Fundamentals of Machining/ Orthogonal Cutting

Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from a work piece in the form of chips. If the work piece is metal, the process is often called metal cutting or metal removal. Fundamentals The process of metal cutting is complex because it has such a wide variety inputs which are listed in figure. These variables are: 1. The machine tool selected to perform the process. 2. The cutting tool selected [geometry & material]. 3. The properties and parameters of the work piece. 4. The cutting parameters selected [speed, feed & depth of cut] 5. The work piece holding devices or fixtures or jigs.

There are seven basic chip formation processes (see Figure): turning, milling, drilling, sawing, broaching, shaping (planing), and grinding (abrasive machining).

Usually the workpiece material is determined by the design engineer to meet the functional requirements of the part in service. The manufacturing engineer will often have to select cutting tool parameters, and work holder parameters and then cutting parameters based on that work material decision.
Let us begin with the assumption that the workpiece material has been selected and you have decided to use a high-speed steel cutting tool for a turning operation.

For all metal-cutting processes, it is necessary to distinguish between speed, feed, and depth of cut. The turning process will be used to introduce these terms. See Figure. In general, speed (V) is the primary cutting motion, which relates the velocity of the cutting tool relative to

the workpiece. It is generally given in units of meters per minute dark arrow. Feed (fr) is the amount of material removed per revolution

(m/min) or meters per second (m/s). Speed (V) is shown with the heavy

or per pass of the tool over the workpiece. In turning, feed is in

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mm/rev, and the tool feeds parallel to the rotational axis of the workpiece. Depending on the process, feed units are mm /rev, mm/ cycle, mm /minute, mm / tooth. Feed is shown with dashed arrows. distance the tool is plunged into the surface. It is the difference in the diameter D1, the initial diameter, and D2, the final diameter: DOC = D1-D2/2 = d mm The depth of cut (DOC) represents third dimension. In turning, it is the

the rotating part that is related to the outer diameter of the workpiece.

The selection of the cutting speed V determines the surface speed of

V= D1Ns/1000

revolutions minute (rpm) of the workpiece. The input to the lathe will be in revolutions per minute of the spindle.

Where D1 is in mm, V is speed in surface mm per minute, and Ns is the

Cutting speed, feed, and DOC selection depend on many factors, and a great deal of experience and experimentation are required to find the best combinations. A good place to begin is by consulting tables of recommended values as shown in

Figure

Most tables are arranged according to the process being used, the material being machined, the hardness, and the cutting tool material.

21-4.

The table in figure 21-4 is for turning processes only. The amount of metal removed per pass determines the DOC. In practice, roughing cuts are heavier than finishing cuts in terms of feed and DOC and are run at a lower surface speed.
Once cutting speed V has been selected, Equation Ns = 1000 V/ D1 is used to determine the spindle rpm, Ns. The speed and feed can be used with the DOC to estimate the metal removal rate for the process, or MRR. For turning, the MRR is

MRR = 1000 V fr d

[mm3/min]

This is an approximate equation for MRR. For turning, MRR values can range from 2.5 to 15240 mm3/min. The MRR can be used to estimate the power needed to perform a cut, as will be shown later. For most processes, the MRR equation can be viewed as the volume of metal removed divided by the time needed to remove it. MRR = volume of cut / Tm Where: Tm is the cutting time in minutes. For turning, the cutting time depends upon the length of cut L divided by the rate of traverse of the cutting tool past the rotating workpiece frNs as shown in Figure. Therefore, Tm = L + allowance / fr Ns [min] An allowance is usually added to the L term to allow for the tool to enter and exit the cut. Turning is an example of a

single-point tool process, as is shaping. Milling and drilling are examples of multiple-point tool processes. Figures 21-5 through 21-9

For many of the basic processes, the equations for Tm and MRR are given. These equations are commonly referred to as shop equations and are as fundamental as the processes themselves, so the student should be as familiar with them as with the basic processes. The process of milling requires two figures because it takes different forms depending upon the selection of the machine tool and the cutting tool. Milling, a

multiple tooth process, has two feeds: the amount of metal an individual tooth removes, called the feed per tooth ft (mm/tooth), and the rate at which the table translates past the rotating tool, called the table feed fm = f t n Ns rate fm in mm per minute. It is calculated from
Where n is the number of teeth in a cutter and Ns is the rpm value of the cutter. Just as was shown for turning, standard tables of speeds and feeds for milling provide values for the recommended cutting speeds and feeds per tooth, ft.
Figure 21-10 and Table 21-2 provide a summary of the basic machining processes in terms of typical machine tools which can perform the process, the typical sizes (min-max), the production rates (part/hour), tolerances (precision or repeatability) and surface finish (roughness). Milling has pretty much replaced shaping and planning although gear shaping is still a viable process.

