesnt take a lot for them to work ii. Function 1. function to promote cell expansion and cell division in shoots also at a very low concentration promote root growth at high concentration inhibit root growth promotes seed germination and pollen tube elongation a f. Abescisic acid i. Function- seed dormancy prevents untimely germination, drought tolerance close stomates when there is not enough water referred to as stress hormones produced in leaves stems unripen fruit and pretty much all but mainly those transported by vascular tissue g. Ethylene- only plant hormone that is a gas can be transported through the air spaces also move through the simplast and phloem i. Functions 1. helps plant respond to mechanical stress ex: have plant tryin to grow done and root hits a rock it would inhibit cell elongation to prevent root to push through the rock then thicken the roots and grow horizontal for awhile also function in senescence (aging) has function in leaf abscission axuin involved in this before plant ages auxin make plant stay on tree after aging stimulate ethylene production which causes falling of leaves 2. autumn leaves stop making chlorophyll you can see other pigments at this point protective layer forms has a lot of subren in walls made of cork walls other layer call abscission layer made up of parachynema no fibers around the vascular tissue ethylene stimulate cellulase which breaks down cellulose so wall is very weak 3. fruit ripening fruit change color starch broken down cell wall broken down cellulase fruit softer 4. stimulates flowering in some plants Ex: pineapple 5. produced in stem nodes in ripening fruits senescing leaves roots and seed VIII. Photomorphyogenesis a. blue light photoreceptors-initiate phototropism, stomata opening and slowing of elongation c. phytochromes- each two subunits have a chromophore is photo reversible (cause it to change shape) a. Pr- absorbs light at 660 nano meters b. Pfr- 730 nano meters when you have red light hit convert it and cause germinination opposite inhibits plants synthesize as red chromophore IX. Bioligical clock

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a. Flowering- red light hits it and converts it to far red at night far red over time will convert to red Photoperdeism- physiological response to a period of light b. Short day plants- long night plants flower only when there is critical minimum of darkness flower in late fall winter c. Long day plants- really short night plants only flower when critical maximum hour darkness late spring early summer d. Day neutral plants unaffected by light grow whenever e. Vernalization- pretreatment with cold to induce flowering Tropism- plant growth in response to external stimuli a. Gravitropism- grows towards gravity meaning down and stem negative grow up i. Statoliths- cluster of unbound starch grains contained in amyloplast (contains starch) settle in lowest region of the cell when it happens trigger redistribution of calcium which causes lateral transport of auxin b. Thigmotropism- when you touch it sends an electrical current loose turgor and fold in grass along their epidermal cells will have elongated cells called bulliform (upper epidermis of epicot loose turgor and cause blades to fold i. Thigmorphogensis- response to mechanical stress if you have plant growing in windy area the same plant in non-windy area will be taller ii. Phototropism- positive tropism goes towards the light

1. Chapter 36 I. II. Active Transport- energy required for it a. Proton pump- generates membrane potential and a protein gradient Osmosis- the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane a. Water potential- consist of solute concentration and physical pressure potential energy of water, water is going to be moving from high to low add solute lower water potential negative pressure same thing as tension b. Pressure potential- can be negative or positive depending on atmospheric pressure i. Turgor pressure- force directed against a cell wall after the influx of water do to osmosis reason c. Plasmolosis- shrinking of cell membrane away from the cell wall due to loss of water d. Aqua proins- transport proteins that facilitate osmosis they effect the speed of water movement more aqua porins faster osmosis takes place Transport Pathways a. Apoplast- outside the cell wall root that moves water through includes dead trachieds and vessels b. Symplast- continuum of cytoplasm plasmodesmada connects cytoplasm between the cells c. Transmembrane route- go through cell membrane many times require repeated crossing of cell membrane From root- Shoot a. Absorption- Water and minerals are gonna move in the epidermal cell and root hairs go through the cortex and get to endodermis forced into the symplast from here cuz cant get through casparian strip from here goes to trachieds and vessels of the xylem at maturity they become part of the apoplast living cells in the stele and endodermal actively put minerals in cell walls so when water goes through picks up minerals b. Bulk flow of xylem sap i. Travels at rate of 15 to 45 meters an hour severals things involved one 1. transpiration- lost of water vapor they lose 99% of water they absorb most is lost through stomates only 1 to 2 % leaf surface is stomate 1 to 3% is lost through cuticle 2. environmental factors that effect transpiration a. water b. wind c. relative humidity d. light level 3. xerophytes- plants that are adapted to regions were little moisture or water is available they reduce their leaf surface some have storage stems some have sunken stomates 4. camplants- take in co2 at night so stomates closed in day time

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ii. root pressure- upward push of water within the stele at night when transpiration is down thats when you would have the result of root pressure root pressure greater than transpiration guttation- is exudasion of water??? c. Transpiration- cohesion- tension theory i. Transpiration puts the water thats in the xylem in a state of tension (negative pressure) because you have lost water out the top because of the hydrogen bonding called cohesion you have an unbroken fluid straw there and adhesion- water molecules bonding hydrophilic walls of the xylem because of that tension means you have decreased water potential in the root that is gonna cause water to passively flow of water from the soil to the stele d. Stomatesi. Mechanism of how stomates work 1. light comes in guard cells actively acumlate potassium ions from epidermal cells so lower water potential which makes water come in become more turgid as they become more turgid opens the stomate blue light receptors stimulate proton pump in cell membranes then pumped out across membrane and thats the potential that pump them in one stimulation is light another co2 need co2 level down causes stomates to open up another stimulus plants internal clock stomates close do to water deficiency