Learning and Motivation

Educators in the classroom have a daily challenge to ensure that the young minds they encounter are constantly learning and this is mainly dependent on the motivation of each student. This essay will explain how learning and motivation work and show how they affect the classroom.

Learning according to Coon (2004) is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience. It excludes short-lived changes caused by motivation, fatigue, maturation, disease, injury, or drugs which may temporary alter behaviour but are not considered learning. Behaviourism is the school of thought that behaviour is measurable and can be changed through the application of various behavioural principles. There are three main learning theories: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory.

Classical conditioning, developed by Ivan Pavlov, is a behavioural technique in which reflex responses are associated with new neutral stimuli. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism being watched. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, reaction. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).

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There are several principles that are important to understanding this type of learning. The first step is knows as the Acquisition stage where a response is first established and gradually strengthened. Another element is stimulus generalization where a tendency to respond to stimuli similar to, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus. The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus is called stimulus discrimination. When an organism shows a decline or disappearance in the occurrences of conditioned response, extinction is said to have taken placed, however, spontaneous recovery can cause the learned response to reappear after being extinct. In his research, Pavlov used these strategies to train several dogs to salivate when they heard a bell and presented them with food as a way to reinforce the expected response.

Psychologist B. F. Skinner coined the idea of operant conditioning which involves using a system of rewards and punishments for behaviour as a way to channel learning. The organism makes an association between its behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour. This learning is based on the law of effect, a theory proposed by Edward Thorndike, which states that those responses that are followed by a positive consequence will be repeated more frequently than those that are not. Unlike Classical conditioning, this theory is considered to be an active (spontaneous) way of learning since the learner actively participates or operates on the environment. There are several key components that are involved in operant conditioning. This concept needs a reinforcer, or event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows. Reinforcers are considered positive when favourable outcomes are presented after the behaviour e.g. praise or rewards while the removal of an unfavourable outcome after the behaviour is shown is known as a negative reinforcer. Both forms of reinforcement serve to increase the behaviour.

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Another component is punishment which can also be positive or negative. Punishment refers to the arrangement of an unpleasant event or outcome that would causes a decrease in behaviour. If the event weakens the response it follows then punishment is called positive while negative punishment occurs when behaviour results in the removal of a favourable event. When you take something away so that a response is decreased this is called extinction. Reinforcement can be done on a variable or continuous schedule according to the situation.

Albert Bandura in his social learning theory argued that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other people, a process known as observational learning or modelling. His concept also proposed that learning doesnt necessarily lead to a change in behaviour and that a healthy mental state positively influences learning. Banduras research identified three basic models which were involved in observational learning: a live model, a verbal instructional model, and a symbolic model. He believes that one must complete the following steps in order to learn through modelling: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.

Motivation refers to the process that initiates, sustains and directs goal-oriented behaviours. It can be intrinsic (from within an individual) or extrinsic (influenced by external environment). Emotional, social, biological and cognitive forces help to activate behaviour associated with motivation. There are three major components which bring about motivation: activation (decision to initiate action); persistence (continued effort in reaching goal); and intensity (concentration or drive that goes into goal completion). Theories of motivation include the instinct theory, the incentive theory, the drive theory, the arousal

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theory and the humanistic theory. Each theory seeks to explain how each individual is motivated based on the situation they find themselves in. The idea of the humanistic theory is that humans have strong cognitive reasons to do various tasks; they are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always do so unless obstacles are placed in their way. The hierarchy of needs developed by Abraham Maslow supports this theory. Maslow believes that humans will satisfy basic needs first and then progress up the pyramid until they achieve self-actualization. However, he insists that no one will reach the peak of the pyramid for that person would have no need to continue living since they have learned everything about themselves.

The incentive value of a goal above and beyond its ability to fill a need can help to create motives for certain behaviours. The primary motives of humans are innate and based on biological needs that must be taken care of to ensure survival and can include food, shelter, sleep and elimination of wastes. The need for stimulation and information through exploration and physical contact demonstrates a stimulus motive. Secondary motives are based on learned needs, drives and goals and may assist in explaining many daily activities like making music and traits like the need for power and approval of others.

Acquiring information on how learning and motivation operates will be an asset in the classroom. It will help the educator to use an appropriate learning theory to reach the students. It also shows how to justly meet out punishments and rewards based on the behaviour to be encouraged. Knowing how individuals are motivated will help to influence students to tap into their intrinsic motivation and goals as they develop.

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Reference List Coon, D (2004). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways of the mind. USA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Classical conditioning. (2010, October 16). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:53, October 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Classical_conditioning&oldid=391059001 Operant conditioning. (2010, October 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:14, October 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Operant_conditioning&oldid=392231167

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