Tealian violin strings in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: typologies, manufacturing techniques and principles of stringing Questa picciol'arte, che contribuisce tan- to al nostro piacere, & forse una delle men note, attesoché coloro che la professano ne serbano le pratiche a guisa di segreto. FRANCESCO GRISELINI: Dizionario delle ar- 4 e mestieri (Venetia 1765). On matters concerning strings and the criteria of stringing bowed instru- ments from the beginning of the cighteenth to the end of the nineteenth century, the systematic study of recently acquired material has produced some remarkable surprises, that are particularly revealing if compared to the string- ing techniques currently used by the carly music specialists. For at least a decade researchers have begun to realize that mistaken interpretations of the original sources in certain important violin methods dating from the first half of the present century — as, for example, that of Carl Flesch’ — have had a bad influence on those who first began to pose the problem of how best to recover past musical repertories in accordance with the strictest principles of authenticity. Ichas been widely held, for example, that eighteenth-century bowed instru- ments, and especially the violin, had a thin, nasal sound — in marked contrast, therefore, with that of our own century: this was generally attributed to the preference of early musicians to string their instruments much more lightly cant. ruxscat: The are of violin playing, 2 vols. Fischer, New York 1924-30 (original edition, Die Kunst des Violnspiel, 2 vols, Ries, Berlin 1924-8). ® Sce PATRIZIO BARBIERI: “Giordano Riccati on the diameters of strings and pipes", The Galpin Society journal, xoccvi 1985, pp. 20-34, and EPHRAIM SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, The Strad, part 1, January 1988, pp. 525, part 2 ("Highly strung”), March 1988, pp. 195-201, part 3 (“Deep ten- sions"), April 1988, pp. 295-9,164 MINMO PERUFFO into halves (“spaccare le maze, o budelle per mezz0”).” Evidently, despite the advantage of obtaining more regular gauges, the most powerful corporation of string makers (that of Rome) did not consider it a good practice. Another difference is that today the fatty substances are removed by using pure sodium carbonate instead of potash, which is impure potassium car- bonate obtained by burning vinasse and wine dregs. And for the whitening process, string makers today use oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide or sodium peroxide. The last substantial difference from past practice is thar the dried rough strings are no longer lightly smoothed with abrasive grass (or pumice pow- der), but rectified by a special machine capable of producing the wide variety of diameters in demand toda ‘While at first glance it might seem that modernization merely introduced a few welcome improvements after centuries of unchanged string making technology, this is not entirely correct. Certain seemingly insignificant steps in the earlier process have been unduly overlooked. This is very evident if we compare modern strings with the few surviving samples of old strings (even relatively recent strings dating from the beginning of this century). The for. mer are stiff, hard and only lightly ewisted; the latter are elastic, soft and highly twisted. In addition, modern strings have a very short string life unless they are varnished, “The difference in string life is easily explained. Strings made of whole guts and lightly polished by means of abrasive grass or pumice have much fewer broken fibers on their surface than those made from strips of gut and brought to the desired diameter by mechanical rectification that forcibly removes sig- nificant quantities of material from the string’s surface. ‘The second important aspect to have a serious effect on the string’s acous- tical performance is the sacrifice of elasticity in favour of resistance to tension. This almost suggests that today’s strings are built to stand up to a tug-of-war and not to provide as good a sound as possible, Instead, to play well, a string, must have the capacity to transform the mechanical impulse transmitted by the bow or the fingers into a vibrational movement that is, as far as possible, devoid of the internal frictions that would reduce the efficiency of that trans- formation. ‘A number of factors lie behind this “abandonment” of the manufacturers’ quest for maximum elasticity. One is that string makers no longer use the gut of young animals, which tends to be less rigid and nervy. Another is the re- placement of potash — also known as “oil of tartar” and widely used until the 2 azavs osse: “Highly strung in Markneukirchen”, The Sirad, October 1993, pp. 964-7. Roma, Archivio di Stato, Camerale 1, Ari e mestier, Statuti, coll. 32, busta 12, anno 1642, Searuzodell'aniver- site dei cordai di Roma.Figure 1. cumusrovn weicen: The ring maker, Regensburg 1698.162 MIMMO PERUFFO the residual unwanted substances, During this stage a small amount of rock- alum could be added; it would have had a shrinking and tanning effecr, thus slightly hardening the gut. In short, the alkaline baths ensured that the organ- ic material underwent a combined process of fermentation and soaping to facilitare the detachment of the undesirable parts, while leaving the muscular membrane — the part that interested the string maker — free of extraneous matter and perfectly degreased. ‘After this treatment the guts were carefully selected and grouped together in parallel strips (according to the diameter of the string to be made) and knotted at both ends. The strips were then attached to a special wheel used for twisting the string while the other end was fixed to a peg.at the side of a dry- ing frame (Figure 1). After sufficient twisting, the free end of the damp string was disconnected ftom the wheel and tied to a peg on the opposite side of the drying frame and placed under tension. ‘When the frame was full, it was taken to a special room where the strings were subjected to a process of whitening or sulphurization. This involved burning sulphur in a basin and subjecting the strings, for several days, to the whitening action of the sulphur dioxide fumes. ‘When this was completed, the strings were further twisted and given a final drying in the open ait for just a few hours. The very last stage consisted of polishing the surface of the strings using a grass with abrasive qualities (equiserum or horsetail) soaked in alkaline solution or tempra. "The perfectly polished strings were then rubbed with olive oil, cut from the ends of the frame, wound in circular bundles and put into boxes. Each box could contain from fifteen up to thirty or more strings soaked in olive oil." “There are therefore substantial differences between the procedures followed then and now. “The first important difference is that today lamb’s gut has been virtually abandoned and replaced by material from more mature animals, Secondly, most string makers in the eighteenth century, and much of the nineteenth, used whole gut, whereas in modern practice a special machine is used ro cut the material into ribbons; this helps to reduce string coniciry, a problem that had always affected the production of chantereles. Ie is generally thought that cutting into ribbons was first practised by the late cightcenth- century German makers, though in fact it already existed in Italy around the mid seventeenth century: there are statute rules that inflicted heavy fines on string makers — Roman makers in this case — who were caught splitting gut » The seventeenth-century iconography shows that the length of excess string on an instrument ‘was bundled up as if it were pliable cord: this strongly suggests that the strings were very soft. From the cighteenth century strings were packaged in ting shapes, which would seem to confirm the changes in string making resulting from the introduction of overspun strings.ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 161 With the introduction of overspun strings (and with the consequent in- crease in demand for them, especially from bowed instruments), the ancient, secret techniques of making all-gut bass strings declined rapidly and were soon forgotten by the new generation of string makers: just by wrapping a thin metal wire around a gut string one got a much larger sound. As a result, the manufacture of these new strings probably passed immediately into the hands of the luthiers, and sometimes into those of the musicians themselves: the winding of a normal gut string with spinet or cittern wire would have hardly constituted a problem for the more enterprising among them.” ‘The early eighteenth century must have witnessed a drastic narrowing of production: by mid-century the treatises and documents are no longer refer- ring to the wide range of gut commodities described in the previous century: In its place there arose a uniform system of string manufacturing that remain- ed in use in the following centuries — and to a great extent still applies today. String manufacturing technique. Though at first glance the procedures for making gut strings look remarkably like those in use today, there were sub- stantial differences. And what these differences unquestionably suggest is that the earlier strings (right up to the end of the nineteenth century) were more elastic, and hence better, than those available today. String making in the past required the use of a whole lamb-gue of a length of at least 50 feet.” After careful cleaning and rinsing in running water for several days, the gut was subjected to a series of treatments to eliminate the non-muscular membranes and farcy substances. This was done by immersing the gut in alkaline solutions of increasing concentration for a few days, after which the undesirable substances were easily removed with the back of a knife ora fragment of cane. The alkaline solution consisted of plant ashes (potash) mixed with water. The diluted concentrations were sufficient to remove the more easily soluble farty substances, while the highest concentration was left t0 the end of the treatment, when more aggressive action was needed ro remove all 2 ganpteRa: “Cembalaro, organaro, chitarraro e fabbricatore di corde armoniche”, p. 174, workshop inventory of the instrument maker Crescenzio Ugar, 1791: “un ordegno da coprir corde di fil d'argento” {a device for covering strings with silver wire), FRANCESCO GALEAZZ1; Elementi teorico-pratici di musica con sun saggio sopra U'arte di suonare il violin |...}, Pilucchi Cracas, Roma 1791, p. 74: “Non sari, cred'io, carol rio lenore, che io qui li descr uta piciolasempicsima macehineta, Tus le ne addi pert filatsi, ¢ ricoprirsi d’argento da sé i cordon” (Ie will not, I believe, be unwelcome to my reader if 1 describe and explaine the use of, a small and very simple machine for threading and covering the fourth ‘strings in silver). 2 anensco GruseLant: Disionaro delle ari e meier, vol v,Fenao, Venezia 1769, entry “Corda- juolo di corde di budella”, pp. 124-33 and plate xm (a faithful translation of the entry “Bayaudier”, in Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers(...), vol. 11, Briasson et al., Paris 1951, pp. 388-9), and FRANGOIS DE LALANDE: Vayage en Italie |...] fait dans les années 1765 & 1766, 20d edition, vol. tx, Desaint, Paris 1786, pp. 51479. pe Latanpe: Voyage en ltalie,p. 514.160 MIMMO PERUFFO Undoubtedly the most comprehensive document on stringing in the period before Bach is the treatise by Thomas Mace. Its most notable aspect — one that had already been mentioned many years earlier by John Dowland” its division of the strings (in this case for the lute, the most problematic instru- ment for stringing at that time) into three basic “sorts”: strings for the trebles (minikins, Romans), strings for the meanes (Venice catlins), and strings for the basses (Lyons or the “deep dark red” coloured Pistoys)." What this arrangement strongly suggests is not so much a simple commer- cial distinction or a grouping according to provenance (ever since the carly sixteenth century, strings had been named after their respective areas of prov- enance) as differing types of technology. It seems to imply that diversified manufacturing strategies were followed in order to produce strings that were suited to each register and to ensure a perfect “acoustical” transition between registers. The characteristics of each type would appear to be: maximum resis- tance to wear and breakage for treble strings, maximum elasticity for the strings of the middle register, and an increase in specific weight and elasticity for the bass strings. Finally, though the earliest mention of overspun strings is from England and precedes his treatise, Mace’s description of bass strings still refers to the all-gut strings made in Italy and France, ‘An example of seventeenth-century violin stringing is given by James Talbot: “Best strings are Roman ist & 2d of Venice catlins: 3rd ae 4th best be finest a smoothest Lyons, all 4 differ in size”.” This is corroborated by iconographic evidence showing an obvious difference between the first two strings, which are light yellow, and the third and fourth strings, which are distinctly brown." To our knowledge, the only seventeenth-century author to give an idea of the gauges of violin strings is Mersenne. His indications, though general, are useful: “la chantarelle des dessus est aussi grosse que la quatriesme des luths” (the violin first string is the same size as the fourth string of the lutes).” This means a diameter of between 0.70 and 0.80 mm for the violin fist string.” 'S Joun powtann: “Other necessary observations belonging to the lute”, in ROBERT DOWLAND: Varictie of lte-lesons {...], Thomas Adams, London 1610, paragraph “OF setting the right sizes of THOMAS MACE: Musik: monument ...J, the author & John Carr, London 1676, pp. 65-6. ” sostar powwow “James Talbots Manuscript, n: Bowed tings" The pin Scie ownah 1111956, p. 30. According to seceRMan: “Strings through the ages’, part 2, p. 197, Talbot also writes that “bass viol treble string = 2d of violin”; on the strength of this scant data, Segerman estimated a diameter for a violin Ein Talbot's day by referring to the average diameter of the chanterlle ofa modern bass vil: as the diameter of a heavy modern cop string for a bass vio is generally 0.69 mm, that of the Talbot's violin chanterelle was estimated as 0.46 mm. " For an iconographic example, see che painting by the Sienese artist Rutilio Manetti Amore crion- ante (3625), Dublin, National Gallery of Ireland. " aRiN MERSENNE: Harmonie universell[..], Livre quattiesme, Cramoisy, Pars 1636, p. 189. % In seGeRMaN: “Strings through che ages", part 2, p. 197, a diameter of about 0.76 mm is calculated ones ,ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS Il co. Valdrighi lamenta la cessazione di questa industria, considerando “che il comodo delle acque e la facilita di avere dalla vicina montagna le minugie pecori- ne crano occasion a perfevionarla € a renderla utilissima in tanta mancanza di buona produzione”, 201 Count Valdrighi lamented the termi- nation of this industry, considering “the convenience of the waters and the ease of having the sheep guts from the nearby mountains were an opportunity for per- fecting and making it exceedingly useful amid such a lack of good production’. Mimmo Peruffo is involved in the study and reconsoruction of the gut strings used during the renaissance and baroque periods. His contributions on the subject have appeared in the Fomnut quarterly, Bollettino della Sociera Italiana del Liuto, The Lute Sociery of America quarterly, Quattrocentoquindici, Il Fronimo, and Recercare. © [would like to thank Terrell Stone and Hugh Ward-Perkins for their help on che English translation of this paper.200 Ja necessaria assistenza, perché introduca stabilisca in codesta sua giurisdizione la manifactura delle corde predette e le ba- ciamo affettuosamente le mani’. Fu cosi che il Cecchelli imprese la la- vorazione delle corde armoniche in Sas- suolo. Difatti con altra letera del 30 suc- cessivo aprile il magistrato medesimo es- poneva al Iuogotenente del governo di Sassuolo: “Siccome il dort. Paolucci, che ha il giusprivativo delle corde da violino in questa citth e distretto pud restar abbon- dantemente provveduto de’ budelli oc- corrrenti nelle giurisdizioni dello stato, eccettuata codesta in cui si é stabilito Pao- lo Cecchelli per fabbricar corde della stesa specie, abbiamo inibito al medesimo di continuar a far direttamente o indiretta- mente nuovi acquisti di budelli da code- sti beccai dopo li 8 dell'entrante mese. In- vigilera V.S. nelfossevanza della nostra intenzione e nelle occorrenze prestera la sua assistenza al detto Cecchelli”.”” Dopo che il Cecchelli lascid Sassuolo, la lavorazione delle corde armoniche fu assunta dalla famiglia Giovanardi deta Quaranta oriunda di Fiorano. ‘Una tale famiglia teneva la sua fabbri- cazione nella contrada Ghiarona ora Cau- 4, in una casa Panini, e si occupava spe- cialmente di cantini, che smerciava per lo piti in Modena, in Reggio ¢ in Parma. La lavorazione, interrotta nel 1857, fu riattivata da Vincenzo Pellati di Sassuolo, il quale la continud sino al 1869. ‘MIMMO PERUFFO introduce and establish the manufacture of the said strings within your Jurisdic- tion. Yours, et.’ That was how Cecchelli began to ma- rnufacture strings in Sassuolo. In fact, in another letter of the following 30 April, the same magistrate reported to the Lieu tenenant of the government of Sassuolo: “As Dott. Paolucci, who has the mo- nopoly for violin strings in this city and district, may remain abundantly provid- ed with the necessary guts in the juris- dictions of the State except in that where Paolo Cecchelli has setled to make strings of the same kind, we have prohibited the same [Paolucci] from continuing 0 make, directly or indirectly, new pur- chases of guts from these butchers after the 8th of the following month. Your Excellency will ensure the observance of our intention and, if necessary, give assis- tance to the said Cecchelli”."" ‘Afer Cecchelli left Sassuolo, the ma- nnufacture of musical strings was taken over by the Giovanardi family known as Quaranta, who were from Fiorano. ‘A family of that name had its work- shop in the Ghiarona (today Caula) con- trada, in a house belonging to the Panini family, and specialised in making cantini, which it sold mainly in Modena, Reggio and Parma. The manufacture, which was inter- rupted in 1857, was begun again by Vin- enzo Pellati of Sassuolo, who continued it until 1869. "© Apprendo che nel 3 agosto del 1743 gli eredi Zibini, livellari del gius privativo delle corde armo- niche in Modena, in Reggio «nee adiacenze, ricorsero al duea, pr richiamare al dovere i macellai che avevano ricusato di dare le minugie di castrato pel prezzo con cui si pagavano in Modena ai det ere~ di, che, ginsta la, the 3rd August of 1743 the Zi r avevano mandato a Sassuolo a far incetta di dette minugie (Learning that on ini heirs, holders of the musical string monopoly in Modena, Reggio ‘and the vicinity, appealed to the Duke to bring to order the butchers who had refused give the gut of ‘eastrato for the price at which they were paid in Modena to the said heirs, who, in just cause, had sent to Sassuolo to buy up the said guts)ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS In una supplica® del 16 febbraio di detco anno, da lui diretta al Magistrato del Commercio e dell'Agricoleura di Mo- dena, dopo di_aver rappresentato che i suoi antenati furono quelli che portarono negli Stati Esiensi Larte di fabbricare corde da suono e che erano da $6 anni da che egli lavorava in Modena, con diritto di privativa, avendo presa la condotta delle sorelle Cibini'” col pagare annue mode- nesi lire 1400, si lament® perché tanto egli quanto il suo compagno e patriota Vincenzo dé Angeli erano stati cacciati dalla fabbrica del dote. Paolucci, che asse- riva esser a lui devoluta una tale privativa e che aveva gid fatto venire un foresticre, cui aveva affidato la fabbrica stessa, Prega- va di essere ammesso a riassumere la con- dotta, oppure di esser ricevuto come so- cio, altrimenti sarebbe costretto a morir di fame tanto egli quanto la moglie ei fgli. Tl magistrato nel 23 del detco mese di febbraio scriveva al governatore di Sas- suolo nei seguenti termini: “Avendo il dott. Paolucci esposto al nostro Magistrato d'esser entrato nelle ra- gioni di una Zibini, relative al gius priva- tivo delle corde da violino di questo di- stretto, e non volendo impiegare Paolo Cecchali napoltano per lormazione delle medesime corde, sebbene lo stesso da molti anni abbia insieme con un cugi- no (il de’ Angeli suddetto) esecitata sotto la stessa Zibini quest’arte, accid non abban- doni lo stato, lo indirizziamo a VS. ill:ma enon dubitiamo, che gli accordera tutta % Archivio di Stato di Modena, Musica, flea 3*. 199 In a petition" of 16 February of that year, addressed co the Magistrate of Trade and Agriculture of Modena, after relating that is ancestors were those who brought to the Este State the art of making strings, and that he had been working in Modena for 56 years, with a right of monopoly, hav- ing taken over the management from the Cibini sisters” by paying annually 1400 Modenese lira, he complained that both he and his partner and compatriot Vin- cenzo de’ Angeli had been dismissed from the factory of Dr Paolucci, who claimed that the said monopoly had devolved on him and who had already entrusted the factory to a foreigner he had called in. He begged that the business be restored to him or to be taken in as a partner, other- wise both he and his wife and children would be sure to die of starvation. The Magistrate, on the 23rd of that month of February wrote to the governor of Sassuolo in the following terms: “Having Dr Paolucci stated to our Magistrate that he had entered into the business of a certain Zibini, in connec- tion with the violin string monopoly in this district, and not wishing to employ the Neapolitan Paolo Cecchelli to make the said strings, even if the latter, together with a cousin (the above-mentioned de’ An- gel) cartied out the profession under the said Zibinis so that he should not leave the State, we shall send him ro Your Ex- cellency and do not doubt chat you will offer him all che necessary assistance to ©" IL Valdrighi in altra parte della sua opera fa cmonoscere che “I sorlle Zibini dal 1726 al 1803 ebbe- 10 Vappalto delle corde da suono in Modena. In questo loro dirito privativo pare succeddessero gli eredi di Beniamino Vito-Levi, dirito abolto con legge del s pra, anno v1 repubblicano: alta industria la de- cadenza della quae si deve ala rvoluzione importataci dalla Francia” (Valdrighi in another part of his ‘work mentions that the “Zibini sisters from 1726 to 1803 had the contract for corde da suana in Mode- na, This monopolistic right was inherited, it would appear, by the heirs of Beniamino Vico-Levi, and the right itself was abolished by law dated 5 Prarie, in the 6th Year of the Republican Calendar: yet another industry whose decline can be atrbitued to the revolution imported from France”).198 MIMMo PERUFFO was generally shorter and thinner), and the position of the soundpost and the bridge;"” not to mention the type of resin (concerning we have successfully tested Galeazzis recipe). In short, everything would appear to have been closely interlinked, according to a precise sequence whose starting point was the string: the fall of this element, some time in the twentieth century, had a “domino effect” on all the others, dix: “Manufacturers of musical strings”, in NATALE CIONINI: Téatro e.arti in Sassuolo, Forghieri, Modena 1902, pp. 273-5. § x.— Fabbricatori di corde armoni- che. — Oltre la concia delle pelli fiort in Sassuolo anche la concia delle corde da vio- § x. — Manufacturers of musical string. — Apart from the tanning of skins, even that of violin strings flourished in Sassuo- lino, che trovasi pure nella contrada de’ birrio Raccherta, detta ora Delle concie. Il Valdrighi nella Musurgiana nota che le sorelle Zibini" Giulia e Teresa, viventi nel 1716-28, ¢ le Zibini Calvi Anna e Ma- rianna, viventi_ nel 1726-1803,"”" furono celebri fabbricatrici di corde armoniche in Sassuolo; ma cid non & esatto, perché Jo, in the de’ biri or Racchetta contrada (today the Delle conce contrada).. Valdrighi, in his Musurgiana, noted that the Zibini sisters," Giulia and Tere- sa, living in 1716-28, and Anna and Ma- rianna Zibini Calvi, living in 1726- 1803,"” were musical string makers in Sas- suolo, But that is not correct because the first to introduce that trade [there] was Paolo Cecchelli from Bolognano in the ‘Abruzzi in the year 1767. And this is how. il primo a introdurre qui una tale arte fa Cecchelli Paolo da Bolognano negli ‘Abruzzi nell'anno 1767, ed ecco come. © On the position of the bridge in the seventeenth century, much iconographic evidence docu- _ments that it was very frequently placed close to, if not actually at the borcom of, the sound hole. On this subject, the luthier Dmitry Badiarov of Brussels has collected over a hundred illustrations relating to the violin, at least seventy per cent of which show a position of the bridge different from that considered “standard” today — ie. atthe cencre ofthe sound hole — in favour of one closer to the tailpiece. Still in. the eighteenth century, modifications tothe violin’s tone were accomplished by adjusting the positions (of both soundpost and bridge. Gateazzi: Elementi torico-pratici di musica, p. 7: “potta Vovioso suona- tore, combinando le posizioni dellanima; ¢ del pontcelo, far che risult una qualita di voce di suo genio” (che player who has the leisure may arrange the positions of the soundpost and the bridge in such a way as to create atone quality to his own taste) ANTONIO BAGATELLA: Regole per la cosruzione de' violin vole, violoncele violon, R. Accademia di Lettre Scienze ed Arti di Padova, Padova 1786, p. 27: Il pontcello similmente s per la sua costruzione, come per la sua posizione pitt avanti, o pit indietro pud generare toma dkendfone: «pec i maneggo Gelanima ed pons eg una gran pratiae diligenzaes- sendoché dall'una e dall'altro non posti a dovere, un buon violino pud comparite cattivo” (Similarly the bridge, both in its construction and by its position (ether one way or the other), can make a consider able difference; hence the handling of the soundpost and the bridge requires great skill and diligence, secing that if one or other is not placed in the right position a good violin can seem bad). ™* (Footnotes 18-22 are the original notes to Cionini’s text.) Zibini o Cibini o Cibeni, famiglia cdetea de’ Romeiddi Trento (Zibini or Cibini or Cibeni, a family of Trento known as de’ Romei). * Da una loro supplica del 1799 apprendo che versavano nella iti squalida miseriae che erano in- ferme (From a petition of theirs of1799, [learn that they lived in the utmost penury and were infirm).ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 197 Synoptic table of the string gauges from the cighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources source E A D De Lalande / Angelucei a. 1760 - 1.07 Riccati 1767" 0.90 10 piece of string ca. 1770 - - Fouchetti ca. 1770 - - Baud ca. 1795 - = Sibire 1806" 0.70 1.0.73 0.98 / 1.03 138 / 1.45 Fodera 1834" 0.66 ! 0.70 0.92 / 1.03 nas fag Spohr 1834" o72 0.92 1.4 Delezenne 1853" 0.61+0.70 0.82+0.96 1.024139 Laboulaye / Savaresse 1865' 0.70 089 nag Maugin and Maigne 1869! 0.63 089 1.09 Hart 1874" 0.65 10.72 /0.73 0.84/ 0.89 / 0.90 1.14 / 1.23 1.25 Huggin / Ruffini 1883 0.67 0.90 17 Bishopp 1884" 0.61/ 0.68 / 0.69 0.80/0.85/ 0.85 1.08 / 116/119 Heron-Allen 1890 0.69 0.93 122 samples of E strings® 0.66+0.68 = x modern baroque set 1998' 0.58 0.79 1.04, 0. 10 granis D 5 Venetian fe 5 gran; cach string « Very high «wis. 4 Silk string. * For A= 415/ 435 He. * ao/A00 gauge = 0.70 mm, © No. 18 om the gauge = 0.72 mm. * Commercial string-gauges. " Be three guts; A = five guts; D = eight guts. Weight of A = two times E string; weight of D = chree times E string. * Light / small / thick. ' “Aquila corde armoniche” baroque violin set, medium tension. Finally, and in brief, the use of thicker strings than those generally adopted today impinged on a series of other matters concerning the instruments used: the flatter angle of the strings at the bridge (which Boyden paradoxically in- terprets as proof that tensions were once lower); the height of the strings over the fingerboard (Galeazzi wanted them as low as possible without having them whip the fingerboard); the size of components such as the bass-bar (which196 MIMMO PERUFEO 8. Conclusions From the above it emerges with sufficient clarity that the principles of violin stringing and the criteria for choosing types of string once adopted were substantially different from those commonly found today in so-called baroque practice. The conclusions drawn from the information relating to the violin can be equally extended to the viola and cello of the same period. Whereas a modern “baroque” violoncello first string has a mean gauge of a licele over a millimetre, according to the documents the same diameter could oscillate around 1.5 mm. Similar conclusions apply to the viola: in this case, in conformity with the ratios of proportion, the three lower violin strings became the first, second and third strings of the viola, while for the fourth Galeazzi recommends overwinding a violin third string. Unlike what is generally con- sidered, today’s second strings are more or less the same size as the top strings were once. ‘The strings themselves would also seem to have been very different from those used today. In particular, they were much more elastic. And it is surely significant that musicians were once capable of distinguishing a good string from a bad one — something we dont often find today. The tone quality of an Italian violin in the eighteenth century must have been anything but thin and nasal, as various contemporary observers testified. ‘As regards the variations in tension (in kilos) alleged to have occurred over the period in question, we may confidently affirm — because of the substan- tial standardization of the manufacturing processes — that strings remained within the range of gauges available in the standard boxes and clearly also took into account the Huctuations in pitch standards."* The tensions indicated by Hare, for example, allow for a range that corresponds to a rise in pitch of as much as a tone between the thinnest and thickest first string, even if the strings were always made from the three basic strands (or six, if cut down the middie). This is why it was possible to mount strings of varying strength, using a string-gauge to select, from among the strings packed in the customary and marked by a number indicating the number of strands each string contained, those that suited one’ personal taste and the type of instrument used. Spohr even suggests marking the string-gauge with the string measure- ments considered particularly suitable, and to stick ro just those. This does not exclude the possibility, however, that certain virtuosi like Pu- gnani, Dragonetti or Lindley intentionally used diameters that were genuinely above the norm. "On pitch standards, see er iRaIM SEGERMANN: “On German, Italian and French pitch standards inthe 17th and 18th centuries’, OM" quarterly, no. 30, January 1982, communication 442, and ARTHUR Menbe: “Pitch in western muse since 1500: a re-examination”, Acta musicologica 1978, pp. 1-93.aus moun snes 195, ————- i 6S Figure 2. The machine far making overspun strings. raisonné ds seieces, des ares et des méter |], Brasson eta, Pais 1751-80. Dictionnaire ‘of the core, for itis the core only that is subjected to stretching. Hence to “ire that heels the rea thao he oer, higherpchod sings che Afameter ofthe metal wire wea for overvinding mist be chosen in sch a vay that when de sng is tuned i hs nore x les che sme tension in kilos) asthe second string, because the gauge of its core is close to that ofthe not Av ony inthis ease il che wenson coincide with fee In ocher word, ‘once one has understood the damererexpresed in equivalen solid gut Ge. that which requires the same tension in kilos asthe second string when itis steed 1o G), then one can leo calculate the dameer of the meal wie ‘As dhe ension of the A sing was close to thu of the top sting (hough nonetheless “scaled"), it is easy to understand why Galeazzi called the fourth “string the “cordone” (big string). Ie also offers us an explanation for a progres- sedition ‘of Mozart’ four diameters, and allows us to rule out the pos- sibiliy of an anachronisc alegu stinging, But toward the le nineteenth century te implications ofthe informacion given by Galeri scm to have tes pen Har ump dt ten eo rh sting fom which we can ely deve the equivalent gu coresponding co the lien encioas of the singe esommende- The teciona of the ut sings show a cure thi is homogeneous) graded ni a in Ore giant amen opin pe’ ptewe Komi soe sshd gern shel ce mie omITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 159) tion’.” This is closely followed by John Playford’ viol treatise of 1664 and other works.” However, the spread of these more efficient basses was not as rapid as one might imagine: the viol player Sainte-Colombe introduced them to France only around 1675," and in Italy, a country renowned for its string production, the earliest evidence is from the year 1677." The earliest extant iconographic evidence of a violin with a white fourth string (probably over- spun with silver) can be dated to the mid 1680s." Te goes without saying that this discovery had a dramatic impact on both music and instrument making; it could even be described as a watershed, dividing “before” and “after”. For while treble instruments like the violin had always been eminently manageable, the larger instruments were dispropor- tionately unwieldy if we consider the range that was comfortably reached by the fingers of the left hand. Itis easy to understand, therefore, that as soon as efficient bass strings became available, the instrument makers systematically shortened the vibrating lengths of the da fondamento instruments so as to make them more manageable. This also meant that the violin could use the fourth string more efficently and therefore more frequently than before. Gut string manufacturing technologies in the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries Before examining the typical characteristics of eighteenth- and nineteenth- century violin stringing, a topic that squarely falls within the fourth era, itis worth briefly assessing the petiod preceding the introduction of overspun bass strings so as to present the typologies of string available in the late seventeenth. century and actually used on this instrument. SAMUEL Hants: “Ephemerides”, manuscripr (location not known to the present author), under the year 1659; the passages cited were privately communicated by Robert Spencer (13 October 1995). Spencer suggested that the earliest information reached Hartlib ftom the well-known chemist Robert Boyle. "" jou ptavorn: An introduction tothe skill of music ...]