Manufacturing Process - I

FOUNDARY SECTION
INTRODUCTION
Foundry : The place where jobs are prepared by melting and pouring the molten metal
into moulds is known as foundry.
Pattern : Pattern is a model of anything which is used to prepare moulds by placing it in
sand.
Casting : The molten metal poured into mould, on cooling is known as casting.
HAND TOOLS
1.Showel : It consists of iron pan with a wooden handle. It can be used for mixing and
conditioning the sand.

2. Trowels : These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould.
Common shapes of trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden
handle.

3. Lifter : A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould
sand. Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.

4. Hand riddle : It is used for ridding of sand to remove foreign material from it. It
consists of a wooden frame fitted with a screen of standard wire mesh at the bottom.

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5. Strike off bar : It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from
the top of a box after ramming.
Its one edge made bevelled and the surface perfectly smooth and plane.

6. Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a
wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand
it is used to make small holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and
steam during casting.

7. Rammers: Rammers are used for striking the sand mass in the moulding box to pack it
closely around one pattern. Common types of rammers are shown as under.

8. Swab: It is a hemp fibre brush used for moistening the edges of sand mould, which are
in contact with the pattern surface, before withdrawing the pattern. It is also used for
coating the liquid blacking on the mould faces in dry sand moulds.

9. Sprue pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron, which is embedded in the sand and later
withdrawn to produce a hole, called runner, through which the molten metal is poured into
the mould.
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10. Sprue cutter: It is also used for the same purpose as a sprue pin, but there is a marked
difference between their use in that the cutter is used to produce the hole after ramming the
mould. It is in the form of a tapered hollow tube, which is inserted in the sand to produce
the hole.

Moulding boxes

(a) Closed moulding boxes.

(b) Open type of snap flasks.

These boxes used in sand moulding may be made of wood, cast iron or steel. They
consist of two or more parts. The lower part is called drag, the upper part cope and all the
intermediate part, if used, cheeks. All the parts are individually equipped with suitable
means for clamping during pouring.

Wooden flasks are generally used in green sand moulding. Dry sand moulds
always require metallic boxes because they are heated for drying. Large and heavy boxes
are made from cast iron or steel and carry handles and grips as they are manipulated by
cranes or hoists etc. The closed metallic flasks may have a rectangular or round shape.

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Moulding and Casting Processes :
The various moulding and casting processes can be classified as follows :

Moulding Processes
1. According to the method used :
(i) Floor moulding
(ii) Bench moulding
(iii) Pit moulding
(iv) Machine moulding.

2. According to the mould materials :

(i) Sand moulding,
(a) Green sand moulding.
(b) Skin dried sand moulding.
(c) Dry sand moulding.
(d) Core sand moulding.
(e) Loam moulding.
(f) Cement bonded sand moulding.
(g) Carbon dioxide moulding.
(h) Shell moulding.
(ii) Plaster moulding.
(iii) Metallic moulding.
Casting Processes
1. Sand mould casting.
2. Plaster mould casting.
3. Metallic mould casting.
(a) Gravity or permanent mould casting.
(b) Slush casting.
(c) Pressed casting.
(d) Die casting.
4. Centrifugal casting.
5. Precision casting.
6. CO2-- mould casting.
7. Continuous casting.

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TERMS RELATED TO SAND MOULDS
Various terms related to sand moulds are illustrated in Fig.6.27. Cope is the upper
part and drag the lower part of the moulding flask. Runner is the passage through which
molten metal is poured. Gate is the small passage connecting the runner to the mould
cavity. Parting line is the line along which the sand surfaces of the drag and cope join each
other. Riser is the passage through which the molten metal rises up after filling the mould
cavity. On seeing the metal through it, it is ensured that the mould has been completely
filled. It also helps the escape of gases out of the mould. Pouring basin is the enlarged
portion, in the form of a countersunk, at the top of the runner.

MOULDING PROCEDURE
The procedure for making a mould in either green or dry sand is as follows :
1. First of all a suitable flask is selected, large enough to accommodate the pattern and also
allow some space around it for ramming of sand.
2. The drag part is placed upside down on the moulding board.
3. The pattern is placed on the board inside the flask in such a position that space is left for
gate cutting.
4. If in two parts, the lower part of the pattern is placed in the drag.
5. If facing sand is used, it is placed all along the pattern surface to a suitable depth (say 25 mm).
6. The drag is then filled with ordinary moulding sand and rammed property.
7. The excess sand is cut-off to bring it in level with the edges of the flask.