ENERGY AND POWER IN MACHINING All of the processes described to this point are examples of oblique, or threeforce, cutting and were shown in Figure 21-2. The cutting force system in a conventional, oblique-chip formation process is shown schematically in Figure 21-11. Oblique cutting has three components: 1. Fc: Primary cutting force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity vector. This force is generally the largest force and accounts for 99% of the power required by the process. 2. Ff: Feed force acting in the direction of the tool feed. This force is usually about 50% of Fc but accounts for only a small percentage of the power required because feed rates are usually small compared to cutting speeds. 3. Fr: Radial or thrust force acting perpendicular to the machined surface. This force is typically about 50% of Ff and contributes very little to power requirements because velocity in the radial direction is negligible.
The oblique cutting geometry shown in Figures 21-1 and 21-3 is repeated in Figure 21-11: which shows the general relationship between these forces and speed, feed, and depth cut. Note that these figures cannot be used to determine forces for a specific process. 10

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The power required for cutting (power at spindle) Pc= FcV / 60 Watt [N.m/s] In metal cutting a very useful parameter is called unit, or specific power, which is defined as: u = Pc x 60,000/ MRR [N/mm2] In turning, for example, where MRR= 1000V fr d Therefore, u= 60 Fc / fr d
Values for specific power u, which is also called unit power, are given in Table 21-3. These values are obtained through orthogonal metal-cutting experiments described later in this chapter. Specific power is related to and correlates well with shear stress s for a given metal, which will be derived later. Unit power is sensitive to material properties (e.g., hardness), rake angle, depth of cut, and feed, whereas properties only.

s is sensitive to material

Specific power can be used in a number of ways. First, it can be used to estimate the motor power required to perform a machining operation for a given material. u values from the table are multiplied by the approximate MRR for the process. The motor power, Pmotor is then

Pmotor = u x MRR x CF / E
Where E is the efficiency of the machine. The E factor accounts for the power needed to overcome friction and inertia in the machine and drive moving parts. Usually, 80% is used. Correction factors (CFs) may also be used to account for variations in cutting speed, feed, and rake angle. There is usually a tool wear correction factor of 1.25 used to account for the fact that dull tools use more power than sharp tools. The primary cutting force Fc can be roughly estimated according to Fc = u x MRR / V This type of estimate of the major force Fc is useful in analysis of deflection and vibration problems in machining and in the proper design of work holding devices, because these devices must be able to resist movement and deflection of the part during the process. In general, increasing the speed, the feed, or the depth of cut will increase the power requirement.

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Doubling the speed doubles the power directly. Doubling the feed or the depth of cut doubles the cutting force Fc. In general, increasing the speed does not increase the cutting force Fc a surprising experimental result. However, speed has a strong effect on tool life because most of the input energy is converted into heat, which raises the temperature of the chip, the work, and the tool, to the latter's detriment.
The above equation can be used to estimate the maximum depth of cut, d, for a process as limited by the available power.

dmax = Pm x E / u x V x fr (CF) Another handbook value useful in chatter or vibration calculations is cutting stiffness Ks. In this text, the term specific energy U will be used interchangeably with cutting stiffness Ks. It is interesting to compute the total specific energy in the process and determine how it is distributed between the primary shear and the secondary shear that occurs at the interface between the chip and the tool. It is safe to assume that the majority of the input energy is consumed by these two regions. Therefore, U = U s + Uf Where specific energy [also called cutting stiffness] is

U = Fc V / V fr d = Fc / fr d = Ks [turning]
The specific shear energy

Us = Fs Vs / V fr d
Where Vs is the shear velocity and Fs is the shear force. The specific friction energy

Uf = F Vc / V fr d = F rc / fr d
Where Vc is the chip velocity, F is the friction force and rc is the chip thickness ratio [explained next page]

Usually, 30 to 40% of the total energy goes into friction and 60 to 70% into the shear process. Typical values for U are given in Table 21-3. This is
experimental data developed by the orthogonal machining experiment described in the next section.

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ORTHOGONAL MACHINING (Two FORCE)

In order to understand the complex process of oblique cutting, the tool geometry is simplified from the threedimensional (oblique) geometry, which typifies most processes, to a two-dimensional (orthogonal) geometry. Low speed orthogonal plate machining as shown in Figure 21-12 uses a flat plate setup in a milling machine. The workpiece is moving past the tool at velocity V.