. The fourth edition much enlarged, Wil- liam Godbid for John Playford, London 1664; see also cLavbe rerravit: CEvures de physique (...J Amsterdam 1727 (ist edition 1680) pp. 224-5: “Invention nouvelle pour augmencer le son des cords” " jean nousseau: Trait dela viol ...1, Christophe Ballard, Paris 1687. "© parmazio mansteRt: “Cembalaro, organaro, chitartaro e fabbricatore di corde armoniche nella “Polyanthea technica’ di Pinaroli (1718-32): con notizie inedite sui liutai ecembalari operanti a Roma”, Recercare, 11989, pp. 125-209: 198 (from a bill of the guitar maker Alberto Planer: “due corde di violone, tuna di argento ec un'atra semplice” [two violone strings, one of silver and another plain)). See the painting by Antonio Domenico Gabbiani Ritratto di musiis alla corte medicea (Florence 1684-7), Firenze, Palazzo Pitt, inv, 1890, reproduced on the cover of Early music, xvii! November 1990. According to SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, part 2, pp. 197-8, the use of overspun strings ‘on the violin in Italy is frst mentioned in Gioroano riccart: Delle corde, ovver fibre elastche, Stam peria di San Tommaso d’Aquino, Bologna 1767, p. 140; Segerman also assumes that stringings before mid century, including Tartini’, were all-gut, asin the seventeenth century.194. -MIMMO PERUFFO nemente adoperare” (Everyone is familiar with the heavy and filthy machine customarily used for this purpose)."* That illustrated in figure 2 remained in use at least until the end of the nineteenth century.” However, we have ob- served experimentally that this type of machine is unable to impart a strong tension to the gut string and to the metal wire at the manufacturing stage: since i rotates the string from one end only, rotation is not uniform along the string’ whole length (the opposite end tends to turn at a slower speed). Today, on the other hand, the rotation of the ewo ends is synchronized, ensuring the closest possible adherence of the wire to the gut core, as a greater tension is imposed on both. According to Spohr the gut core should be first stretched on the violin up to C and then left there for a day before overwrapping, Galeazzi suggests “ap- piccarla da un capo ad un chiodo, e poi sospendervi sotto un peso immobile” (‘attaching one end [of the string] to a nail and suspending a dead weight”).” By such preliminary operations the gut discharged much of its “non per- manent” longitudinal displacement, which in turn ensured that the metal wire would closely adhere to the gut core for a long duration under tension. Despite this important precaution, overwrapped strings probably suffered frequently from the metal wire vibrating against the gut core, particularly on days of scant atmospheric humidity. The only remedy, before the practice (introduced by the mid twentieth century) of infiltrating a film of silk or rayon berween the gut and the metal wie, was that of sufficiently moistening the overwrapped strings with olive oil so that the gut would swell slightly and regain a close adherence to the wire." This operation, which we have rested, not only creates a reasonable barrier to the absorbtion of atmospheric humid- ity, but also greatly improves the string’s sonority. In the second half of the nineteenth century further improvements were made to the methods of overwrapping strings: such as that of using together two different metals to ensure a greater stability of the string under particular climatic conditions."” Neither Hart nor Heron-Allen mentions smoothed over- wrapped strings, introduced only at the beginning of the twentieth century and widely used today." Let us now turn to the problem of feel. On an overwrapped string, the feel corresponds not to that ofthe external diameter of the sting but only to that Gaveazzi: Elementi reorico-pratici di musica, p. 74. 10 weRon-aLLen: Violin making, p. 233. " Gaueazzt: Elementi terico-pratci di musica, p. 75. ne onic poreaven, MGthde de volonecil, Rechaul, Pats (nd.), Supplement, p. 48. °° eron-aLten: Violin making, p. 213: “I always obtain my covered strings for violin or viola from Mr. G. Hart, who covers them with alternate spieals of gun-metal and plated copper. The best (recom- mended by Herr Strauss) are wrapped over close to the knot with red silk”. ' The smoothed overwrapped strings are named in roriNo: I! violoncello, il violoncellista ed i violoncellst, p. 60ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 193 description of the overspun strings of his period: “There are those of silver wire, which are very durable, and have a soft quality of sound very suitable to old instruments, and are therefore much used by artists; there are those of copper plated with silver, and also of copper without plating, which have a powerful sound; and lastly, there are those which are made with mixed wire, an arrangement which prevents in a measure the tendency to rise in pitch”."* As the wound strings were made up of heterogeneous materials such as metal and gut, the expression “equivalent solid gut” is used to refer to the di- ameter of a theoretical gue string of che same weight as the overspun string per unit length. The same tuning and vibrating length will therefore correspond to the same working tension. Care is needed, however, because with equivalent gut the quantities of metal and gut can be distributed according to innumer- able possible ratios. For the total weight of the string (i.e. its equivalent solid gut) to remain unvaried, an increase in one element must naturally correspond to a decrease in the other. The more gut prevails over metal, the more the resulting sound will be opaque and lacking in brilliance; and vice versa. ‘What, then, was the just ratio between metal and gut for achieving a proper balance in the timbre and dynamics of fourth strings? According to Galeazzi, “pet fare un cordone di violino, si adoprera una seconda non molto grossa” (to make a violin fourth string, one needs a not very large second string)."" Interestingly, this late cightcenth-century recommendation was still applied in the second half of the next century. Maugin and Maigne, for example, write that “la quatritme (...] est un peu plus fine que la seconde” (the fourth [...] is slightly thinner than the second).” Plessiard’s position, on the other hand, was slightly different: he recommends using an E string as the core and wrapping it with silver-plated copper."” Spohr and Fodera both wrote that the diameter of their G string is ca. 1 mm: we are inclined to believe that this is the measurement of the gut core, there being no practical sense in specifying the external diameter of an overspun string, As for the diameter of the metal wire, nothing is known until che late nineteenth century, though Galeazzi does write that “[il] rame inargentato deve essere sottilissimo” (the silver-plated copper must be very thin)."* ‘Making overspun strings requires a special machine. Galeazzi remarks: “E noro ad ogniuno qual pesante, ¢ lorda macchina si soglia a tale effetto comu- ‘saa: The violin, p. 52 © Gaugazze: Element teorico-pratic di musica, p. 75 footnote b. "% MaUGIN ~ MAIGNE: Nouveau manuel complet de hutbier,p. 168. JOSEPI-ANTONIE PLaIssaRD: “Des cordes du violon”, Association frangaie pour Uavancement des sciences. Cong del Lille, 1874 (cited in nanoeRt: Acustica, accordatura e temperaments, p. 46). writes that the French luthiers of his day used E strings (0.63-0.75 mm) overwrapped with silver-plated copper of gauge 16, that is 0.13-0.14 mm. Te Gautaat: Eloment torkapratic di msn p. 74 footnote192, MIMMO PERUFFO Evidently, in Mozart’ case as well, we are dealing with a stringing at equal tension (ie. equal kilos), But it is difficult to understand how these indica- tions, from a true follower of the Italian school, can be reconciled in practical terms with the principle of equal feel, as championed by the treatises, by the sources on Italian practice such as De Lalande (who refers to Angelucci and the number of guts used) and by Riccati — and as confirmed by the experi- mental data. 8. The fourth string ‘As mentioned earlier, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the violin G string — Galeazzi’s “cordone” — was always overspun. In the eighteenth century, and much of the next century, it had a gut-core (or a silk-core, as we learn from Heron-Allen), round which was closely wrapped metal wire, gen- erally of silver, but also of copper or silver-plated copper. On this subject Galeazai writes: “Llargento, che comunemente si adopera a questo uso é rame inargentato, ¢ deve esser sottlissimo. Si adopera con egual successo il rame semplice, ed anche lacciajo: ho fatto a bella posta filare dell argento fino, ma non vi ho conosciuta differenza dallargento falso comune, se non che ei non diventa rosso, ma resta sempre bianco, rilucente, come fosse sempre nuovo” (The silver normally used for this purpose is silver-plated copper, and must be very thin, One can equally successfully use copper and even iron. I purposely wound some thin silver, bur saw no difference from the use of common false silver, except that it does not become red but stays white and shiny, as if al- ways new)."" It