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8. A small amount of dry loose sand is sprinkled over the top surface and the drag turned
upside down, along with a bottom board placed over it, after venting.
9. The cope is then placed over the drag and the top part of the pattern (if it is two parts)
assembled in position.
10. Dry, loose parting sand is then sprinkled over the entire surface of the drag and pattern.
11. Runner and riser are put in positions and supported vertically by tucking a small
amount of moulding sand around them.
12. The facing sand, if used is again put around the pattern surface to the usual depth.
13. Gaggers, if used, are then placed in position and the cope filled with ordinary moulding
sand and rammed.
14. Excess sand is then cut-off, runner and riser pins removed, venting performed, pouring
basin formed and dry sand sprinkled on the top surface.
15. A bottom board is placed over the cope and the latter rolled over.
16. The pattern parts are then removed from both the drag and cope.
17. Repairs, if any, are made and gates cut.
18. Dressing is then applied.
19. If it is a dry sand mould, it is baked.
20. The dry sand cores, if any, are located in position and mould closed for pouring.
An example of making a simple mould is illustrated step by step in

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MOULDING SANDS
The common sources of collecting foundry sands are rivers, lakes, sea and deserts.
All the foundry sands can be mainly grouped as :

1. Natural Sand : Which contain sufficient amount of binding clay and, therefore, no
more binder is required to be added to them.
2. Silica Sand : Which do not possess the clay content and need addition of a suitable
binder to make them usable for foundry work. They are also sometimes called sharp
sands. They, when mixed with some other constituents like binders and additives, are also
known as synthetic sands.
QUALITIES OF SAND
A good foundry sand should possess the following main qualities.
1. Refractoriness : It is that property of the moulding sand which enables it to withstand
high temperatures of the molten metal without fusing thus facilitating a clean casting. The
extent to which this property is needed depends upon the metal which is to be cast. For
example steel is poured at a higher temperature than cast iron. Similarly cast iron is
poured at a higher temperature than brass. Therefore, the mould for steel casting should
have higher degrees of refractoriness than that used for iron castings and the latter should
have more refractoriness than the one used for brass casting. If a sand lacks in this
property it will fuse on coming in contact with the molten metal, iron stag on the surface of
the casting and will, thus, spoil the latter.
The moulding sand owes this property largely to the presence of quartz content or
SiO2 and the shape and size of its grains. Rough and larger grains lead to higher
refractoriness. Similarly a higher percentage of SiO2 results in greater refractoriness. On
the other hand iron oxides, calcium, sodium and potassium react chemically, during
pouring of molten metal, to form compounds, which have very low melting points. Thus
their presence in the sand reduces its refractoriness. It should, therefore, be kept as low as
possible, particularly in those sands, which are used in iron and steel foundries.
2. Permeability : It is also termed as porosity, it is that property of the sand which allows
the gases and steam to escape through the sand mould. When the hot molten metal is
poured in the mould a very large volume of gases and steam is formed due to heating to
moisture, coal dust, oil and similar other materials present in the sand. If these gases are
not allowed to go out they will either make the casting unsound or blast the mould.
Therefore, this is very important property required in the moulding sand. It largely
depends upon the same grain size and shape and the proportion of moisture and clay
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present in the sand. Rounded grains of uniform size lead to a high permeability. This
property is also affected by ramming of sand. A soft ramming will increase the
permeability and hard ramming will reduce it. In practice it is further increased by
applying vent wires in the prepared mould.
3. Flowability or plasticity : It is that property of the sand due to which it flows during
ramming to all portions of the moulding flask, packs properly around the pattern to acquire
the desired shape and distributes the ramming pressure evenly to all parts of the mould. It
increases with the addition of clay and water content and reduction of green strength and
grain size.
4. Adhesiveness : It is that property of the sand due to which it is capable of adhering to
the surfaces of other materials. It is entirely due to this property that the heavy sand mass
is successfully held in a moulding flask and manipulated as desired without any danger of
its falling out. Similarly, on account of the same property, the gaggers are able to hold
bulky sand projections of the mould.
5. Cohesiveness : It is that property of the sand due to which its rammed particles bind
together firmly and the pattern is withdrawn from the mould without damaging the mould
surfaces and edges. Also, due to this property the mould faces get sufficient strength to
