Transpiration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Transpiration may also refer to sweating and hyperhydrosis.

Stoma in a tomato leaf shown via colorised scanning electron microscope.

The clouds in this image of the Amazon Rainforest are a result of transpiration.

Some xerophytes will reduce the surface of their leaves during water deficiencies (left). If temperatures are cool enough and water levels are adequate the leaves expand again (right).

Transpiration is a process similar to evaporation. It is a part of the water cycle, and it is the loss of water vapor from parts of plants (similar to sweating), especially in leaves but also in stems,flowers and roots. Leaf surfaces are dotted with openings which are collectively called stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stoma are bordered by guard cells that open and close the pore. [1] Leaf transpiration occurs through stomata, and can be thought of as a necessary "cost" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration also cools plants and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is caused by the decrease in hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere. Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem. The rate of transpiration is directly related to the evaporation of water molecules from plant surface, especially from the surface openings, or stoma, on leaves. Stomatal transpiration accounts for most of the water loss by a plant, but some direct evaporation also takes place through the cuticle of the leaves and young stems. The amount of water given off depends somewhat upon how much water the roots of the plant have absorbed. It also depends upon such environmental conditions as light intensity, humidity, winds and temperature. A plant should not be transplanted in full sunshine because it may lose too much water and wilt before the damaged roots can supply enough water. Transpiration occurs as the sun warms the water inside the blade. The warming changes much of the water into water vapour. This gas can then escape through the stomata. Transpiration helps cool the inside of the leaf because the escaping vapor has absorbed heat. degree of stomatal opening, and to the evaporative demand of the atmosphere surrounding the leaf. The amount of water lost by a plant depends on its size, along with surrounding lightintensity,[2] temperature, humidity, and wind speed (all of which influence evaporative demand).Soil water supply and soil temperature can influence stomatal opening, and thus transpiration rate. A fully grown tree may lose several hundred gallons of water through its leaves on a hot, dry day. About 90% of the water that enters a plant's roots is used for this process. The transpiration ratio is the ratio of the mass of water transpired to the mass of dry matter produced; the transpiration ratio of crops tends to fall between 200 and 1000 (i.e., crop plants transpire 200 to 1000 kg of water for every kg of dry matterproduced).[3] Transpiration rate of plants can be measured by a number of techniques, including potometers, lysimeters, porometers, photosynthesis systems and heat balance sap flow gauges.

Desert plants and conifers have specially adapted structures, such as thick cuticles, reduced leaf areas, sunken stomata and hairs to reduce transpiration and conserve water. Many cacti conduct photosynthesis in succulent stems, rather than leaves, so the surface area of the shoot is very low. Many desert plants have a special type of photosynthesis, termed crassulacean acid metabolism or CAM photosynthesis in which the stomata are closed during the day and open at night when transpiration will be lower.

[edit]See

also

Antitranspirant - a substance to prevent Transpiration Eddy covariance flux (aka eddy correlation, eddy flux) Hydrology (agriculture) Latent heat flux Water Evaluation And Planning system (WEAP) Soil plant atmosphere continuum

[edit]References

1. 2.

^ Benjamin Cummins (2007), Biological Science (3 ed.), Freeman, Scott, p. 215 ^ Debbie Swarthout and C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Stomata. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC

3.

^ Martin, J.; Leonard, W.; Stamp, D. (1976), Principles of Field Crop Production (Third Edition), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., ISBN 0-02-376720-0

[edit]External

links

Transpiration by Trees

Anaerobic respiration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (August 2010)
Anaerobic respiration is a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain; it is respiration without oxygen. In order for the electron transport chain to function, an exogenous final electron acceptor must be present to allow electrons to pass through the system. In aerobic organisms, this final electron acceptor is oxygen. Molecular oxygen is highly oxidizing and therefore is an excellent acceptor. In anaerobes, other less oxidizing substances such as sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-) or sulfur (S) are used. These terminal electron acceptors have smaller reduction potentials than O2, meaning that less energy is released per oxidized molecule. Anaerobic respiration is therefore generally energetically less efficient than aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration is mainly used by prokaryotes that live in environments devoid of oxygen. Many anaerobic organisms are obligate anaerobes, meaning they can only respire using anaerobic compounds and will die in the presence of oxygen.
Contents
[hide]

