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OSCILLATORS




OB1ECTIVES


General Objective : To understand sinusoidal oscillator circuits.

Specific Objectives : At the end oI the unit you will be able to :

raw block diagram oI an oscillator

onstruct the oscillator circuits

etermine the oscillation Irequency by using the Iormula

ompare the perIormance oI the oscillators














UNIT 2
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2.0 Oscillators


An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, oIten a
sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in innumerable electronic devices. ommon
examples oI signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television
transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by
electronic beepers and video games. Because oI the large number oI diIIerent types oI oscillator
circuits and design technology, it is very diIIicult to classiIy them in any simple manner. The
classiIication schemes that will be used here are somewhat oversimpliIied, but they should be
suIIicient to categorize many oI the modern op-amp oscillator circuits and the linear integrated
circuit oscillator modules.
Oscillators may be classiIied as either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal. By the terms, it Iollows that
sinusoidal oscillators produce sinusoidal waveIorm, and all other oscillators can be classiIied as
nonsinusoidal.


2.1 Sinusoidal oscillator circuits

ere we consider the principles oI oscillators that produce approximately sinusoidal waveIorms.
(Other oscillators, such as multivibrators, operate somewhat diIIerently). Because the waveIorms
are sinusoidal, we use phasor analysis.
A sinusoidal oscillator ordinarily consists oI an ampliIier and a Ieedback network. Let's consider
the Iollowing idealized conIiguration to begin understanding the operation oI such oscillators.












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2.1.1 Block diagram of an oscillator
Oscillator is a device that can change voltage to A voltage without any external resource at
certain level oI Irequency.


Oscillator divided into 2 classes depending on the type oI wave its produce:
i. armonic Oscillator sinus wave.
ii. Inharmonic Oscillator square wave, rectangle wave, etc.


Mostly right now, digital circuit is commonly used in consumer appliances and since this circuit
need a timer, an inharmonic oscillator is an essential device.

In this unit we will discuss more about the oscillator that produces sinus wave only.



A output input

OSCILLATOR
ig. 2.1.1a: Basic oscillator block diagram
ig. 2.1.1b: armonic Oscillator
HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
ig. 2.1.1c: Inharmonic Oscillator
INHARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
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2.1.2 Requirement of oscillator circuits

An oscillator consists oI an ampliIier and a Ieedback network. Now, let us see which basic
components are required to obtain oscillations.
O 'Active device' either Transistor or Op Amp is used as an ampliIier.
O 'eedback circuit' with passive components such as R- or L- combinations .
To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive Ieedback is not the only suIIicient
condition. Oscillator circuit must satisIy the Iollowing two conditions known as Barkhausen
conditions:
1. The Iirst condition is that the magnitude oI the loop gain (A) must be unity. This means the
product oI gain oI ampliIier 'A' and the gain oI Ieedback network '' has to be unity.
2. The second condition is that the phase shiIt around the loop must be 360 or 0. This means,
the phase shiIt through the ampliIier and Ieedback network has to be 360 or 0.




2.1.2.1 AmpliIier

AmpliIier circuit needs power supply to bias the transistor. Previously it has been explained
that oscillator needs power supply to produce output. Actually the meant power supply is
the one that been given to the ampliIier.




Output
Oscillator
eedback
requency
Generator
ircuit
ig. 2.1.2: Basic oscillator circuit diagram
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2.1.2.2 eedback

eedback is a condition where some portion oI the output signal is being re-supply to the input
part.

Since the oscillator do not have an input signal, hence the Ieedback signal has become the input
signal Ior the ampliIier in the oscillator circuit.