is worth noting that the silver (which had a thickness of just a few microns) was deposited on the copper by simple chemical shift; in the late eighteenth century what is properly termed the galvanic method had not yet been invented and was only to become established towards the middle of the following century.” According to Spohr, “Die Saiten mit achtem Silber- drath sind den andern vorzuziehen, weil sie einen hellern Klang haben, nicht wie jene, Griinspan ansetzen und nicht durch langen Gebrauch roth und un- scheinbar werden” (The strings wrapped in silver wire are to be preferred to the others, because they give a cleaner sound, and unlike the coppered strings do nor attract the mineral green [copper carbonate], do not become red and do not wear out with prolonged use)."” George Hart provides the following 8 Gauenzzt: Elementi teorice-pratici di musica, p. 75 footnote a. °© See, for example, wittiam NICHOLSON: A dictionary of chemistry |...].2 vols G. G. and J. Robin son, London 1795, vo. th, pp. 820-4. "~ sporir: Violinchude, pp. 12-3. Paganini himself preferred silver to all other metas: Milano per li cuoi violin e ti fardfasciae delle quarte di filo d’argento” (I will recurn to Milan for your violins and will get you to wrap the fourth strings with silver thread): Newt: Paganini: Episolai, p. 67.mann vous srancs 91 Graphs 4 and 5 “The selationship between tension and longitudinal rain on strings of the same diameter but different degre of twist and manufacturing technique190 sayouoranurro tuned violin, they an be considered well proportioned, oxherwise you will reed o change chem as many times as necesry to obtain ths between pais ‘of suings wich precisely dhe ann of the vin.” Barbie belies hain al ethod the consideration are pry specu: Moa onthe ober picking up dhe sme concept suggest ataching ual weights pat ofscings ifthe dames el chosen, the open sing gre ls ‘otherwise the diameters will aced changing unl hat ceule > 2 oc: Le rims 2 “hear Ver adic Vischa 6HTALIAN VIOLIN stRINGS 189 Ac this point we can observe that most of the examples reported by Seger- man of stringings considered to show equal tension (i.e. equal kilos) in fact do not do so, with the exception of those indicated by Leopold Mozart and Serafino Di Colco.” The “secret” of the so-called system of progressively increasing tension is that it genuinely embodies the traditional concept of equal feel under the fin- gets sought after by Galeazzi and the seventcenth-century treatises, We can verify this experimentally by selecting an assortment of diameters (like Ruffi- ni’ for example), then attaching the same weight to each string — always at the same point (for example, three centimetres from the bridge) — and finally measuring with a ruler the string’ deflection from its position of equi- librium, If the strings have progressive tension (as suggested by the number of guts used), they will deflect by the same quantity, ic. will give the same feel. Conversely, if their tension is equal, the amount of deflection will nor be equal but progressive, owing to the reduced longitudinal distension of the larger diameters. In other words, in a system of equal working tension the lower strings will have greater tactile tension, which is in complete contrast to the rules expounded by Galeazzi and many other treatises of the period. Hence the presumed equivalence of working tension and feel would appear to be the result of a modern error of judgement. It is worth pointing out, however, that compared to the precision of experiments that assess the degree of the string deflection, the evaluation of subjective finger sensitivity and its respective limits of perception is undoubtedly less accurate. Graphs 3-5 shows the strain of strings, of several diameters and similar or different amount of twist, under different tension. We note thar the curve of the thinner gauges is steeper than that of the thicker strings. The relationship between the slopes of the curves again gives an idea of the tactile sensations. Let us now turn to the cases of Serafino Di Colco and Leopold Mozart. Di Colco writes: “Siano da proporzionarsi ad un violino le corde [...] distese, ¢ distirate da pesi uguali [...]- Se toccandole, 8 suonandole con l'arco forme- ranno un violino benissimo accordato, saranno bene proporzionate, altrimenti converra mutarle tante volte, sin tanto che Paccordatura tiesca di quinta due, per due, che appunto tale # Paccordatura del violino” (The strings are to be proportioned to the violin (...] extended, and stretched by equal weights (...]. If by touching them or playing them with a bow they form an excellently ™ sopoLn MozaKT: Versuch einer grindlichen Violinschule,p. 6; SERAFINO DI COLCO: Lettent prima (Venezia, 7 gennaro 1690), in Le vegghie di Minerua nella Accademia de Filareti: per il mese di gennaro 1690, Venezia 1690, pp. 32-3. SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, part 1, pp. 54-5. Like Segerman, BARBIERI: Acustica, accordasura etempentmento pp. 47-8, sees a perfect analogy between the tension ex- pressed in kilos, according to modern practice, and the concept of “tension” as expressed for example by Galeazzi (which is in fac a tactile sense) and even considers that this is also similar to what is ind ‘ated by Di Coleo and Mozat.188 MIMMO PERUFFO But that’s nor all. We also read thac the second and third strings weigh res- pectively twice and three times as much as the first. Assuming that the diameter of the first string is correct and (obviously) that the density of the material is constant, we obtain diameters of 0.89 and 1.09 mm for the second and third strings respectively. Quite plainly these measurements correspond to a system of progressively increasing tension, and are perfectly in line with both the number of guts indicated in the same text and the information given by De Lalande. Hence the system of equal rension advocated by Maugin and Maigne is contradictory and completely unreliable. Fétis wrote that in 1734 Tartini had calculated that the sum of the tensions of the four strings of his violin was 63 pounds.” Apart from the problem of understanding the unit of measurement used, there is no reason why this information should necessary imply that the tension of each string was the same. ‘The toral tension could just as easily have been distributed progres- sively. By analogy the indications provided by Savart in 1840, and again by Fétis in 1859, could also be considered as examples not of equal tension, but of scaling.” The same could be said for other late nineteenth-century authors who apparently supported a system of equal tension. Huggins, for example, after giving the theoretical gauges on the basis of the proportions becween diameters and frequencies (implying a system of equal tension), goes on t0 write: “A violin strung with strings of the theoretical size was very unsatisfac- tory in tone”; immediately afterwards he mentions the diameters sold in Ruffi- nis sealed boxes, pointing out that these strings had a scaled tension and — an important point — that only by this system could one obtain perfect fifths.” Like Huggins, other English documents of the same period recom- mend stringings that follow a system of progressively increasing tension, with diameters again similar to those of Ruffini and, more generally, to the Italian tradition.” Graph 2 shows the behaviour of the stringings known to use progressively increasing tension, What is worth noting here is not so much the actual values indicated — which after all were also related to pitch standards and personal taste — as the similarity in the slope of the curves; ic. the degree of scaling. % péis: Antoine Stradivari, p. 92, quoted from sanstert: “Giordano Riccati”, p. 29, For Savart see SEGERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, part 2, p. 198. For Fétis see narntenr: “Gior- dano Riccati”, p. 29. If the tension of all the strings were equal, it remains to be explained why it was necessary to indicate that the first cakes 20 pounds and the rest up to 80 pounds. % sruccins: “On the function of the sound-post”, p. 248: “By means of a mechanical contrivance I found the weights necessary to deflect the strings to the same amount when the violin was in tune. The results agreed with the tensions which the sizes of the strings [i,e. corresponding to Ruffini’s gauges) showed they would require ro give fifths”. aart: The violin, p. 543 for Bishopp (1884) and Heron-Allen (s88s) see secERMAN: “Strings through the ages”, part 2, p. 201.” “aoune “savor uo 2p jo mp oF wowed sepa © suoqp (eS = y) wo} anbameg ayy jo Baus wm ap 88 sown. Yom 2 {pos wang “Sues poms dey © unpen fe ag Jo ip aF onda xp — pordxpur wos yo surasts |e OW sSuuns yor san aszy ay Jo suossun yo Boyes ‘a186 MIMMO PERUFFO. Here our assumed factor of conversion is 3.3. A system of progressively in- creasing tension is evident, as