withstand the pressure of the flowing molten metal and do not get washed under this
pressure. This property of the sand is green state is known as green bond or green strength
and is largely effected by the grain size, clay and moisture content.
When the molten metal is poured into the mould or the latter is baked in an oven, it
gets dried due to the evaporation of the moisture. The cohesiveness in sand grains is still
required to give sufficient strength to the mould faces to retain their shape and resist the
flow of molten metal into the sand mass. This property in dry state of the sand mould is
known as dry bond or dry strength and depends upon grain size, binder and moisture
content. The dry strength should, however, not be allowed to exceed beyond requirement
otherwise it will reduce collapsibility and restrict contraction of solidifying metal, resulting
in cracks and unsound castings. It is particularly important in case of steel castings and
iron castings having thin sections.
6. Collapsibility : It is the property due to which the sand mould automatically collapses
after solidification of the casting to allow a free contraction of the metal. In absence of this
property the contraction of the metal will be hindered by the mould and this will result in
tears and cracks in the casting.
7. Other requirements : In addition to the above main characteristics, the moulding sand
should also possess the following properties :
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1. It should be cheap and easily available.
2. Its coefficient of expansion should be sufficiently low.
3. It should be reusable to effect economy.
4. It should not react chemically with the molten metal.
5. It should not stick to the surface of the casting.
TYPES OF SAND
1.Green Sand : It is also known as tempered sand. It denotes a well prepared foundry
sand which contains just enough moisture to give it sufficient bond. Moulds in this sand
are known as green sand moulds and do not require any baking before pouring the molten
metal into them.
2. Dry Sand : This term indicates that moulding sand which was originally having excess
moisture content but the same has been evaporated from it by drying its mould in a suitable
oven.
3. Facing Sand : It is also known as 'fat' sand. These terms are used for that sand which
forms the face of the mould, i.e., rammed around the pattern surface. It is nothing but the
fresh prepared and well tempered foundry sand. Initial coating around the pattern surface
is given by this sand and the reminder of the flask is filled with floor sand to effect
economy.
4. Parting Sand : This term denotes that sand which is sprinkled on the pattern and the
parting surfaces of the mould so that the sand mass of one flask does not stick to that of the
other or to the pattern. The 'burnt' sand and dry silica sand are used for this purpose.
5. Floor, Black or Baking Sand : These are interchangeable terms and all denote the used
sand which is left on the floor after the castings have been removed from the mould.
Before reusing, it is riddled to remove foreign material like nails and fins etc. and then
used for filling the bulk of the moulding flask after the facing sand has been rammed
around the pattern.
In modern mechanized foundries, however, no facing sand is prepared separately,
but the entire floor sand is riddled, added with binders and proper additives and properly
tempered for being used again. Such a sand is called unit sand.
6. Core Sand : The sand which carries a high silica content and is used for making cores is
known as core sand.
7. Oil Sand : Silica sand using oil binders is known as oil sand.
8. Molasses Sand : This term denotes the sand which carries molasses as binder. It is
very useful for making moulds of small castings having intricate shapes and thin sections.
Also it is used as core sand.
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MAIN CONSTITUENT OF MOULDING SAND

The principal constituents of moulding sand are :
1. Silica sand 2. Binder 3. Additives, and, 4. Water.
Details of silica sands, their grain size and shape and their effect on the characteristics of
moulding sand has already been discussed earlier. Description of other constituents will
follow in the forthcoming articles. Binders The purpose of adding a binder to the
moulding sand is to impart it sufficient strength and cohesiveness so as to enable it to
retain its shape after the mould has been rammed and the pattern withdrawn. However, it
produces an adverse effect on the permeability of the sand mould.
The common binders used in foundry can be grouped as : 1. Organic binders 2.
Inorganic binders. Organic binders find their specific use in core making. The
common binders coming in this category are :
(ii) Molasses
(iii) Linseed oil
(iv) Cereal binders
(v) Pitch - upto 2% max.
(vi) Resins, like phenol and urea formaldehydes.
In the inorganic group the common binders are clay, sodium silicate and Portland
cement. Out of all these, the clay binders are commonly used. The following types of
clays are commonly used :
(i) Bentonite (ii) Kaolonite (iii) Limonite (iv) Ball clay (v) Fire clay
(vi) Fuller's earth.
Out of the above six varieties Bentonite is most widely used in our country its
deposits are found in Bihar, Rajasthan and Kashmir.