1 Comparison to fermentation 2 Ecological importance 3 Economic relevance 4 Examples of anaerobic respiration 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography

[edit]Comparison

to fermentation

Anaerobic respiration and fermentation are two distinct forms of oxygen-independent energy metabolism. In anaerobic (and also aerobic) respiration, organisms channel electrons from an electron donor to a final electron acceptor through an electron transport chain, which converts the chemical energy into an electrochemical gradient. The energy stored in this gradient is then used in a second reaction by ATP synthase to generate ATP. In fermentation, ATP is directly synthesized from phosphorylated intermediates of metabolized

compounds without the involvement of an electron transport chain. As there is no external electron acceptor in fermentation, cells have to produce their own electron acceptor to maintain their redox balance.

[edit]Ecological

importance

Anaerobic respiration plays a major role in the global nitrogen, sulfur and carbon cycles through the reduction of the oxyanions of nitrogen, sulfur and carbon to more reduced compounds. Dissimilatory denitrification is the main route by which biologically fixed nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen gas. Hydrogen sulfide, a product of sulfate respiration, is a potent neurotoxin and responsible for the characteristic 'rotten egg' smell of brackish swamps. Along with volcanic hydrogen sulfide, biogenic sulfide has the capacity to precipitiate heavy metal ions from solution, leading to the deposition of sulfidic metal ores.

[edit]Economic

relevance

Dissimiltory denitrification is widely used in the removal of nitrate and nitrite from municipal wastewater. An excess of nitrate can lead toeutrophication of waterways into which treated water is released. Elevated nitrite levels in drinking water can lead to problems due to its toxicity. Denitrification converts both compounds into harmless nitrogen gas. Methanogenesis is a form of carbonate respiration which is exploited to produce methane gas by anaerobic digestion. Biogenic methane is used as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. On the negative side, uncontrolled methanogenesis in landfill sites releases large volumes of methane into the atmosphere, where it acts as a powerful greenhouse gas. Specific types of anaerobic respiration are also used to convert toxic chemicals into less harmful molecules. For example, toxic arsenate orselenate can be reduced to less toxic compounds by various bacteria.

[edit]Examples

of anaerobic respiration
examples of respiration types

type

lifestyle

electron acceptor

products

Eo'[ V]

example organisms

aerobic respiration

obligate and + 0.8 oxygen O2 H2O + CO2 eukaryotes facultative 2 aerobes

iron reduction

facultative aerobes, ferric iron obligate Fe(III) anaerobes

Fe(II)

Geobacter, Geothermobacter, Geopsychrobacter + 0.7 ,Pelobacter carbinolicus, P. acetylenicus, P. 5 venetianus,Desulfuromonadales, Desulfovibrio

facultative manganesereduction or obligate Mn(IV) anaerobes

Mn(II)

Desulfuromonadales, Desulfovibrio

cobalt reduction

facultative or obligate Co(III) anaerobes

Co(II)

Geobacter sulfurreducens

uranium reduction

facultative or obligate U(VI) anaerobes

U(IV)

Geobacter metallireducens, Shewanella putrefaciens, (Desulfovibrio)

nitrate reduction (denitrification)

facultative nitrate aerobes NO3

nitrite NO2

+ 0.4 Paracoccus denitrificans, E. coli 0

fumarate respiration

facultative fumarate aerobes

succinate

+ 0.0 Escherichia coli 3

sulfate respiration

obligate sulfate anaerobes SO42

sulfide HS

Desulfobacter latus, Desulfovibrio 0.22

carbon methanogenesis(carb methanog dioxide onate reduction) ens CO2

methane CH4

Methanothrix thermophila 0.25

sulfur respiration(sulfur reduction)

facultative aerobes and sulfur S0 obligate anaerobes

sulfide HS

Desulfuromonadales 0.27

carbon acetogenesis(carbona acetogens dioxide te reduction) CO2

acetate

Acetobacterium woodii 0.30

TCA reduction

facultative trichloroac dichloroac or obligate etic acid etic acid anaerobes

Trichlorobacter (Geobacteraceae)

[edit]See

also

Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic organism Halorespiration Mechanical biological treatment

[edit]References [edit]Bibliography

Physical exercise
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Workout" redirects here. For other uses, see Workout (disambiguation). "Exercise" redirects here. For other uses, see Exercise (disambiguation).

