Introduction

Children are often affected of this disease because their immune system is not yet fully developed. It usually started with simple colds followed by irritating cough and fever. If these signs and symptoms sound familiar, this may implies bronchitis, an inflammation of the large breathing tubes (airways) that are called bronchi, which causes fever, cough, sore throat, wheezing and increased production of mucus,. There are several different types of bronchitis, the two most common are acute and chronic. Acute bronchitis is the inflammation of mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes. Initially, it affects the nose, sinuses, and throat and then spreads to the lungs. It usually follows the common cold or other viral infections in the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, allergies, or those with enlarged tonsils and adenoids. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by infectious agents such as bacteria or viruses. It may also be caused by physical or chemical agents - dusts, allergens, strong fumes, and those from chemical cleaning compounds, or tobacco smoke. In children, the most common cause of bronchitis is a virus, although in children over 6 years of age, it can be caused by bacteria. Most cases of acute bronchitis disappear within a few days without lasting effects and coughs may linger three weeks or more, acute bronchitis is usually a mild condition. Though usually mild, it may result to a more serious health problem such as asthma, chronic bronchitis or emphysema and pneumonia that needs attention. This only signifies that simple disease will result to a more severe condition if not given proper intervention and immediate medical action.

Significance of the Study

This study will give us knowledge of what acute bronchitis is, its cause, signs and symptoms, medical treatment and nursing interventions. This focuses more on rendering care to infants inflicted with such disease whose main goal is to alleviate the pain and other discomforts the patient is experiencing. Moreover this will serve as baseline reference for students and health personnel for further studies.

IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY

a. Nursing Education
Students will have a basic knowledge about acute bronchitis its signs and symptoms, etiology and the nursing intervention they can give whenever they encountered such condition. Furthermore it can be used as a reference in giving health teachings to individuals, family and community for prevention and curative purposes.

b. Nursing Practice The goal of nursing care is to restore optimal respiratory function. As the main function of nurses it entails effectiveness in endowing care to clients. The interventions rendered are specifically intended for patients with acute bronchitis however some practices can also be given to patients with chronic bronchitis or with pneumonia. Basically this case study will give health care providers a quick but concise view about a patient who has such disease and the procedures he/she had undergone. Nevertheless some clinical or medical recommendations applied may not be carried out to some clients because each individuals manifestation of signs and symptoms varies depending on the severity of the condition and the appropriate medication needed.

c. Nursing Research This can be used as a reference for those who want to have a basic knowledge about acute bronchitis and the interventions they could render. The contents of this study are based on the actual intervention given by the nursing students and the rapport that has been established to the patient and to the patients mother to the extent that this may serve as guidelines for future evaluation.

CONCLUSUION
Acute bronchitis has been the primary concern of health care providers in terms of upper respiratory tract infections and diseases because this may predispose to a more complicated condition such as chronic bronchitis, pneumonia and emphysema. Information dissemination regarding about bronchitis should be accentuated because it usually started with a common colds and cough which parents tend to neglect subsequently the symptoms prolonged and may later diagnosed to have bronchitis. This study emphasizes the nursing interventions to be given to patients with such condition by following the appropriate procedures and orders and providing precise and proper nursing care will eventually leads to improve coping mechanism and restoration of health.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Medical-Surgical Nursing Prof. Josie Quiambao-Udan, RN, MAN Educational Publishing House 2002 2. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 10th Edition Tortora Grabonsk 2003

3. 3. Nurses Pocket Guide 9th Edition Marillyn E. Doengel F.A. Davis Company 2004 4. 4. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology 7th Edition Ellaine N. Marieb Pearson Education South Asia Ptl Ltd. Inc 2004 5. 5. Drug Hand Book 26th Edition Lippincott Williams and Wilkins 2006 6. www. Mayoclinic.com

7. http://www.healthline.com/adamcontent/bronchitis/2#complications 8. http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic288.htm#section~bibliography

Palawan State University College of Nursing & Health Sciences December 4, 2006

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements in RLE Clinical Exposure PediatricWard