Additives
Additives are those materials which are added to the moulding sand to improve
upon some of the existing properties or to impart certain new properties to it. The
commonly used additives are :

1. Coal dust : It is mainly used in the sand used for gray iron and malleable iron castings.
Its main purpose is to react chemically with the oxygen present in the sand pores, and thus,
produce a reducing atmosphere at mould-metal interface and prevent oxidation of the

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metal. For this reason its major portion is added in the facing sand. It, however, reduces
the cohesiveness and strength of the sand.
2. Sea coal : It is a finely ground soft coal and is vastly used in sand used for gray and
malleable iron castings. It restricts the mould wall movement and improves surface finish.
It reduces permeability and hot strength of the mould and requires a higher percentage of
water in the sand. Its proportion varies from 2 to 8 percent.
3. Cereals or corn flour : It promotes mould wall movement by being volatilized by heat,
reduces expansion defects, improves strength, toughness and collapsibility of the sand and
decreases permeability and flowability. Its proportion in the sand varies from 0.25 to 2.0
percent.
4. Silica flour : It increases hot strength, decreases metal penetration into the mould,
reduces expansion defects and improves surface finish. It may be added up to 35 percent.
5. Wood flour : In promotes mould wall movement, reduces expansion defects, increases
collapsibility, improves surface finish and thermal stability of mould. It may be added
from 0.5 to 2.0 percent or even more.
6.Pitch : It improves hot strength and surface finish on ferrous castings. It can be
advantageously added upto 2.0 percent. If a higher proportion is added it will reduce green
strength.
7. Dextrin and molasses : Their addition increases the dry-strength of the sand. In other
respects they behave more or less like cornflour.
8. Fuel oil : Its addition is sometimes done in order to reduce the requirement of free water
in the sand.

Water
The clay content added to the foundry sand will not give the required strength and
bond until a suitable quantity of water is added to it. This quantity of water varies from 2
to 8 percent according to different requirements.

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CARPENTRY SECTION (PATTERN MAKING)

CARPENTARY TOOLS
The efficiency of the workman depends upon the tools used in the workshop. Good
quality tools always makes the work easy. In the carpentry shop the tools are classified as
under :
(i) Measuring Tools
(ii) Marking Tools
(iii) Cutting Tools
(iv) Planning Tools
(v) Drilling and Boring Tools
(vi) Holding Devices
(vii) Striking Tools
(viii) Sharpening Tools

MEASURING TOOLS :
(a) Four Fold box wood rule : It is generally 2 feet long and is folded from
three places. It is marked with inch and millimeter scale.

(b) Steel Rule : It is made up of stainless steel and is marked with scales.

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MARKING TOOLS :

(a) Pencil : Lead pencil is generally used for marking purpose

(b)Scriber : Scriber has a sharp conical edge used to mark on even hard surfaces. The
front edge is hardened so as to resist wear and tear. It is made up of carbon steel.

(c) Marking Gauge : It is used to draw parallel lines. The movable portion of the gauge is
adjusted to suitable position and is tightened on to stem.

(d)Mortise Gauge : It is used to draw two parellel lines. Its working is similar to marking
gauge except it has two sharp edges. One fixed and second adjustable or fixed.

(e)Try Square : It is used to draw lines at right angle, parallel or to check the trueness of
planed surfaces. It is made up of a steel blade with heavy base.

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(f) Bevel : It consists of a wooden handle fitted with an adjustable blade as shown in the
figure. The blade can be rotated by 1800 with respect to handle. It is used for marking
various angles.

(g) Compass/dividers : These are used for dividing equal number of parts and for drawing
arcs and circles. It consists of two legs with a spring on the top of the legs. A screw is
also attached at the center of legs for adjustment.

CUTTING TOOLS :
Saw and chisel are used as cutting tools in carpentry shop.
Saw : A saw is a multi tooth tool made up of thin sheet attached with a wooden handle. Its
teeth are ground and sharpened to achieve smooth cutting. Different types of saw
are :-