Participant in a triathlon at Catoctin Mountain in 2005.

Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overallhealth and wellness. It is performed for various reasons. These include strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance and for enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system, and helps prevent the "diseases of affluence" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity.[1][2] It also improves mental health, helps prevent depression, helps to promote or maintain positive self-esteem, and can even augment an individual's sex appeal or body image, which again is also linked with higher levels of self-esteem.[3] Childhood obesity is a growing global concern[4] and physical exercise may help decrease the effects of childhood obesity in developed countries.
Contents

[hide]

1 Classification

o o o

1.1 Types of exercise 1.2 Categories of physical exercise 1.3 Categories of general physical skills

2 Benefits

o o o o o

2.1 Effect on the cardiovascular system 2.2 Effect on the immune system 2.3 Effects on brain function 2.4 Effects on depression 2.5 Effects on sleep

3 Public health measures 4 Common misconceptions

4.1 Muscle and fat tissue

5 Excessive exercise 6 Exercise trends 7 Nutrition and recovery 8 History 9 In other species 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links

[edit]Classification [edit]Types

of exercise

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, [5] depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:

Flexibility exercises, such as stretching, improve the range of motion of muscles and joints.[6] Aerobic exercises, such as cycling, swimming, walking, skipping rope, rowing, running, hiking or playing tennis, focus on increasingcardiovascular endurance.[7]

Anaerobic exercises, such as weight training, functional training, eccentric training or sprinting, increase short-term muscle strength.[8]

[edit]Categories
Strength training Agility training

of physical exercise

Eccentric Training

Sometimes the terms 'dynamic' and 'static' are used. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolicblood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolicpressure to rise significantly (during the exercise).

[edit]Categories

of general physical skills

Physical exercise is used to improve physical skills. Physical skills fall into the following general categories, per CrossFit:[9]

Cardiovascular/respiratory endurance Stamina Strength Flexibility Power Speed Coordination Agility Balance Accuracy

[edit]Benefits

A common elliptical training machine

US Marines exercising on theUSS Bataan

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute positively to maintaining a healthy weight, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Exercise also reduces levels of cortisol.[citation needed] Cortisol is a stress hormone that builds fat in the abdominal region, making weight loss difficult.[citation needed] Cortisol causes many health problems, both physical and mental.[10] Frequent and regular aerobic exercise has been shown to help prevent or treat serious and life-threatening chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes,insomnia,

and depression.[11] Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals.[12] According to the World Health Organization, lack of physical activity contributes to approximately 17% of heart disease and diabetes, 12% of falls in the elderly, and 10% of breast cancer and colon cancer. [13] There is some evidence that vigorous exercise (9095% of VO2 Max) is more beneficial than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 Max).[14] Some studies have shown that vigorous exercise executed by healthy individuals can increase opioid peptides (a.k.a. endorphins, naturally occurringopioids that in conjunction with other neurotransmitters are responsible for exercise-induced euphoriaand have been shown to be addictive), increase testosterone and growth hormone,[15] effects that are not as fully realized with moderate exercise. More recent research[16][17] indicates that anandamidemay play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". However, training at this[which?] intensity for long periods of time, or without proper warmup beforehand and cooldown afterwards, can lead to an increased risk of injury and overtraining.[citation needed] Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise also work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Such changes are generally beneficial and healthy if they occur in response to exercise. Not everyone benefits equally from exercise. There is tremendous variation in individual response to training: where most people will see a moderate increase in endurance from aerobic exercise, some individuals will as much as double their oxygen uptake, while others can never augment endurance.[18][19] However, muscle hypertrophy from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone.[20] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.[21][22] Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life. [23]