A PATIENTS CASE STUDY

Acute Bronchitis

Submitted to:
Mrs. Marichelle delos Santos

Submitted by:
Anne Grace T. Garcia Bsn-iii blk.2

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ACUTE BRONCHITIS

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the part of the respiratory system that leads into the lungs. Acute bronchitis has a sudden onset and usually appears after a respiratory infection, such as a cold, and can be caused by either a virus or bacteria. The infection inflames the bronchial tubes, which causes symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, wheezing, and the production of thick yellow mucus. If acute bronchitis occurs because of a bacterial infection antibiotics are given for the treatment. Otherwise if the infection is viral medications can only be given to alleviate the symptoms.

Inflammation Release of either of the following Histamine, Bradykinin, prostaglandin, serotonin Increase capillary permeability Fliud /cellular exudation Bronchospasm Bronchoconstriction Edema of the mucous membrane Hypersecretion of mucus Narrowing of the arterial walls Increase work of breathing Dyspnea Diaphoresis Flaring of alae nasi Wheezing Slow shallow respiration Retention of CO2 (air trapping) Persistent cough and colds Acute Bronchitis SYMPTOMATOLOGY Lower throat pain Fever Chills Productive cough Muscle and back pain Rhonchi, wheezing and crackles on auscultation Dyspnea Use of accessory muscles Cyanosis Cough that produces mucus; if yellow-green in color, you are more likely to have a bacterial infection o Fatigue o Rhinorrhea or nasal congestion o o o o o o o o o o

USUAL CAUSE OF BRONCHITIS Bronchitis occurs most often during the cold and flu season, usually coupled with an upper respiratory infection.

Several viruses cause bronchitis, including influenza A and B, which we commonly call "the flu." A number of bacteria are known to cause bronchitis, such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which causes so-called walking pneumonia, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae, Bronchitis also can occur when you inhale irritating fumes or dusts. Chemical solvents and smoke, including tobacco smoke, have been linked to acute bronchitis. People at increased risk both of getting bronchitis and of having more severe symptoms include the elderly, those with weakened immune systems, smokers, and anyone with repeated exposure to lung irritants.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK OF AN INFANT

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development Stage of Development Stage 6: Inventions of new means Age Span 18 to 24 months Nursing Implication Interprets the environment by mental image. Uses make- believe and pretend play.

Freuds Stages of Development Psychosexual Stage Infant Characteristics Nursing Implication Controlling and expelling feces provide pleasure and sense of control. Toilet training should be a pleasurable experience.

Anal Stage: 1 to 3 yrs.old Anus and bladder are the sources of (sensual satisfaction, selfcontrol) Major conflict: Toilet training

Erikson Stages of Development Infant Developmental Task Is to form a sense of trust versus mistrust. Child learns to be loved and be loved. Nursing Implication Provide a primary care giver. Provide experiences that add to security, such as soft sounds and touch. Provide visual stimulation for active child involvement.

Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development Prereligious Stage Infant Nursing Implication Child needs help to determine what right actions are.

Infants have little concept of any motivating force beyond that of their parents. They learn that when they do certain actions parents give affection and approval. The development of trust is very important in moral development because infants who develop a sound sense of trust can better develop a

spiritual orientation in future years.

Havighursts Age Periods and Developmental Tasks Infancy and Early Childhood 1. Learning to walk. 2. Learning to take solid foods. 3. Learning to talk. 4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes. 5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty. 6. Achieving psychological stability. 7. Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality. 8. Learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings and other people. 9. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience.