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(i) Rip Saw : It is hand saw from 30 cm. to 75 cm. long, containing one to one and half
teeth per cm. It should not be called a hand saw but a rip saw only.
(ii) Tenon Saw : It drives its name from the tenon form of joint. It is a thin saw ranging
from 20 cm. to 40 cm. in length, and is supported by back of wought iron or brass; hence it
is also called a back saw. It contain79s about 4 teeth to a cm.
(iii) Coping Saw : It is a short narrow saw, tapering towards the point, used for cutting
sweeps and large interior curves by hand, sometimes termed as a table saw.
(iv) Cross-Cut Saw : It is a saw provided with two handles, one at each end. Used for
cutting heavy timber across the grains.
Chisels : There are three types of chisels commonly used in Carpentry shop :
(i) Firmer Chisel : It is a general-purpose chisel used to finish inside grooves. It
has various sizes of cutting edge depending upon the work to be done. Width
varies from 5 mm to 35 mm.
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(ii) Mortise Chiesel : It is used to make mortises. Mortise chiesel is used for
heavy cuts. The blade thickness varies from 5 m.m. to 12 m.m.
(iii) Gauge Chiesel : It is used to finish curved holes. Gauge chiesels are of two
types i.e. inside and outside.

PLANNING TOOLS :

1. Planes : Planning tools are used for smoothening purposes, preparing proper sizes and
for forming curved wooden strips. Many types of planes are used in carpentary shop.
(a) Trying plane
(b) Jack plane
(c) Smoothing plane
(d) Rebate plane
(e) Moulding plane
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(f) Plough plane
(g) Hollow plane
(h) Spoke Shave

DRILLING & BORING TOOLS :

1. Hand drill : Hand drill consists of a spindle, drill chuck, crank, handle and two
bevel gears. Bevel gears are fitted on the body. Drill is held in chuck and rotation
to spindle is given through gears with the help of crank. The handle is pressed into
the wooden piece while rotating the drill. Thus hole is formed

2. Gimlet drill : Gimlet drill is a very simple type of drilling tool. It consists of two
parts. One is gimlet and second is handle. Gimlet is made from a long twisted bar. It
has a screw type starting edge. While drilling it is rotated & pressed on to the wooden
work piece with the help of the handle.

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HOLDING TOOLS
1. Bench Hook : It is a simple type of holding tool used for supporting the wood
while working on it. It is used on work bench. Sawing and planning are mostly
done on it.

2. Clamping Vice : Clamping vice is used for sawing, joining or cutting more than
one strip of wood at the same time. It's one end is clamped to the table while the
other is kept moveable. Vice is made up of cast steel and jaws are lined with hard
wood.

STRIKING TOOLS :
1. Cross peen hammer : It has a cast steel body and a wooden handle. Body has two
parts face and peen. In cross peen hammer, the peen is in the form of a narrow round edge
ridge placed at right angle to the axis of the handle.

2. Claw Hammer : It is used for striking as well as for pulling the nails from the wood.
The material of the wood is cast steel. One end is made striking and the second is claw
face.
3. Mallet : It is used to strike the chiesels which have wooden handles. It is made up of a
hard wood and is round or rectangular in shape.

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SHARPENING TOOL :
1. Water stone : It is a rectangular piece of stone generally kept in a wooden base. It is
used to re-sharpen the chiesels, bits, plane blades and other tools. While sharpening water
is sprinkled on the stone.

AUXILIARY MATERIALS USED IN CARPENTARY :

1. Nails : Nails are used for fastening different wooden parts. These are made up of
low carbon steel, brass or copper. These are available in the many shapes and
sizes in the market. The size is taken as the overall length of the nail and wire
diameter. Some common shapes of nails are shown in the figure.

2. Screws : Screws are generally used for fixing metallic fittings like handles, hings etc
and joining different wooden parts. The screws give better strength to the joint than nails.
These are also available in different shapes. A hole is drilled before putting the screw.
Screws are made up of bright drawn wire. Common types of screws are shown in the
figure.

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WELDING SECTION

INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process of joining two materials with the help of heat or pressure or
by some other means. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other processes and
forms a strong joint. For this reason it is largely used in the following fields of engineering
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, autoparts, cycle parts etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets etc.

TYPES OF WELDING
1. Gas Welding : Gas welding is the process in which a gas flame is used to raise the
temperature of the metals to be joined. The metals are heated up to melting. The
metal flows and on cooling it solidifies. A filler metal may be added to the flowing
molten metal to fill up cavity made during the end preparation.

Many combinations of gases are used in gas welding. But the most common of
these is oxygen and acetylene.

2. Oxy-Acetylene welding
The process of oxy-acetylene welding can be used for almost all metals and alloys
for engineering purposes. A high temperature flame (32000C) can be produced by this
method. There are two systems of oxygen-acetylene welding.
(i) High pressure system : In this process the oxygen and acetylene are taken for use from
high pressure cylinders.