[edit]Effect

on the cardiovascular system

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct relation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. There is a dose-response relation between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 to 2000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is in the sedentary who become moderately active. Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). ... persons who modify their behavior after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise have improved rates of survival. ... Persons who remain sedentary have the highest risk for all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. [2]

[edit]Effect

on the immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness.Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system while extreme exercise impairs it, an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of an infection, although another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have slightly elevated natural killer cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.[24] Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with lower URTIs in marathon runners.[24] Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.[24]

[edit]Effects

on brain function

A 2008 review of cognitive enrichment therapies (strategies to slow or reverse cognitive decline) concluded that "physical activity, and aerobic exercise in particular, enhances older adults' cognitive function". [25] In mice, exercise improves cognitive functioning via improvement of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning, and enhancement of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis.[26] In addition, physical activity has been shown to be neuroprotective in many neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases.[27] For instance, it reduces the risk of developing dementia.[28] Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests that frequent exercise may reverse alcoholinduced brain damage.[29] There are several possibilities for why exercise is beneficial for the brain:

increasing the blood and oxygen flow to the brain increasing growth factors that help create new nerve cells[30] and promote synaptic plasticity[31] increasing chemicals in the brain that help cognition, such as dopamine, glutamate, norepinephrine, and serotonin[32]

Physical activity is thought to have other beneficial effects related to cognition as it increases levels of nerve growth factors, which support the survival and growth of a number of neuronal cells.[33]

[edit]Effects

on depression

A number of factors may contribute to depression including being overweight, low self-esteem, stress and anxiety.[34] Endorphins act as a natural pain reliever and antidepressant in the body.[35] Endorphins have long been regarded as responsible for what is known as "runner's high", a euphoric feeling a person receives from intense physical exertion.[36] However, recent research[16][17] indicates that anandamide may possibly play a greater role than endorphins in "runner's high". When a person exercises, levels of both circulating serotonin and endorphins are increased.[37] These levels are known to stay elevated even several days after exercise is discontinued, possibly contributing to improvement in mood, increased self-esteem, and weight management.[36] Exercise alone is a potential prevention method and/or treatment for mild forms of depression.[38]

[edit]Effects

on sleep

A 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the possible exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. There is, in any case, insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. [39]

[edit]Public

health measures

Signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, have been shown to be effective in increasing exercise in a population.[40] The city of Bogot, Colombia, for example, blocks off 113 kilometers (70 miles) of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. These pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases, including obesity.[41]

[edit]Common

misconceptions

Many myths have arisen surrounding exercise, some of which have a basis in reality, and some which are completely false. Myths include:

That excessive exercise can cause immediate death.[citation needed] Death by exercise has some small basis in fact. Water intoxicationcan result from prolific sweating (producing electrolyte losses) combined with consumption of large amounts of plain water and insufficient replenishment of electrolytes, especially salt and potassium (e.g. when running a marathon). It is also possible to die from a heart attack or similar affliction if overly intense exercise is performed by someone who is not at an appropriate level of fitness for that particular activity or has an undiagnosed rare condition like hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A doctor should always be consulted before any radical changes are made to a person's current exercise

routine. Rhabdomyolysis is also a risk. Other common dangers may occur from extreme overheating or aggravation of a physical defect, such as a thrombosis or aneurysm.