is the fact that the fourth string must have been overspun. We also note a similarity between the string-gauge and Spohr's diameters; particularly in the degree of scaling and in the (external or core size?) dimensions of the “cordone”. As the “back” measurement is expressed in hundredths, the unknown unit of measurement should then be 33-35 cm. In the Maugin and Maigne book there would already appear to be a profound contradiction between the data already given by the string maker Philippe Savaresse (on the number of guts to be used) and the tension in kilos indicated for each string at Paris Opéra pitch: 7.5 kg for E, 8 kg for A, 7.5 kg for D, and finally 7.25 kg for G.” Assuming a pitch of 435 Hz and a vibrating length of the violin of 33 cm, the following diameters are obtained:” E = 0.63 mm, A = 0.96 mm, D = 1.40 mm (G overspun). First of all, we note that the working tension of the top string is strangely lower than that of the A. This might be just a printing error: perhaps 8.5 kg was meant, instead of 7.5 kgs if so, the diameter of the top string would be 0.68 mm, which is perfectly in line with the Italian and French traditions, But the most striking evidence of the unreliability of such working tensions is the breaking load of the gut strings: the first string (0.63 mm) would break at between 12 and 13 kg; the second (0.96 mm) at 15 kg, and the third (1.40 mm) at between 40 and 45 kg, Our findings show that the breaking load of current gut strings is between 31 and 38 kg/mm’ (mean value 34 kg/mm") — values that also apply to gut string samples dating to the carly ewentieth century. Ic is worth stressing that if this were not the case, no violin first string of the time could be tuned up to E with the typical vibrating length of 32~33 cm; it would immediately break once the breaking index for gut was exceeded.” Now, according to the tensions indi- cated in the text, Savaresse’s gut would have a breaking load of 38-41 ke/mm* for the E (33-36 kg/mm’, with a diameter of 0.68 mm) — which is accept- able — but of only 21 ke/mm’ for the second and as little as 17-19 kg/mm? for the third. As the breaking load of gut has been shown experimentally to be an element that is subject to scant variability — especially when the materials have the same provenance and are manufactured in the same way (as is always the case) — one might well ask what string diameters would break at the ten- sions indicated by Maugin and at the mean breaking load of 34 ke/mm’. The answer is 0.75 mm for the A and 0.98-1.04 mm for the D: calibers utterly different from those derived from the working tensions indicated by Maugin. 9 maucin ~ marGne: Nowveu manuel complet du luthier, pp. x68, 182-3 (the section on strings was added to the 1869 edition of the manual). = On the pitch standard, sce aNGELONI: If liutaio, p. 281: “nel 1859 il governo francese stabili che il corista normale dovesse corrispondere al ‘la’ di 435 vibrazioni doppie” (in 1859 the French government established thar the normal pitch standard should correspond to an A of 435 double vibrations). °" ABBOT ~ SEGERMAN: “Strings in the 16th and 17th centuries”ITALIAN VIOLIN stRINGs 185 those points and less tense in the middle).” Misunderstanding of this point has generated incorrect, even dangerous, readings of the language used in the sources. ‘The vigilant observer will in fact have noticed that the diameters derived from the data provided by the Italian and French string makers (on the num- ber of guts per string) do not amount to a system of equal tension (of equal kilos, that is). In all cases, they show a system of progressively increasing ten- sion, For the sake of comparison, in the historical examples that follow we must bear in mind that if a violin with a top string of 0.70 mm were strung in equal tension, the three string diameters would be: E = 0.70 mm, A= 1.05 mm, D = 1.57 mm. Filippo Fodera, in his manuscript violin method dated 1834, indicated string measurements in terms of the notches inscribed on a string-gauge: Misura delle corde alla trafila delle grossezze [String measurements at the slot) violino di Guarnerio _ grado della trafila delle grossezze [grade of the slot} driteo {front} rovescio {back] cantino (E] 17/80 20/100, seconda (A] 25/80 28/100 teraa [D] 29/80 35/100 cordone [G] - 29/00" ‘The terms “dritto” (front) and “rovescio” (back) would appear to refer to the notches marked on the front and back of the string-gauge (having them all on one side would have probably made the gauge very difficult to read); they probably refer to the maximum and minimum gauges available, or recom- mended, for the violin. Though we have no way of conv. into metres (the author lived in the Kingdom of the Two Si of length used there has not yet been traced), if we assume the “front” value of the top string to be 0.70 mm (in accordance with historical data), the remaining values would run as follows: front back E 070 0.66 A 1.03 0.92 Doug as G - 0.96 © pawtetto nakrous: Del suono, de’ remari armonic ¢ dlludit, a spese di Nicolo Angelo Tinassi, Roma 1679, p. 257. Copy consulted: private library of Roberto Regaz2i, Bologna. » Cited in saraieni: Acustica, accordaturae temperamento, p. 4158 ‘MIMMO PERUFFO During the sixteenth century the main centres of string making were also important for the dyeing and spinning of sill and cotton: Florence, Venice, Nuremberg and Lyon. Ivis plausible, therefore, thae the string makers learned from the mote complex techniques used in the spinning of silk: processes that would have allowed a significant initial reduction of the stiffness of the thicker strings used in the bass register. In fact, we may deduce that bass strings were even more elastic and efficient than before if instrument makers were able to permit themselves important structural developments: in the case of the lute, a sixth course was added some time towards the end of the fifteenth century, thus extending the instrument's range by as much as a fourth (sometimes a fifeh) below the fifth course; the same happened to the bowed viol. The third era. The next era began in the second half of the sixteenth cen- tury with a further leap. In this period a seventh course, generally tuned a fourth (sometimes a fifth) below the sixth course, was added to the lute (other additions were soon to follow), while on bowed instruments, string lengths seem to have been reduced." Recent studies have tended to show that these changes resulted from the application of a revolutionary idea: the increase in the specific weight of the gut in bass strings by means of special treatments involving heavy mineral salts.’ Amongst other things, this is suggested by the seventeenth-century ico- ography, which shows bass strings of a dark red, brown or blacksh colour very different from the typical yellowish colour of natural gut higher strings: in all likelihood, this was a direct consequence of the loading process. This new technique allowed makers to produce thinner yet more sonorous bass strings. This phase, corresponding to the age of Monteverdi and Stradella, marks a peak in the complexity of gue string making, establishing a level of quality that was to remain unsurpassed The fourth era. The last era— which still continues today — is marked by the advent of overspun bass strings consisting of a gut core (i.e. an ordinary plain gut string) over which is wound a fine metallic wire; the windings can be either close or open. The oldest extant document attesting this technique dates from 1659: “Goretsky hath an invention of lute strings covered with silver wyer, or strings which make a most admirable musick. Mr Boyle. [...] String of guts done about with silver wyer makes a very sweet musick, being of Goretsky’s inven- annor ~ seceRMan: “Strings in the w6th and 17th cencuries’ * hamento PeRUEFO: “The mystery of gut bass stings in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: the role of loaded-weighted gut", Recercare,v 1993, pp. 115-31. ABBOT ~ SEGERMAN: “Strings inthe x6th and 17th centuries’, on the other hand, claims chat the all-gut basses of the time were made by interwining ‘ovo oF three gut strings by means of the technique commonly employed for making ropes.184 MIMMO PERUFFO twist, material type and manufacturing process can be enough to cancel out the equivalence of gauge, Finally, if ewo strings are identical in twist, vibrating length and working tension, but different in diamerer, it is always the thinner string that will be more yielding to the touch. Only in one case does working tension coincide perfectly with feel: where the strings are of identical mate- rial, diameter and twist and are stretched to the same frequency and vibrating length. "This might exphin the widespread practice among present-day musicians — pethaps the only one to have survived of past practice — of using a first string thac is slightly thicker than