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(ii) Low pressure system : In this system oxygen is taken from high pressure cylinder and
the acetylene is produced by the action of Calcium carbide and water.
CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + C2H2
Principle of oxy-acetylene welding
A very hot flame is produced by burning of the gases coming through the torch tip.
The edges to be welded are heated up to melting. A filler metal is also added to complete
the welding. This molten metal mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a welded joint.
Apparatus

Apparatus used for oxy-acetylene (high pressure) welding is shown in the figure and
consists of the following :
1. Oxygen cylinder
2. Acetylene cylinder
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Valves
5. Hose pipes
6. Torch
7. Welding tip
8. Pressure regulators
9. Lighter
10. Goggles
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Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases. Both the cylinders
are attached with pressure gauges, regulators and cylinder valves.
The cylinder containing oxygen is painted black where as the acetylene cylinder is
painted maroon. Hose pipes are provided with each cylinder. These pipes are connected
to welding torch.
Welding Process :
To start welding, the acetylene control valve is turned first when acetylene comes
out of the nozzle, it should be ignited with spark lighter it will give a yellow-colored
smoke flame. After it oxygen cylinder valve is opened and supply is increased until a best
suitable flame is obtained.
Then the flame is focused on the edges to be welded. Flux and filler metal are also
added with the heat of flame, the edges and filler metal melts and a joint is formed after
cooling of the molten metal.
The joint may be formed with or without using filler metal.
Applications :
All the metals can be welded with proper filler metals. Same equipment may be
used for cutting purposes. Oxyacetylene welding is particularly used for sheet metal work.

Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding :

1. Equipment is cheap.
2. It can be used for welding all metals.
3. Maintenance of equipment is very less.
4. It is a portable process.
5. It can be used for cutting of metals.
6. It is specially used for sheet metal work.
Disadvantages :
1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
2. Heat affected area is more
3. Gases are expensive and difficult to store

TYPES OF GAS FLAMES

Oxidising Flame : When the volume of oxygen gas is more than the volume of acetylene
mixed into the torch. This flame is used for welding brass and is also used for cutting the
metals.

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1. Carburising Flame : When the volume of acetylene mixed is more than oxygen,
carburising flame is formed. This flame is used for welding nickel, monel etc.
2. Neutral Flame : It is known as balanced flame. Oxygen and acetylene gases are
mixed in equal volumes. Neutral flames are used for normal welding of steel, cast
iron etc.
FLUX
The chemicals which deoxidize the metal surface and provide inert atmosphere
around the molten metal are known as fluxes.
Function
1. To prevent oxides from the hot surfaces.
2. To reduce the viscosity of molten metal
3. It maintains a steady arc in case of arc welding
Fluxes are available as liquid, powder, paste and gas. Powder flux is sprinkled on
the surfaces to be welded or the filler rod is dipped into the powder. Liquid & paste fluxes
are sprayed on the surfaces to be welded. Gas fluxes are used to form inert atmosphere
around the joint to be welded.
FILLER :
The rod which provides additional metal in completing the welding is known as
filler.
The composition of filler metal should be the same as that of the metals to be
welded.

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DETAILS OF GAS WELDING EQUIPUMENTS :
Oxygen Cylinder : Cylinder is made up of steel in capacity range 2.25 to 6.3 m3. The
cylinders are filled with oxygen at about 150 kg/cm2 at 210C. A safety valve is also
provided on it. The cylinder can be opened or closed by a wheel which operates a valve.
A protector cap is provided on the top of the cylinder to safe guard the valve.

Acetylene cylinder : Acetylene cylinders are also made up of steel. Gas is filled at a
pressure of 18-20 kg/cm2. The capacity of the cylinder is about 10m3. Regulator valve
and safety valve are also mounted on cylinder. Safety plugs are also provided on the
bottom of the cylinder. When filled into the cylinder, the acetylene is dissolved in acetone.

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 Manufacturing Process - I
Regulator : Regulator is used to control the flow of gases from high pressure cylinder. A
simple type of regulator is shown is the figure.
1. Blow-pipe : It is used to mix oxygen and acetylene gases and then to supply the gas
mixture to a nozzle connected to its end. The blow-pipe (also sometimes known as
welding torch) has two controlling devices, one for controlling the flow of
acetylene and the other for oxygen entering a chamber, called mixing chamber.