That weightlifting makes you short or stops growth. One confirmed danger is that heavy weight training in adolescents (ages 1116) can damage the epiphyseal plate of long bones and can stunt joints. It is still commonly suggested that adolescents refrain from any kind of "strenuous" weight-lifting. However, weight training is a healthy form of exercise for adolescents and can be perfectly safe if performed under the supervision of a trained professional.[citation needed]

[edit]Muscle

and fat tissue

One misconception is that muscle tissue will turn into fat tissue once a person stops exercising. This is not literally truefat tissue and muscle tissue are fundamentally differentbut the common expression that "muscle will turn to fat" is truthful in the sense that catabolism of muscle fibers for energy can result in excess glucose being stored as fat.[42] Moreover, the composition of a body part can change toward less muscle and more fat, so that a cross-section of the upper-arm for example, will have a greater area corresponding to fat and a smaller area corresponding to muscle. This is not muscle "turning into fat" howeverit is simply a combination of muscle atrophy and increased fat storage in different tissues of the same body part. The muscle is being replaced by fat. Another element of increased fatty deposits is that of diet, as most trainees will not significantly reduce their diet in order to compensate for the lack of exercise/activity. [citation needed]

[edit]Excessive

exercise

Exercise is a stressor and the stresses of exercise have a catabolic effect on the bodycontractile proteins within muscles are consumed for energy, carbohydrates and fats are similarly consumed and connective tissues are stressed and can form micro-tears. However, given adequate nutrition and sufficient rest to avoid overtraining, the body's reaction to this stimulus is to adapt and replete tissues at a higher level than that existing before exercising. The results are all the training effects of regular exercise: increased muscular strength, endurance, bone density, and connective tissue toughness. Too much exercise can be harmful. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases,[43] and muscle tissue may develop slowly. Extremely intense, long-term cardiovascular exercise, as can be seen in athletes who train for multiple marathons, has been associated with scarring of the heart and heart rhythm abnormalities.[44][45][46] Inappropriate exercise can do more harm than good, with the definition of "inappropriate" varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running and cycling, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. Injuries from accidents also remain a major concern, [47] whereas the effects of increased exposure to air pollution seem only a minor concern.[48][49]

In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis(damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits.[50] Another danger is overtraining in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts.[51] Stopping excessive exercise suddenly can also create a change in mood. Feelings of depression and agitation can occur when withdrawal from the natural endorphins produced by exercise occurs. Exercise should be controlled by each body's inherent limitations. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. This must be determined for each individual. Too much exercise can also cause a female to miss her period, a symptom known as amenorrhea.[52]

[edit]Exercise

trends

Main article: Exercise trends Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work.[53] This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor saving technology in the home, and less active recreational pursuits.[53]

[edit]Nutrition

and recovery

Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients whilst providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise. [54] Proper rest and recovery are also as important to health as exercise; otherwise the body exists in a permanently injured state and will not improve or adapt adequately to the exercise.[citation needed] It is necessary to refill the glycogen stores in the skeletal muscles and liver.[citation needed] Nutrition and recovery can be compromised by psychological compulsions (eating disorders such as exercise bulimia, anorexia, and otherbulimias), misinformation, a lack of organization, or a lack of motivation. Delayed onset muscle soreness can occur after any kind of exercise, particularly if the body is in an unconditioned state relative to that exercise.[55]

[edit]History
The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."[56] However, the link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was only discovered in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by Jerry Morris.[57][58] Dr. Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly

different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.[58] This link had not previously been noted and was later confirmed by other researchers.

[edit]In

other species

Physical exercise has been shown to benefit a wide range of other mammals, as well as salmon, crocodilians and one species of bird.[59]However, several studies have shown that lizards display no benefit from exercise, leading them to be termed "metabolically inflexible".[59]

[edit]See

also

Pulse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Pulse (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(December 2008)

In medicine, one's pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed against a bone, such as at the neck (carotid artery), at the wrist (radial artery), behind the knee(popliteal artery), on the inside of the elbow (brachial artery), and near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery). The pulse can also be measured by listening to the heart beat directly (auscultation), traditionally using a stethoscope.
Contents
[hide]