NURSING HISTORY

INFORMATION DATA Name of Patient: Sex: Age Religion: Address: Birthday: J.U.E. Male 10 months Roman Catholic Abanico Rd., Zone 5 Brgy. San Pedro P.P.C. January 27, 2006

Parents Name: o Mother: o Father: N. U J.A.E N.U. Mother

Accompanied by: Relationship:

Complaints upon Admission: Fever and convulsion Admitting Physician: Dr.Javarez

Date/Time of AdmissionNovember 26, 2006/ 2:05 am

PERSONAL DATA AND SOCIAL HISTORY A. Family History The patients parents are both alive and apparently well. His father is a fisherman while her mother is a plain housewife. Both parents are high school undergraduates. The family has no other source of income. He is the 3rd child in the broad of 3 yet he is the only child who is alive. Two other siblings died after the caesarian operation. B. Living Conditions The family is living in a two room house made of light materials. There are 3 persons staying in the house including the parents and the patient.

C. NUTRITION The usual time of breakfast is 7:00am; he drinks milk at 11:30 and drinks milk at 6:00 pm which serve as lunch and supper.. The usual snack in between meals is biscuit. The usual amount of water intake per day is 1000 ml. Her mother gives him milk before he goes to bed or whenever necessary. He drinks formula milk with 3 scoops of Bona prepared in 8ml of luke warm water. The patient usually consume 3 tablespoon of rice every meal. He likes instant noodles and dislikes lugaw.

D. SLEEPING PATTERNS The patient normally sleeps around 5:00 in the afternoon and wakes up around 4:00 in the morning. The mother verbalized that her child prefers side-lying position when sleeping. She usually takes a nap at 12:00 pm.

E. ELIMINATION PATTERNS Frequency of bowel movement is 3 times a day and the usual time of defecation is around 8:00 am. Frequency of urination is 6 to 10 times a day and appears to be yellow amber. F. PHYSICAL HYGIENE The patient takes a bath twice daily and shampoos his hair. G. ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION Water source is from refilling stations and drinking water is stored in water jag. They have their own water sealed toilet. Plastic bags are used to dispose their garbage which is regularly collected by the city garbage collector. MEDICAL HISTORY * All family members have no previous accidents and operations. There is no heredofamilial disease noted in the maternal side while in the paternal side is goiter. There are no communicable diseases noted in the family. . Past Health History A. Birth History: Pre-natal- Patient was born to a G3 P0, 27 year old mother with regular check up in the Abanico health center with complete Tetanus Toxoid. Negated occurrence of any illness during the entire course of pregnancy. Mother is a non-smoker and nonalcohol drinker.

B. Natal and Neo-natal- Patient was delivered full term through caesarean section with spontaneous cry and vigorous activity, attended by a physician in the Ospital ng Palawan. Aseptic cord care was done and vital signs were taken and recorded. Meconium and first urine was noted during the first 24 hours of life. No jaundice, pallor and cyanosis noted during neonatal period. C. Feeding History: Patient was given formula milk during the first hours of life and seldom breastfeeds until 3 months. At 4 months, exclusive formula milk. At 9 months, cerelac was given. Negated any food allergies as well as food dislikes.

D. Growth and Development: a. 4 months old- social smile b. 9months- crawled on bed - able to sit - crawl Occasionally inflicted with cough, colds and fever, paracetamol and non-pharmacologic interventions such as bed rest and massage offered relief. Patient has no history of accidents, injuries and operation. Patient has no allergy to foods and drugs. Immunizations were complete Present Health History: Condition started a day PTA, with fever, pale appearance, colds and with unproductive cough. At 7:00 in the evening the patient convulsion, cooling measure, the ice pack relief the patient. At 1:45 am recurrence of the above symptoms prompted them to seek medical help, hence admitted.