There are 2 Ieedback principles available; negative Ieedback and positive Ieedback. Oscillator
used a positive Ieedback principle. igure 8.5 below shows the basic block diagram Ior a
commonly used Ieedback system:




In the oscillator concept, it does not need input voltage, hence the Iormula Ior input portion is Vi
0. This mean the value oI the Iormula , 1 A , must be nil or , A , 1.
Take a look at below circumstances:

i. II , A. , 1 .... value oI V
I
A.V
e
will be V
I
( 1 )V
e

or V
I
V
e
. This mean Ieedback voltage will be as same as input
voltage to ampliIier.
In this condition, the oscillator will perIorm at its best or the input
signal will keep oscillating.
V
I
V
e
V
i
Output
AmpliIier
A
V
ig. 2.1.2.2a: Basic Ieedback block diagram
.
. Ieedback Iactor
V
I
.V
o
or A.V
e


A
I

. A - 1
A
V
V
i
o
.. Iormula to get the ampliIier gain with
positive Ieedback
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ii. II , A. , 1... e.g: iI the value oI , A. , 0.5 ..
(lesser than 1). ence V
I

e
V
2
1
. This
mean the Ieedback voltage will getting lesser than input voltage to
ampliIier.
In this conditon, the output voltage will decrease and disperse in Iew
cycles because the Ieedback voltage is not large enough to sustain
the output voltage.



iii. II , A. , ~ 1 ...... e.g: iI , A. , 2 hence
V
I
2V
e
. This mean, the Ieedback voltage will be greater than
input voltage to ampliIier.
In this condition, the output voltage will be increased until it
reached saturated level and will be cut-oII.

t
ig. 2.1.2.2b: ondition , A. , 1
t
ig. 2.1.2.2c: ondition , A. , 1
t
ig. 2.1.2.2d: ondition , A. , ~ 1
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Practically: When the power supply is turned on, some small value oI noise signals will be
produced in multi-range oI Irequency. This signal is ampliIied and drives Ieedback channel that
consist oI frequency generator circuit (resonance circuit). But only the signal that has the same
Irequency as the resonance Irequency that will be Ieedbacked into the input portion.

This condition will be explained in the input oI requency Generator Circuit below.


2.1.2.3 requency Generator ircuit.

The Ieedback and ampliIier signals could not conIirm the oscillation. It needs a control division /
Irequency generator. It is normally placed at the Ieedback portion.
Generally, the Irequency generator circuit Ior oscillator in the consumers products are divided into
two:

i. Oscillator that generates Audio Irequency : R hannel Oscillator (Resistor-apacitor). It
is Ior producing a low and medium Irequency signal.
Examples of RC type oscillator are Phase-Shift Oscillator and0in-Bridg0scillator.

ii. Oscillator that generates Radio Irequnecy : L hannel Oscillator (Inductor-capacitor). It is
also known as Tank ircuit. It is Ior producing a high Irequency signal (~1Mz) and it
usually produces a more stable Irequency.
Examples of LC type oscillator are Armstrong, Colpitts, Hartley and Crystal
Oscillator.


2.2 Types of sinusoidal oscillator
The name sinusoidal oscillator itselI indicates that, this oscillator produces sine wave output. In
the previous section, we had mentioned that the Irequency oI oscillation is determined by the
Ieedback circuit components. ence, according to the Irequency determined components, there are
three basic types oI oscillators such as R oscillator, L oscillator and crystal oscillator.


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RC oscillators
They use a resistance-apacitance network to determine the oscillator Irequency. They are
suitable Ior low (audio range) and moderate Irequency applications (5z to 1Mz). They are
Iurther divided as,
4 R phase shiIt oscillator
4 Wien bridge oscillator and
4 Twin-T oscillator


LC oscillators
ere, inductors and capacitors are used either in series or parallel to determine the Irequency.
They are more suitable Ior radio Irequency (1 to 500 Mz) and Iurther classiIied as,
4 artley
4 olpitts
4 lapp and
4 Armstrong oscillators

Crystal oscillator
Like L oscillators it is suitable Ior radio Irequency applications. But it has very high degree oI
stability and accuracy as compared to other oscillators.