1 Physiology 2 Normal Pulse Rates 3 Evaluation 4 Common pulse sites

o o o o

4.1 Upper limb 4.2 Lower limb 4.3 Head/neck 4.4 Torso

5 See also 6 References

[edit]Physiology
The pulse is a decidedly low tech/high yield and antiquated term still useful at the bedside in an age of computational analysis of cardiac performance. Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse.[1] The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats. Practitioners in Chinese Medicine are trained in Pulse Diagnosis and seek six different pulses in each wrist, each corresponding to specific organs of the body. The Chinese practitioner is trained to evaluate the frequency, rhythm and volume of the pulse and may characterize it as strong, thready, slippery or floating.[2] Pressure waves generated by heart systole move the artery walls, which are pliable and compliant. These properties form enough to create a palpable pressure wave. The Heart Rate may be greater or lesser than the Pulse Rate depending upon physiologic demand. In this case, the heart rate are determined by auscultation or audible sounds at the heart apex, in which case it is not the pulse. The pulse deficit (difference between heart beats and pulsations at the periphery) is determined by simultaneous palpation at the radial artery and auscultation at the heart apex. Pulse velocity, pulse deficits and much more physiologic data is readily and simplistically visualized by the use of one or more arterial catheters connected to a transducer and oscilloscope. This invasive technique has been commonly used in intensive care since the 1970s. The rate of the pulse is observed and measured by tactile or visual means on the outside of an artery and is recorded as beats per minute or BPM.

The pulse may be further indirectly observed under Light absorbances of varying wavelengths with assigned and inexpensively reproduced mathematical ratios. Applied capture of variances of light signal from the Blood component Hemoglobin under oxygenated vs. deoxygenated conditions allows the technology of Pulse Oximetry.

[edit]Normal

Pulse Rates

Normal pulse rates in beats per minute (BPM):

newborn

1 12 months

1 2 years

2 6 years

6 12 years

12 years - adults

adult athletes

120 - 160

80 - 140

80 - 130

75 - 120

75 - 110

60 - 100

40 - 70

The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but there is a condition called bradycardia that can be dangerous. Symptoms include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.[3]

[edit]Evaluation
A collapsing pulse is a sign of hyperdynamic circulation. Several pulse patterns can be of clinical significance. These include:

Pulsus alternans Pulsus bigeminus Pulsus bisferiens Pulsus tardus et parvus Pulsus paradoxus Sinus Tachycardia

The strength of the pulse can also be reported:[4][5]

0 = Absent 1 = Barely palpable 2 = Easily palpable 3 = Full 4 = Aneurysmal or Bounding pulse

[edit]Common [edit]Upper

pulse sites

limb

Front of right upper extremity

Axillary pulse: located inferiorly of the lateral wall of the axilla Brachial pulse: located on the inside of the upper arm near the elbow, frequently used in place of carotid pulse in infants (brachial artery)

Radial pulse: located on the lateral of the wrist (radial artery). It can also be found in theanatomical snuff box.

Ulnar pulse: located on the medial of the wrist (ulnar artery).

[edit]Lower

limb

Femoral pulse: located in the inner thigh, at the mid-inguinal point, halfway between the pubic symphysis and anterior superior iliac spine (femoral artery).

Popliteal pulse: Above the knee in the popliteal fossa, found by holding the bent knee. The patient bends the knee at approximately 124, and the physician holds it in both hands to find the popliteal artery in the pit behind the knee (Popliteal artery).

Dorsalis pedis pulse: located on top of the foot, immediately lateral to the extensor of hallucis longus (dorsalis pedis artery).

Tibialis posterior pulse: located on the medial side of the ankle, 2 cm inferior and 2 cm posterior to the medial malleolus (posterior tibial artery). It is easily palpable over Pimenta's Point.

[edit]Head/neck

Arteries of the neck.

Carotid pulse: located in the neck (carotid artery). The carotid artery should be palpated gently and while the patient is sitting or lying down. Stimulating its baroreceptors with low palpitation can provoke severe bradycardia or even stop the heart in some sensitive persons. Also, a person's two carotid arteries should not be palpated at the same time. Doing so may limit the flow of blood to the head, possibly leading to fainting or brain ischemia. It can be felt between the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, above the hyoid bone and lateral to the thyroid cartilage.

Facial pulse: located on the mandible (lower jawbone) on a line with the corners of the mouth (facial artery).

Temporal pulse: located on the temple directly in front of the ear (superficial temporal artery).