Physical Examination General survey Temp. 36.9 HR 136 BPM RR 38 CPM Skin The patient has a fair complexion and good skin turgor after pinching. Upon inspection the skin appears non-cyanotic, no jaundice, with rashes in the antecubital portion of the arms and popliteal parts of the legs both right and left and no lesions noted. Hair He has a short, black and straight hair which is evenly distributed across the scalp. Hair texture is smooth and silky. Scalp is free from flakes with no signs of nits and lice noted. Nail Short, clean and negative pallor are observed in the nails with good capillary refill. Head The patients head and face are symmetrical. No lesions, masses, tenderness and swelling noted after palpation. Eyes Eyes are oval shape and symmetrical with pink palpebral conjunctiva. No scaling, erythema and discharges noted. Sclerae is white and clear and the iris is slightly brown. Ears Has minimal cerumen and symmetrical in shape and size. No presence of lesions, masses and tenderness. With good hearing on both ears. Nose The nose is patent with discharge and septum is at the midline. No tenderness of sinuses noted. Mouth and throat The lips is moist, pale without masses or ulcerations observed. Tongue is at the midline covered with papillae, symmetrical in size and shape without lesions. Tonsils are not enlarged which implies no inflammation. Neck The trachea is at the midline and the thyroid is not enlarged after palpation. All areas of neck was inspected for masses and unusual swelling, no masses and swelling noted. cervical nodes are not palpable. Chest and Lungs

The posterior thorax is symmetrical and no bulges or retractions during respiration. No masses or tenderness noted and the chest movement is symmetrical. Stridor and wheezing sound was heard. Heart Lud dub sounds are heard with heart rate of 136 BPM. Abdomen General contour of the abdomen was observed, the patient has slightly distended abdomen because of flatulence. No scars and skin rashes seen and no masses noted. With an active bowel sounds of 25 per minute. Back and Spine - Spine is at midline, no masses, bulging and abnormal deviations noted. Urinary Negative hematuria, incontinence, dribbling and burning sensation during voiding. Genital Not seen, patient was wearing a diaper. The mother verbalized that patient has no rashes or any features of deviation from normal. Anal No presence of scars and sores in the anal region as verbalized by the mother. Extremities The extremities are symmetrical without gross deformities.

Discharge Plan
Name of Patient: J.U.E Age: 10 months old Date/Time of Admission: November 26, 2006/2:05 am Attending Physician: Dra. Javarez Medical Management upon Admission 1. v/s taken and recorded the client is A. Medications Ampicillin; 250 mg. q6 hours IV Rationale To determine if medically stable. Treatment of infections due to susceptible organisms, e.g. respiratory tract infection, UTI, gonorrhea, enteric infection, meningitis and septicemia. Symptomatic relief of fever associated with common childhood infections, relief of minor pains. Treatment of acute bronchitis, bronchiectasis

Opigesic; Supp .125 mg.

Cefixime;Oral drops 2.5 ml q3 hours

with infection, secondary infections of chronic resp tract diseases and pneumonia. D5.3Nacl; 50 ugtts/min. Paracetamol; q 4 hours To maintain fluid balance and electrolytes. Symptomatic relief of pain and fever..

Relief of headache, toothache, myaglias Analgesic and antipyretic for patients hypersensitivity to aspirin. B. Instructed mother to do TSB whenever temperature is elevated.

To control sudden elevation of temperature which may trigger convulsion

Home Health Teaching Medications:. 1. Advise to take vitamins which do not have resistance against adverse reactions. To increase infection.

2. Instructed mother to give the complete prescribed To determine the effectiveness of the course of antibiotics. prescribed drug.

Exercise/ Activities: 1. Encouraged breathing exercise lung expansion and To promote clearing. To strengthen

2. Instructed mother to walked with the child the childs muscles and with both arms are being hold. to prevent circulatory stasis.

Treatment: 1. Have enough sleep and rest. To hasten recovery and to promote growth . 2. Instructed mother to keep the patient away from Tobacco smoke may trigger difficulty of exposure to secondhand smoke and other lung irritants. breathing.

3. Provide a well ventilated environment. To promote good breathing process thus helps relieve coughs and loosens mucus in the airways. 4. Health teaching on the increase fluid intake. To maintain hydration of the client and for mobilization of the retained secretions out of the bronchi. 5. Emphasize that medical check up is necessary. To monitor the changes in the childs health. 6. Position patient in semi-fowlers. Client in this position allows the gravity to pull the diaphragm downward, permitting chest expansion and lung ventilation.

