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GEDZ NVERSTES
MHENDSLK FAKLTES


ELEKTRK ELEKTRONK
MHENDSLGNN TEMELLER
DERS NOTLARI
PART IV
SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS

EEM211 (END-MAK)
EEM221 (BLG)

KAYNAKLAR: INRODUCTORY CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY
R. BOYLESTAT
PEARSON PUBLICATIONS



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SinusoidaI AIternating Waveforms





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#AL FO#AT FO# TH SI&SOIDAL VOLTA O# C&##T
The basic mathematical Iormat Ior the sinusoidal waveIorm is

where
2
is the peak value oI the waveIorm and u is the unit oI measure Ior the horizontal axis, as
shown in Fig. 13.18.









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#SPOS OF BASIC #AD LTS TO
A SI&SOIDAL VOLTA O# C&##T

#esistor:









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F#"&CY #SPOS OF TH BASIC LTS




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t 1 0 Hz, the reactance oI the capacitor is so large, as
shown in Fig. 14.23, that it can be replaced by an open-
circuit equivalent. s the Irequency increases, the
reactance decreases, until eventually a shortcircuit
equivalent would be appropriate. Note that an increase in
capacitance causes the reactance to drop oII more rapidly
with Irequency.

In summary, therefore, as the applied frequency
increases, the resistance of a resistor remains constant,
the reactance of an inductor increases linearly, and the
reactance of a capacitor decreases nonlinearly.




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Figure 14.25 is a plot oI the magnitude oI the impedance

oI Fig.14.24 versus Irequency. Note that

up to about 2 MHz the impedance increases almost linearly with Irequency, clearly suggesting that the
100-mH inductor is essentially ideal. However, above 2 MHz all the Iactors contributing to #8will
start to increase, while the reactance due to the capacitive element 5will be more pronounced. The
dropping level oI capacitive reactance will begin to have a shorting eIIect across the windings oI the
inductor and will reduce the overall inductive eIIect. Eventually, iI the Irequency continues to
increase, the capacitive eIIects will overcome the inductive eIIects, and the element will actually begin
to behave in a capacitive Iashion. Note the similarities oI this region with the curves oI Fig. 14.23.
lso note that decreasing levels oI inductance (available with Iewer turns and thereIore lower levels oI
5) will not demonstrate the degrading eIIect until higher Irequencies are applied. In general, thereIore,
the Irequency oI application Ior a coil becomes important at increasing Irequencies. Inductors lose
their ideal characteristics and in Iact begin to act as capacitive elements with increasing losses at very
high Irequencies.

The capacitor, like the inductor, is not ideal at higher Irequencies. In Iact, a transition point can be
deIined where the characteristics oI the capacitor will actually be inductive. The complete equivalent
model Ior a capacitor is provided in Fig. 14.26. The resistance #8, deIined by the resistivity oI the
dielectric (typically 1012 m or better) and the case resistance, will determine the level oI leakage
current to expect during the discharge cycle. In other words, a charged capacitor can discharge both
through the case and through the dielectric at a rate determined by the resistance oI each path.
Depending on the capacitor, the discharge time can extend Irom a Iew seconds Ior some electrolytic
capacitors to hours (paper) or perhaps days (polystyrene). Inversely, thereIore, electrolytics obviously
have much lower levels oI #8than paper or polystyrene.

II we take the general case depicted in Fig. 14.28 and use the Iollowing
Ior ;and :



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