the theoretical values: it is a useful strata- gem to compensate for the difference in feel with the adjacent string, Bur if we consider an instrument like the chitarrone or theorbo (whose characteris- tic itis to have strings of two distinct vibrating lengths), i is easy to imagine the problems that arise when the principles of the early string makers are overlooked and all the strings are given equal tension, as generally happens today. The point could perhaps be pressed home, perhaps a little unfairly, by a slight exaggeration: if an elastic band and an “unextendable” steel string were both stretched to 10 kg, nobody would be in any doubr thar the elastic band would be more yielding than the metal string, Yer the number of kilos is constant. Tn short, when the word tension is used in the contemporary documents in matters relating to actual stringing (i. not in cases of purely theoretical speculation on the ratios becween frequency, vibrating length, diameter, etc.) it essentially refers to feel, and not to the actual tension in kilos as it is gener- ally understood today. A pertinent example is the following passage from Ga- leazzi: “la tensione dev'esser per tutte quattro le corde la stessa, perché se I'una fosse piti dellaltra tesa, cid produrrebbe sotto le dita, e sotto Parco una notabile diseguaglianza, che molto pregiudicherebbe all'eguaglianza della voce” (the tension must be the same for all four strings, because if one were more tense than another, that would create under the fingers, and under the bow: acon siderable inequality very prejudicial co the equality of tone)." Here tension clearly means feel; as is equally plain in Bartoli’ treatise: “Quanto una corda & piti vicina al principio della sua tensione, tanto ivi & pitt tesa. [...] Consideria- mo hora una qualunque corda d’un liuto: ella ha due principj di tensione ugualissimi nella potenza, ¢ sono i bischieri dall'un capo, ¢ 'l ponticello dal- altro; adungue per lo sopradetto, ella @ tanto pit tesa, quanto piti lor savvi- cina: e per conseguente, @ men tesa nel mezzo” (The closer a string is to the beginning of its tension, the tenser itis, (...] Just consider any lute string. It has two beginnings of tension that are absolutely equal in power: the pegs at one end, the bridge at the other. As a result, it will be tenser the nearer it is to © caugazas: Element sevice pratici di musica, p. 72aus wu stnes 18) The relationship between vibrating length and tension in klos ‘The graph shows the working cension with diferent vibrating axing lengths seed down tthe sme point (cm Fr he bre) by a iad ih of 50 land with an unvaried degsee of deflection induced on 40/77 gauge sting. ening182 ‘MIMMO PERUFFO = “When you stroke all the stringes with your thumbe you must feel an even stiff nes which proceeds from the size of the stringes”.” — “The very principal observation in the stringing of a lute, Another general observa- tion re indeed is the chefest, vin. chat what slut soever, you are to string, you must so suit your strings, as (in the tuning you intend to set it at) the strings may all stand, at a proportionable, and even stiffness, otherwise there will arise two great inconveniences; the one to the perfomer, the other to the auditor. And here note, that when we say, a lute is not equally strung, ic is, when some strings are stiff, and some slack”." Today, however, such recommendations are all but ignored, to be replaced by the principle of working tension. It is even claimed that equal feel corres- ponds in every respect to equal tension —an assumption that unfortunately is just not true.” And on such incorrect assumptions is based the idea that there were two systems of stringing violins that co-existed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: a scaled system of progressively distributed tension (in which the tension in kilos is progressively reduced from first to fourth string) and what is correctly termed a system of equal tension (ie. in which the values in kilos are equal). This is a fundamental point that needs clarifying, for misunderstandings on this issue have had a very bad influence on the reconstruction of stringing on all the renaissance and baroque plucked and bowed instruments (and not just the violin). While working tension is a numerical factor that can be absolutely defined, feel is a sensation and hence subject to a number of variables. This can be demonstrated by examples. Fist, if two identical strings are subjected to the same working tension, but have different vibrating lengths, it is the longer one that will be more yielding to the pressure of the fingers (sce graph 1), Second, if between two gut strings of the same gauge, working tension and vibrating length, one has a high twist and the other a low twist, the former will be much more yielding to the touch owing to its greater longitudinal elastic displacement. This is why replacing a string made by one firm of string makers with another of equal diameter made by another firm is always a delicate issue: as far as feel under the bow is concerned, the differences in % Wellesley (Mass.), Wellesley College Library, “The Burwell lute tutor”, manuscript, ca. 1670, facsimile reprint with introduction by Robert Spencer, Boethius Press, Leeds 1973, chapter 4 “OF the strings of the lute [..)” © mace: Musik's monument, chapter V1, p. 65 © seceRMAN: “Strings through the ages", part 1, p. 55, writes: “A more real advantage of equal- tension stringing is that the ‘fee’ of each string is the same in the sense that the same force at the same relative position on the string pushes aside (or depresses) each string the same amount”. In STEPHEN sonta: “Further thoughts on the history of strings”, The Catgue Acoustical Society newsletter, no. 26,1 November 1976, p. 22, referring to Thomas Mace’s suggestions about the equal feel under the fingers om the lute, writes: “it seems clear that tensions {understood by Bonta as equal kilos) between top and bottom strings on these instruments cannot have been too disparate for the very same reasons”.ITALIAN VIOLIN STRINGS 181 a diameter of 1 mm (20 x = 100 hundredths of a millimeter). In this way the following calibers were calculated: E = 0.90 mmy A = 115 mm; D = 1.55 mm and G = 2.22 mm (as equivalent solid gue). In our opinion, this interesting hypothesis is inconsistent with Spohr's writings, for he not only recommends Italian strings over those made in Ger- many (which he found too stiff), but also suggests choosing a “light” stringing. And that is nor all. If we consider the sizes on his string-gauge illuscrared in the text and the position of the markings for measuring the strings, we clearly see that on the basis of the proportion between the total length of the slot and the approximate estimate of its width at the opening —ca. 2 mm— the distance of the E marking shows a width of ca. 0.70 mm rather than the 0.90 mm suggested by Segerman. Therefore the correct ratio is more likely to be a factor of 4, and not Segerman’ factor of 5, which in any case is based on the subdivision of a modern unit of measurement and not the (unknown) unit of Spohr’ day.” The calibers derived from Spohr’s gauge should therefore be E = 0.72 mm A= 0.92 mm; D = 1.24 mm; G = 1.00 mm (corresponding to the gut core, in our opinion): results that are evidently in line with the preceding data. 7. Working tension and “feel” ‘The most important and universal principle of stringing on any instru- ment — whether plucked or bowed, from the Renaissance down to the sec- ond half of the nineteenth century at least — was that each string should give the same “just feel” when pressed at the same point." The principle was to be constantly re-affirmed over the centuries in the most authoritative treatises. Examples are the following: ~ “Offsetting the right sizes of strings upon the lute, {...] But to our purpose: these double bases likewise must neither be stretched too hard, nor too weake, but that they may according to your feeling in striking with your thombe and finger equally counterpoyse the trebles”." " suceeatan: “Sings through the ages”, part 2, pp. 198 and 201. As yet we have no means of come paring the numbering indicated on Spohr’ string-gauge with that used today, for the unit of length is still unknown. If the gauge were of Italian provenance, research would then be needed among the numerous units of length used in the countless states making up early nineteenth-century Italy. The ‘current decimal system, itis worth remembering, came into force in Italy only in 1861. "© By equal feel we mean the same amount of lateral displacement obtained with different strings (which can even have different diameters, vibrating lengths, degrees of owisting, caning, etc.) using an equal quantity of weight (corresponding, as a rule, to the pressure of a finger or bow) acting atthe same Pee powtann: Other neesary observations