7. Accentuated the need to maintain cleanliness To avoid indoor pollutants such as dust of the home environment. and other allergens from pets. 8. Do not incinerate garbage in the house and This may irritate the linings of the eliminate or reduce the use of household pesticides respiratory tract starting from the nares and irritating chemical substances. which can precipitate to obstructed airway. 10. Do not take cough medications in excessive Because of adverse side effects. amounts. When a cough medicine does not act as expected, consult your physician. 11. Encourage mother to avoid the child contact cross- infection. with people with upper respiratory infections. To prevent

Hygiene:

1. Take a bath daily sense of well-being.

To promote

2. Instruct other members of the family To prevent cross- infection. to wash hands before touching the infant.

Spiritual: 1. Pray to God to bestow your family with good healthTo be strong spiritually and and be safe always. Thank Jesus for the blessings to immense faith to God. you received and about to receive.`

Diet/ Nutrition: 1. Limit the milk intake from 8ml to 4ml cause rapid weight depending on child is obese. 2. Increase water intake. temperature prevent dehydration 3. Encourage mother to give nutritious foods. facilitate a fast recovery. 4. When introducing a new food, give it one at a To identify if there is an allergic time and in a small frequent feeding. response. 5. Encourage mother to administer vitamin supplement (vit. C) To increase bodys resistance against infection. To promote growth and development and To regulate body and fluid balance and Formula milk may increase of the contents since the

REVIEW OF SYSTEM
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general, overlapping functions: o Sensory o Integrative o Motor Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain. There the signals are brought together to create sensations, to produce thoughts, or to add to memory; Decisions are made each moment based on the sensory input. This is integration. Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system responds by sending signals to muscles, causing them to contract, or to glands, causing them to produce secretions.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Nervous System Respiratory system provides oxygen needed for normal neural activity; disposes of carbon dioxide. Medullary and pons centers regulate respiratory rate/depth; stretch receptors in lungs and chemoreceptors in large arteries provide feedback.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the blood-vascular or simply the circulatory system. It consists of : a. the heart- which is a muscular pumping organ, and b. a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.

The heart is the pump responsible for maintaining adequate circulation of oxygenated blood around the vascular network of the body. It is a four-chamber pump, with the right side receiving deoxygenated blood from the body at low presure and pumping it to the lungs (the pulmonary circulation) and the left side receiving oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumping it at high pressure around the body (the systemic circulation).

The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the continuous and controlled movement of blood through the thousands of miles of capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body. Nutrients and other essential materials pass from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as waste products are removed.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Circulatory System: Respiratory system provides oxygen; disposes of carbon dioxide; carbon dioxide present in blood as HCO3 and H2CO3 contributes to blood buffering. Blood transports respiratory gases. The respiratory system carries out gas exchange; loads oxygen and unloads carbon dioxide From the blood; respiratory pump aids venous return. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body activities. The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The effect is of short duration, measured in seconds, and localized. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called hormones that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the endocrine system is measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the action of the nervous system.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Endocrine System: Respiratory system provides oxygen; disposes of carbon dioxide; converting enzyme in lungs converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II Epinephrine influences ventilation (dilates the bronchioles); testosterone promotes laryngeal enlargement in pubertal males.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

] The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. Food is broken down, bit by bit, until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed and the waste products are eliminated.

The digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs that have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract. Digestive system provides nutrients for energy metabolism, growth and repair.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the digestive System: Respiratory system provides oxygen; disposes of carbon dioxide produced by digestive organs. Digestive system provides nutrients needed by respiratory system.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Humans need a continuous supply of oxygen for cellular respiration, and they must get rid of excess carbon dioxide, the poisonous waste product of this process. Gas exchange supports the supports this cellular respiration by constantly supplying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen and to remove the waste products of metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system has three primary functions. 1. It returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood. Of the fluid that leaves the capillary, about 90 percent is returned. The 10 percent that does not return becomes part of the interstitial fluid that surrounds the tissue cells. The second function of the lymphatic system is the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and the subsequent transport of these substances to the venous circulation. The mucosa that lines the small intestine is covered with fingerlike projections called villi. There are blood capillaries and special lymph capillaries, called lacteals, in the center of each villus. The blood capillaries absorb most nutrients, but the fats and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by the lacteals. The lymph in the lacteals has a milky appearance due to its high fat content and is called chyle. 3. The defense against invading microorganisms and disease. Lymph nodes and other lymphatic organs filter the lymph to remove microorganisms and other foreign particles. Lymphatic organs contain lymphocytes that destroy invading organisms.