Schematic illustration of a two- dimensional cutting process, also called orthogonal cutting. Note that the tool shape and its angles, depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V, are all independent variables.

The feed of the tool is now called to, the uncut chip thickness. The DOC is the width of the plate w. The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of motion V. The angle that the tool makes with respect to a vertical from the workpiece is called the back rake angle . A positive angle is shown in the schematic. The chip is formed by shearing. The onset of shear occurs at an angle with respect to the horizontal. This model is sufficient to allow us to consider the behaviour of the work material during chip formation, the influence of the most critical elements of the tool geometry (the edge radius of the cutting tool and the back rake angle ), and the interactions that occur between the tool and the freshly generated surfaces of the chip against the rake face and the new surface as rubbed by the flank of the tool.
Basically, the chip is formed by a localized shear process that takes place over a very narrow zone. This large-strain, high-strain-rate, plastic deformation evolves out of a radial compression zone that travels ahead of the tool as it passes over the workpiece. This radial compression zone has, like all plastic deformations, an elastic compression region that changes into a plastic compression region when the yield strength of the material is exceeded.

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The applied stress level increases as the material approaches the tool where the material has no recourse but to shear. The onset of the shear process takes place along the lower boundary of the shear zone defined by the shear angle . The shear lamellas (microscopic shear planes) lie at the angle to the shear plane.

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MERCHANT'S MODEL For the purpose of modelling chip formation, assume that the shear process takes place on a single narrow plane rather than on the set of shear fronts that actually comprise a narrow shear zone. Further, assume that the tool's cutting edge is perfectly sharp and no contact is being made between the flank of the tool and the new surface. The workpiece passes the tool with velocity V, the cutting speed. The uncut chip thickness is t0. Ignoring the plastic compression, chips having thickness tc are formed by the shear process. The chip has velocity Vc. The shear process then has velocity Vs and occurs at the onset of shear angle . The tool geometry is given by the back rake angle and the clearance angle .

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F = tan = Where = the coefficient of friction N r = to where, r = the chip thickness ratio tc to= AB sin tc = AB cos ( - ) r = AB sin = sin AB cos ( - ) cos cos + sin sin r cos cos + r sin sin = sin sin r cos cos + r sin sin = 1 r cos = 1- r sin sin sin tan tan = r cos 1- r sin

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The velocities are also important, and can be calculated for later use in power calculations. The Velocity diagram below can also be drawn to find cutting velocities. Where, V = cutting velocity (m/min.) - as set or measured on the machine Vs = shearing velocity Vc = chip velocity Using the sine rule, Vs =V sin(90- ) sin(90+ - ) Vs= V sin(90- ) sin (90+ - ) Also = V cos cos ( - )

Vc = V sin cos (-) or Vc = Vr

Since mass continuity has to be maintained: Vto = Vctc Hence: Vc = V sin cos ( - ) The velocity relationships are: V = Vs = Vc cos ( - ) cos sin

TYPES OF CHIP [refer text book]

MECHANICS OF MACHINING (STATICS)
Orthogonal machining has been defined as a two-force system. Consider Figure 21-19, which shows a free-body diagram of a chip that has been separated at a shear plane. It is assumed that the resultant force R acting on the back of the chip is equal and opposite to the resultant force R' acting on the shear plane. The resultant R is composed of the friction force F and the normal force N acting on the tool chip interface contact area.
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Figure 21-19: Free body diagram of orthogonal chip formation process, showing equilibrium condition between resultant forces R and R/. The resultant force R' is composed of a shear force Fs and normal force forces can usually be measured, a third set is needed, which can be measured using a dynamometer (force transducer) mounted either in

Fn acting on the shear plane area As. Since neither of these two sets of

the work holder or the tool holder. Note that this set has resultant R,

which is equal in magnitude to all the other resultant forces in the tangential (normal) force Ft. Now it is necessary to express the desired

diagram. The resultant force R is composed of a cutting force Fc and a forces (Fs, Fn, F, N) in terms of the measured dynamometer

components, Fc and Ft, and appropriate angles. To do this, a circular force diagram is developed in which all six forces are collected in the same force circle (Figure 21-20). The only symbol in this figure as yet undefined is , which is the angle between the normal force N and the resultant R. It is called friction angle and is used to describe the friction coefficient on the tool-chip interface area, which is defined as F / N.