2. Nozzle : It is a device screwed to the end of the blow-pipe. It is used to permit the
flow of oxy-acetylene gas mixture from the mixing chamber of the blow-pipe to the
tip of the nozzle to facilitate burning. The nozzles are interchangeable, as it is the
size of the nozzle outlet, which determines the gas consumption, and so the size of
the gas flame. A nozzle having small-bore diameter is used for fast melting.
3. Pressure-reducing valve : Pressure-reducing valve is located on the top of the gas
cylinder. Its function is to reduce the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder to a
pressure suitable for welding. The regulator located on the top of the oxygen
cylinder is called oxygen pressure-reducing valve and the one located on the top of
the acetylene cylinder is called acetylene pressure-reducing valve.
4. Pressure gauges : Each gas cylinder is provided with two pressure gauges, one for
registering the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder and the other for indicating
the pressure of the gas supplied to the blow-pipe.
5. Hose and hose-fittings : The hose, connecting the outlet of the pressure-reducing
valve and the blowpipe, should be strong, durable, flexible, non-porous and light.
The hose for the supply of oxygen is green in color and that for the supply of
acetylene is red in color. The hoses are made of piles of rubber covered with
fabric. Hose-fittings are provided at the ends of the hoses for attachment to the
blowpipe and the outlet of the pressure-reducing valves.
6. Welding goggles : Goggles with tinted glasses is used during welding to protect the
eyes from injury.

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 Manufacturing Process - I

7. Welding gloves : It is used to protect the hands from the heat and metal splashes.
8. Spark lighter : It is used to provide a convenient and instant means for lighting the
blowpipe.
9. Chipping hammer : It is made of steel and is used to remove metal oxides from
welded bead.
10. Wire-brush : Its function is to clean surfaces of a joint before and after welding.
EQUIPMENTS USED FOR ARC WELDING
Various equipments used for arc welding are as under :
1. D.C. Welding Equipment.
(a) AC Motor - Generator Set
(b) Diesel Engine - Generator Set
(c) Transformer - Rectifier welding set
2. AC Equipment :
(a) Welding Transformer set
3. Equipment accessories
(a) Leads
(b) Holder
(c) Connectors
(d) Ground Clamps
4. Operator's tool
(a) Chipping hammer
(b) Wire brush
(c) Arc shield
(d) Closed shoe
4.welding transformer set : It is used to step down the voltage supply. It consists of a
primary and secondary circuit. The input is given to primary winding. By electromagnetic
induction the current flows through the secondary coil. The output can be as per
requirement.

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 Manufacturing Process - I

5. cables and leads : These leads are made up of copper or aluminium wire. The
wires are insulated with rubber & cloth fibre. A heavy insulation is necessary for
these cables.
6. Face Shield : When arc is produced around the job, infrared rays and ultraviolet
rays are produced. To protect the face and eyes from these dangerous rays, a shield
is necessary.
Other accessories & tools : Other accessories & tools used for arc welding are shown in
the figure.

Electrodes:
Electrodes are of two types
(i) Coated electrodes
(ii) Bare electrode
Coated electrodes are generally applied in arc welding processes. A metallic core
is coated with some suitable material. The material used for core is mild steel, nickel steel,
chromium molybdenum steel etc. One end of the coated core is kept bare for holding.
Bare Electrodes produce the welding of poor quality. These are cheaper than
coated electrodes. These are generally used in modern welding process like MIG welding.

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 Manufacturing Process - I
Electrode size :
Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 m.m., 300 m.m., 350 m.m., 450
m.m., and the diameters are 1.6 m.m., 2 m.m., 2.5 m.m., 3.2 m.m. 4 m.m., 7 m.m., 8 m.m.
and 9 m.m.
Functions of Coatings
The coating on an electrode serves the following functions :
1. To prevent oxidation.
2. Forms slag with metal impurities.
3. It stabilizes the arc.
4. Increases deposition of molten metal.
5. Controls depth of penetration.
6. Controls the cooling rate.
7. Adds alloy elements to the joint.
Specifications of electrodes
An electrode is specified by six digits with profile letter M. These six digits
indicate the following matter :
M : It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding.
First digit : First digit may be from 1 to 8, which indicates the type of coating on
the electrode.
Second digit : It denotes the welding position for which electrode is manufactured.
It varies from 1 to 6.
Third digit : It denotes the current to be used for an electrode. It is taken from 0 to 7.
Fourth digit : Fourth digit is from 1 to 8. Each digit represents the tensile strength
of welded joint.
Fifth digit : It carries any number from 1 to 5. This digit denotes a specific
elongation in percentage of the metal deposited.
Sixth digit : It carries any number from 1 to 5 and denotes impact strength of the
joint.