2.

Function of the Respiratory System with relation to the Lymphatic system: The lungs provide oxygen needed by lymphoid/immune cells and eliminate carbon dioxide; the pharynx houses some lymphoid organs (tonsils); the respiratory pump aids lymph flow. Lymphatic system helps to maintain blood volume required for respiratory gas transport; immune system protects respiratory organs from bacteria, bacterial toxins, viruses, and cancer.

 The lymphatic vessels pick up leaked fluid and proteins from respiratory organs; immune cells protect respiratory organs from specific pathogens; lymphocytes populate the tonsils; plasma cells in the respiratory mucosa secrete IgA to prevent pathogen invasion of deeper tissues., THE URINARY SYSTEM

The renal artery brings blood from the heart to the kidneys. A rich bed of tiny arteries--capillaries--filters that blood. As blood runs through the capillaries, waste products get separated out, then flushed out in your urine. The cleanedup blood flows out of the kidneys through the renal vein and back to the heart.

The urinary system arranges your body's garbage disposal, flushing out waste through the medium of urine, which it produces and excretes. To take care of processing, the kidneys filter foreign matter out of the blood, and ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder keeps the urine in temporary storage until you are ready to pass it along via the canal called the urethra

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Urinary System: Respiratory system provides oxygen required by kidney cells; disposes of carbon dioxide; cells in the lungs convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Kidneys dispose of metabolic wastes of respiratory system organs (other than carbon dioxide). Kidneys dispose of nitrogenous wastes; maintain fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance of blood. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system, formed by the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands, enwraps the body. It is the most visible organ system and one of the most complexes. Diverse in both form and functionfrom delicate eyelashes to the thick skin of the soles. The integumentary system protects the body from the outside world and its many harmful substances. It utilizes the Sun's rays while at the same time shielding the body from their damaging effects. It helps to regulate body temperature, serves as a minor excretory organ, and makes the inner body aware of its outer environment through sensory receptors.

It is absolutely essential to life. It protects, nourishes, insulates, and cushions. Without it, an individual would be attacked immediately by bacteria and die from heat and water loss.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Urinary System: Respiratory system furnishes oxygen to skin cells and removes carbon dioxide via gas exchange With blood. Skin protects respiratory system organs by forming surface barriers.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Bones provide a rigid frame work, known as the skeleton, that support and protect the soft organs of the body. Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to produce body movement.

Bones contain more calcium than any other organ. The intercellular matrix of bone contains large amounts of calcium salts, the most important being calcium phosphate.. Hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells, mostly takes place in the red marrow of the bones.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to skeletal system Respiratory system provides oxygen; disposes of carbon dioxide. Bones enclose and protect lungs and bronchi.

.THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, where attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the Skeletal System: Respiratory system provides oxygen needed for muscle activity; disposes of carbon dioxide. Activity of the diaphragm and intercostals muscles produce volume changes necessary for breathing; regular exercise increases respiratory efficiency. Muscular exercise increases respiratory capacity

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:
o o o o

To To To To

produce egg and sperm cells. transport and sustain these cells. nurture the developing offspring. produce hormones.

Function of the Respiratory System in relation to the reproductive organ Respiratory system provides oxygen; disposes of carbon dioxide.

Anatomy & Physiology of the Respiratory System The respiratory system is situated in the thorax, and is responsible for gaseous exchange between the circulatory system and the outside world. Air is taken in via the upper airways (the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx) through the lower airways (trachea, primary bronchi and bronchial tree) and into the small bronchioles and alveoli within the lung tissue. The lungs are divided into lobes; the left lung is composed of the upper lobe, the lower lobe and the lingula (a small remnant next to the apex of the heart), the right lung is composed of the upper, the middle and the lower lobes.