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MECHANICS OF MACHINING (DYNAMICS) Machining is a dynamic process of large strain and high strain rates. All the process variables are dependent variables. The process is intrinsically a closed-loop interactive process as shown in Figure 2123. Remember that plastic deformation is always preceded by elastic deformation, which behaves like a big spring. The mechanism by which a process dissipates energy is called chatter or vibration. In machining, it has long been observed in practice that rotational
speed may greatly influence process stability and chatter. Experienced operators commonly listen to machining noise and interactively modify the speed when optimizing a specific application. In addition, experience demonstrates that the performance of a particular tool may vary significantly based on the machine tool employed and other characteristics such as the workpiece, fixture holder, and the like. Today more than ever, the manufacturing industry is more competitive and responsive, characterized by both high volume and small batch production seeking economies of scale. High productivity is achieved by increased machine and tooling capabilities along with the elimination of all non-value-added activities. Few companies can afford lengthy trial-and-error approaches to machining-process optimization or additional processes to treat the effect of chatter.

In metal cutting, chatter is a self-excited vibration that is caused by the closed loop force-displacement response of the machining process. The process-induced variations in the cutting force may be caused by changes in the cutting velocity, chip cross section (area), tool/chip interface friction, built-up edge, workpiece variation, or most commonly, process modulation resulting in regeneration of vibration. The proper classification of the type of vibration is the first step in identifying and solving the cause of unwanted vibration (see Figure 21-24).

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Figure 21-24: There are three types of vibration in machining.

Free Vibration is the response to any initial condition or sudden

change. The amplitude of the vibration decreases with time and occurs at the natural frequency of the system. Interrupted machining is an example that often appears as lines or shadows following a surface discontinuity.

Forced Vibration is the response to a periodic (repeating with time)

input. The response and input occur at the same frequency. The amplitude of the vibration remains constant for set input conditions and is linearly related to speed. Unbalance, misalignment, tooth

impacts, and resonance of rotation systems are the most common examples. Self-Excited Vibration is the periodic response of the system to a
constant input. The vibration may grow in amplitude (become unstable) and occurs near the natural frequency of the system regardless of the input. Chatter due to the regeneration of waviness in the machined surface is the most common metal cutting example.
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How do we know chatter exists? Listen and look! Chatter is characterized by the following: 1. The sudden onset of vibration (a screech or buzz) that rapidly increases in amplitude until a maximum threshold (saturation) is reached. 2. The frequency of chatter remains very close to a natural frequency (critical frequency) of the machining system and changes little with variation of process parameters. The largest force-displacement response occurs at resonance and therefore the greatest energy dissipation. 3. Chatter often results in unacceptable surface finish exhibited by a helical or angular pattern (pearled or fish scaled) superimposed over normal feed marks. 4. Visible surface undulations are found in the feed direction and corresponding wavy or serrated chips with variable thickness. Figure 21-25 shows some typical examples of chatter visible in the surface finish marks. There are several important factors that influence the stability of a machining process: . Cutting stiffness of the workpiece material (related to the machinability), Ks . Cutting-process parameters (speed, feed, DOC, total width of chip) . Cutter geometry (rake and clearance angles, edge prep, insert size and shape) . Dynamic characteristics of the machining process (tooling, machine tool, fixture, and workpiece).

Ks, cutting stiffness, is closely aligned with flow stress but simpler to calculate in that is
not used. Like flow stress, cutting stiffness can be viewed as a material property of the workpiece, dependent on hardness.

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In machining, the chip is formed due to the shearing of the workpiece material over the chip area (A = thickness x width = t x w), which results in a cutting force Fc. The magnitude of the resulting cutting force is predominantly determined by the material cutting stiffness Ks and the chip area such that Fc = Ks x t x w. The direction of the cutting force Fc is influenced mainly by the geometries of the rake and clearance angles as well as the edge prep. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE IN METAL CUTTING In metal cutting, the power put into the process (Fc V) is largely converted to heat, elevating the temperatures of the chip, the workpiece, and the tool. These three elements of the process, along with the environment (which includes the cutting fluid), act as the heat sinks.
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Figure 21-30 shows the distribution of the heat to these three sinks as a function of cutting speed. As speed increases, a greater percentage of the heat ends up in the chip to the point where the chips can be cherry red or even burn at high cutting speeds.

There are three main sources of heat. Listed in order of their heatgenerating capacity, they are shown in Figure 21-31. 1. The shear front itself, where plastic deformation results in the major heat source. Most of this heat stays in the chip.
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2. The tool/chip interface contact region, where additional plastic deformation takes place in the chip, and considerable heat is generated due to sliding friction. 3. The flank of the tool, where the freshly produced workpiece surface rubs the tool.

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