[edit]Torso
Apical pulse: located in the 4.5th or 5th left intercostal space, just outside the mid-clavicular line. In contrast with other pulse sites, the apical pulse site is unilateral, and measured not under an artery, but below the heart itself (more specifically, the apex of the heart).

[edit]See

also

Pulsus paradoxus

Heart rate Pulse meter

[edit]Re

Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. During each heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure.
[1]

The mean BP, due to pumping by the heart and resistance to flow in

blood vessels, decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the heart
[2]

through arteries. Blood

pressure drops most rapidly along the small arteries and arterioles, and continues to decrease as the blood moves through the capillaries and back to the heart throughveins. Gravity, valves in veins, and

pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles, are some other influences on BP at various places in the body. The term blood pressure usually refers to the pressure measured at a person's upper arm. It is measured on the inside of an elbow at the brachial artery, which is the upper arm's major blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. A person's BP is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure over diastolic pressure (mmHg), for example 140/90.

Respiratory rate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the measurement of breathing. For the parameter used in ecological and agronomical modelling, see respiration rate.

Respiratory rate (aka respiration rate, pulmonary ventilation rate or ventilation rate, breathing frequency (BF)) is the number of breaths a living being, such as a human, takes within a certain amount of time (frequently given in breaths per minute). There is limited research on monitoring respiratory rate. However it is not yet proven whether or not this is due to age or environment and these studies have focused on such issues as the inaccuracy of respiratory rate measurement and respiratory rate as a marker for respiratory dysfunction.
Contents
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1 Measurement 2 Normal range

2.1 By Age

3 Minute volume 4 Diagnostic value 5 See also 6 References

[edit]Measurement

The human respiration rate is usually measured when a person is at rest and simply involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises. Respiration rates may increase with fever, illness, OR other medical conditions. When checking respiration, it is important to also note whether a person has any difficulty breathing. Inaccuracies in respiratory measurement have been reported in the literature. One study compared respiratory rate counted using a 90 second count period, to a full minute, and found significant differences in the rates.[citation needed] Another study found that rapid respiratory rates in babies, counted using a stethoscope, were 6080% higher than those counted from beside the cot without the aid of the stethoscope. [citation needed] Similar results are seen with animals when they are being handled and not being handledthe invasiveness of touch apparently is enough to make significant changes in breathing.
[edit]Normal

range

Average respiratory rate reported in a healthy adult at rest is usually given as 12 breaths per minute (1260 Hz)[1][2] but estimates do vary between sources, e.g., 1220 breaths per minute, 1014,[3] between 1618,[4] etc. With such a slow rate, more accurate readings are obtained by counting the number of breaths over a full minute.
[edit]By

Age

Average Respiratory Rates By Age:

Newborns: 30-40 breaths per minute Less Than 1 Year: 30-40 breaths per minute 1-3 Years: 23-35 breaths per minute 3-6 Years: 20-30 breaths per minute 6-12 Years: 18-26 breaths per minute 12-17 Years: 12-20 breaths per minute Adults Over 18: 1220 breaths per minute

[edit]Minute

volume

Respiratory minute volume is the volume of air which can be inhaled (inhaled minute volume) or exhaled (exhaled minute volume) from a person's lungs in one minute.
[edit]Diagnostic

value

The value of respiratory rate as an indicator of potential respiratory dysfunction has been investigated but findings suggest it is of limited value. One study found that only 33% of people presenting to an emergency department with an oxygen saturation below 90% had an increased respiratory rate.[citation needed] An evaluation of respiratory rate for the differentiation of the severity of illness in babies under 6 months found it not to be very useful. Approximately half of the babies had a respiratory rate above 50 breaths per minute, thereby questioning the value of having a "cut-off" at 50 breaths per minute as the indicator of serious respiratory illness. It has also been reported that factors such as crying, sleeping, agitation and age have a significant influence on the respiratory rate.[citation needed] As a result of these and similar studies the value of respiratory rate as an indicator of serious illness is limited.
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