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 Manufacturing Process - I

Job No. 1
AIM : To prepare sand mould using wooden pattern.

EQUIPMENT :
Shovel, Rammer, Lifter, Strike-off bar. Sprue pin, vent rod. cope & drag box,
moulding board, pattern.

MOULDING PROCEDURE :-
1)First of all a suitable flask is selected long enough to accommodate the pattern and allow
some space around it for ramming of sand.
2) The drag part is placed upside down on the moulding board i.e. the pins are inverted.
3) The pattern is placed upside, down on the moulding board i.e. on the board inside the
flask is such a position that space is left for gate cutting.
4) If the pattern is in two parts the lower part is placed in the drag.
5) If facing sand is used it is placed all along the pattern surface to suitable depth (say 25
mm).
6) The drag is the filled with ordinary moulding sand and ram properly.
7) The excess of sand is cut-off to bring it in level with the edges of the flask.
8) A small amount of dry loose sand is sprinkled over the top surface & the drag is turned
upside down along with a bottom board placed over it after venting.
9) The cope is placed then over the drag & top part of the pattern assembled in position.
10) Dry loose sand is then sprinkled over the entire surface of the drag and pattern.
11) Runner & risers are put in positions and supported vertically by staking a small amt. of
sand around them.
12) The facing sand if used is put again around the pattern surface to a usual depth.
13) A bottom board is placed over the cope and the latter is rolled over.
14) The patterns parts are then removed from both drag and cope box.
15) If it is dry sand mould then it is backed in the oven. In this way the moulds are ready
for pouring.

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 Manufacturing Process - I

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 Manufacturing Process - I
Job No. 2
AIM : To prepare a wooden pattern.

MATERIAL : Wooden pattern of size

Saw, files, finishing paper, try square, divider, pencil, and scriber.

PROCEDURE :
i) Take wooden piece. Make the surface of wooden box smooth by filling it.
ii) Take small piece of wood .
iii) Make the piece circular cylindrical by filling it.
iv) Point out the centre of the circular wooden piece.
vii) Finish all the surface by finishing paper.

PRECAUTION :

i) Cut the piece accurately.

ii) Hold the surface of pattern to file to make surface as smooth as possible.
iii) Properly finish the surface with finishing paper.

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 Manufacturing Process - I
Job No. 3
AIM : To prepare a stool (iron).
MATERIAL : Hollow square iron pipe
EQUIPMENT : Arc welding m/c, chalk, scale, safety eqp. like hand shield, Goggles, saw
machine.
PROCEDURE :
i) Cut four pieces of 24", 13", 11" each as a hollow square iron pipe by saw machine.
ii) If the four pieces are little bit long. Grind them to exact length by grinding machine.
iii) Place four pieces of length 24" and mark at a distance of 3" from one as the end.
iv ) Now place two pieces of 24" in such a way that one rod of 13" is placed between two
rod at marked 3' inches. And put rod of 11" on top of the other end.
v) Weld the joint place accordingly.
vi) Now place remaining two 24" rod and 13" & 11' in same procedure as above & weld it.
vii) Place other two 13" & 11" rods between the two welded joints and weld their new joint
properly.

PRECAUTION :
1) While working with welding m/c protection must be taken while using it.
2) Accurate dimensions must be maintained.

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 Manufacturing Process - I
Job No. 4

AIM : To prepare a butt joint using gas welding.

MATERIAL :
i) M.S. sheet of size
ii) Filler rod of copper
iii) Flux

EQUIPMENTS :

i) Blow pipe
ii) Gas welding torch
iii) Oxygen and acetylene cylinder.

PROCEDURE :

i) First cut the M. S. Sheet of size.

ii) Light the flame & adjust the flow of oxygen & acetylene such that neutural jet is
produced.
iii) Weld the two pieces of metal plate by filter rod using flux.

PRECAUTION :
i) Light the torch carefully.
ii) Control the volume of oxygen & acetylene so as to obtained neutral flame.
iii) Keep enough distance from fumes & flames.
iv) Use safely equipments.

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