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2.2.1 Hartley
2.2.1.1 ircuit onnection:
Its circuit is similar to olpitts Oscillator but it used Tapped Inductance. ReIer Iigure
2.2.1.1 below:




2.2.1.2 ircuit Operations:
Its circuit operations is also similar to olpitts Oscillator circuit operations. (ReI. olpitts
Oscillator circuit operations)


2.2.1.3 Oscillation requency:
ormula to get the resonance Irequency Ior the circuit is:

T
CL
fr
6 2
1
Eq. 1

Since the connection oI capacitor in the tank circuit is serial, hence:

2 1
L L L
T
Eq. 2

Oscillation occurred when the Ieedback Iactor (.) is given;

2
1
L
L
J
J
out
f
. Eq. 3
ig. 2.2.1.1: artley Oscillator
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And the condition Ior the oscillation to occur is , A. , 1

1
2
L
L
A
J
Eq. 4

ThereIore, to ensure the oscillation triggered by itselI:

2
1
C
C
A
J
Eq.5

Advantages oI the artley oscillator include:
O The Irequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor
O The output amplitude remains constant over the Irequency range
O Either a tapped coil or two Iixed inductors are needed
isadvantages include:
O armonic-rich content iI taken Irom the ampliIier and not directly Irom the L circuit.

2.2.2 Colpitt`s
2.2.2.1 ircuit onnection:
olpitts oscillator used 2 capacitors and 1 inductor at its Irequency generator circuit. ReIer
Iigure 2.2.2.1.1 below:


ig. 2.2.2.1.1: olpitts Oscillator
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2.2.2.2 ircuit Operations:
Please observe circuit 8.4a above. Transistor and resistor R
1
, R
2
, R
3
and R
4
is a
combination oI AmpliIier circuit (ommon Emitter AmpliIier with Voltage ivider
Technique). apacitor
3
and
4
is used to intercept alternate signal to the earth.

AmpliIier will give an 180
o
phase diIIerent to the output signal. L circuit in the Ieedback
coil will produce phase shiIting as big as 180
0
. So the Ieedback voltage will have the same
phase as the input voltage at transistor.


2.2.2.3 Oscillation requency:
Oscillation Irequency Ior tank circuit L
1
,
1
and
2
as per below:


T
LC
f
6 2
1
Eq. 7

Since the connection oI
1
and
2
at the tank circuit is serial, hence:


2 1
2 1
.
C C
C C
C
T

Eq. 8

Oscillation will occurred when the Ieedback Iactor (.) is given:


1
2
2
1
C
C
X
X
J
J
C
C
out
f
. Eq. 9


o you still remember that, in order to ensure the oscillation occurred, ,A., must be equal
to 1. ence, the ampliIier Voltage gain must be:


2
1
C
C
A
J
Eq. 10

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To ensure the oscillation is triggered by itselI:


2
1
C
C
A
J
Eq. 11

2.2.2.4 Example:
What is the Irequency oI oscillation in igure 2.2.2.4.1? What is the Ieedback Iraction?
ow much voltage gain does the circuit need to start oscillating?






Solution:
This is a olpitts oscillator using the E connection oI a transistor. With Eq. 8, the
equivalent capacitance is:
(0.001)(0.01 )
0.01 0.01
909 p

The inductance is 15. With Eq. 7, the Irequency oI oscillation is:
fr 1
26 \(15)(909p)
1.36 Mz

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2.2.3 Phase Shift (RC)
Phase-ShiIt Oscillator consists oI ampliIier and Ieedback channel with three R circuits.

2.2.3.1 ircuit onnection:




2.2.3.2 ircuit Operations:
Output signal Irom the ampliIier has a phase diIIerent as much as 180 compared to input
signal. In order to produce a positive Ieedback signal, the output signal must be phase
shiIted as much as 180 to have a same phase as the input. R channel could produced a
180 phase shiIting where each oI the R channel will phase shiIting as much as 90.

2.2.3.3 Oscillation requency:

6 2
1
#C
f
6







ig. 2.2.3.1.1: Phase-ShiIt Oscillator
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2.2.4 Crystal
The most stable and accurate oscillator is the one that used piezoelectric crystal in the
Ieedback circuit. When the alternate voltage is applied to this crystal, mechanical vibration
is occurred and this vibration has a natural resonance Irequency that depends on the crystal
thickness. In order to get a higher Irequency, the crystal must be thinner.