The Human Respiratory System

The Nose - Usually air will enter the respiratory system through the nostrils. The nostrils then lead to open spaces in the nose called the nasal passages. The nasal passages serve as a moistener, a filter, and to warm up the air before it reaches the lungs. The hair existing within the nostrils prevents various foreign particles from entering. Different air passageways and the nasal passages are covered with a mucous membrane. Many of the cells which produce the cells that make up the membrane contain cilia. Others secrete a type a sticky fluid called mucus. The mucus and cilia collect dust, bacteria, and other particles in the air. The mucus also helps in moistening the air. Under the mucous membrane there are a large number of capillaries. The blood within these capillaries helps to warm the air as it passes through the nose. The nose serves three purposes. It warms, filters, and moistens the air before it reaches the lungs. You will obviously lose these special advantages if you breathe through your mouth. Pharynx and Larynx - Air travels from the nasal passages to the pharynx, or more commonly known as the throat. When the air leaves the pharynx it passes into the larynx, or the voice box. The voice box is constructed mainly of cartilage, which is a flexible connective tissue. The vocal chords are two pairs of membranes that are stretched across the inside of the larynx. As the air is expired, the vocal chords vibrate. Humans can control the vibrations of the vocal chords, which enables us to make sounds. Food and liquids are blocked from entering the opening of the larynx by the epiglottis to prevent people from choking during swallowing. Trachea - The larynx goes directly into the trachea or the windpipe. The trachea is a tube approximately 12 centimeters in length and 2.5 centimeters wide. The trachea is kept open by rings of cartilage within its walls. Similar to the nasal passages, the trachea is covered with a ciliated mucous membrane. Usually the cilia move mucus and trapped foreign matter to the pharynx. Bronchi - Around the center of the chest, the trachea divides into two cartilage-ringed tubes called bronchi. Also, this section of the respiratory system is lined with ciliated cells. The bronchi enter the lungs and spread into a treelike fashion into smaller tubes called bronchial tubes. Bronchioles - The bronchial tubes divide and then subdivide. By doing this their walls become thinner and have less and less cartilage. Eventually, they become a tiny group of tubes called bronchioles. Alveoli - Each bronchiole ends in a tiny air chamber that looks like a bunch of grapes. Each chamber contains many cup-shaped cavities known as alveoli. The walls of the alveoli, which are only about one cell thick, are the respiratory surface. They are thin, moist, and are surrounded by several numbers of capillaries. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air occurs through these walls. The estimation is that lungs contain about 300 million alveoli. Their total surface area would be about 70 square meters. That is 40 times the surface area of the skin. Smoking makes it difficult for oxygen to be taken through the alveoli. When the cigarette smoke is inhaled, about one-third of the particles will remain within the alveoli. There are too many particles from smoking or from other sources of air pollution which can damage the walls in the alveoli. This causes a certain tissue to form. This tissue reduces the working area of the respiratory surface and leads to the disease called emphysema.

Mechanics of Breathing Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells. Every 3 to 5 seconds, nerve impulses stimulate the breathing process, or ventilation, which moves air through a series of passages into and out of the lungs. After this, there is an exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood. This is called external respiration. The blood transports the gases to and from the tissue cells. The exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells is internal respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the oxygen for their specific activities. This is cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together these activities constitute respiration.

To take a breath in, the external intercostal muscles contract, moving the ribcage up and out. The diaphragm moves down at the same time, creating negative pressure within the thorax. The lungs are held to the thoracic wall by the pleural membranes, and so expand outwards as well. This creates negative pressure within the lungs, and so air rushes in through the upper and lower airways. Expiration is mainly due to the natural elasticity of the lungs, which tend to collapse if they are not held against the thoracic wall. This is the mechanism behind lung collapse if there is air in the pleural space (pneumothorax).