The crystal electrical characteristics can be determined with resonance circuit in Iigure
2.2.4.1. Inductance, L
h,
represents the electrical equality Ior the crystal mass. apacitance,

h,
represents the crystal elasticity. Resistor, R
h,
represents the Iriction in the crystal
structure. apacitor,
m,
represents the capacitance oI loaded crystal case.


It has 2 resonance Irequencies. The 1
st
Irequency is produced by serial circuit R
h
-L
h
-
h
.
The 2
nd
Irequency occurred when serial component is the same as the reactance,
m

ig. 2.2.4.1: rystal Symbol

ig. 2.2.4.2: Electrical Equivalent circuit
z
I
2
I
1
I
Serial
Saloon
Parallel Saloon
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2.2.4.1 ircuit onnection:

2.2.4.2 Oscillation requency:

Serial resonance:



C L
f
6 2
1
1



Parallel resonance:

C L
f
m
6 2
1
2



m
m
C C
C C
C

.






ig. 2.2.4.1.1: rystal Oscillator
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2.2.5 Armstrong
2.2.5.1 ircuit onnection

2.2.5.2 ircuit Operations:
Resistor R
1
, R
2
and R
3
are purposely to provide distort voltage to transistor. apacitor
1
and
2
are used to intercept alternate signal. o you still remember about the connection oI
ommon-Emitter onIigurations in ampliIier? This conIiguration will give 180
o
phase
diIIerent to the output signal.

ThereIore T
r
transIormer is chosen in order to produce phase shiIting as big as 180
o
to get a
Ieedback voltage that has a same phase as the input transistor. Usually the winding ratio
between the L
1
coil and L
2
coil is Iixed so that the multiply outcome between the A
square and Ieedback Iactor, ., is one ( ,A., 1 ).

Example given, iI ampliIier gain is 10, winding ratio must be 1 : 10 .
A . 10 x 0.1 1







ig. 2.2.5.1.1: Armstrong Oscillator circuit
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2.2.5.3 Oscillation requency:

Oscillation Irequency is determined by L

2
.
2
circuit, which is given by:


2 2
L 2
1
C
f
6


alculation example:

By reIerring to the circuit in Iigure 8.3a: II the winding ratio between the transIormer is
1:20 and the capacitor used in this resonance circuit is 503, determine the resonance
Irequency oI this circuit.



f
C L
f
3 6
6
50 10 2
1
2
1
2 2

7.14z












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2.3 $&#

Categori:ed into 2 types according to component at timing circuit
armonic Oscillator
Categorized into 2
categories
O hanged into A voltage
O It has ampliIier, timing circuit and
positive Ieedback
O ondition to ensure its selI-ocillation
i. ,A.,1 ii. Phase.iII 0



OSILLATOR
Inharmonic Oscillator
!roduced non-Sinus waves suc as
square, rectangle etc.
!roduced Sinus waves
R Type Oscillator
L Type Oscillator
Its timing circuit used resistor and
capacitor combination
Operates in low frequency
Its timing circuit used inductor and
capacitor combination
Operates in ig frequency
O Phase ShiIting Oscillator
O Wein-Bridge Oscillator
O rystal Oscillator
O Armstrong Oscillator
O olpitts Oscillator
O artley Oscillator
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Oscillators
Type Characteristics
# oscillators
Wien-bridge O Uses lead-lag Ieedback circuits
O Needs ganged R
S
Ior tuning
O Low distortion output Irom 5z to 1Mz (limited
bandwidth)
O fr 1
26R

Twin-T O Uses a notch Iilter circuit
O Works well at one Irequency
O iIIicult to adjust over a wide output Irequency
O fr 1
26R

Phase-shift O Uses 3-4 lead or lag circuits
O annot be adjusted over wide Irequency range

LC oscillators
Colpitts O Uses a pair oI tapped capacitors
O
1

2
fr 1

1

2
26\LC
O Widely used

Armstrong O Uses a transIormer Ior Ieedback
O Not used Irequently
O fr 1
26\LC

Hartley O Uses a pair oI tapped inductors
O L L1 L2 fr 1
26LC

Crystal O Uses a quartz crystal
O Very accurate and stable
O fp 1 fs 1
26\LC
p
26\LC
s