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LITERATURE SURVEY
Each node of the sensor network consists of three subsystems, the sensor sub-
system which senses the environment, the processing subsystem which performs local
computations on the sensed data, and the communication subsystem which is
responsible for message exchange with neighboring sensor nodes. While individual
sensors have limited sensing region, processing power, and energy, networking a large
number of sensors gives rise to a robust, reliable, and accurate sensor network covering
a wider region.
The nodes cooperate and collaborate on their data, which leads to accurate
sensing of events in the environment. The most important operation in a sensor
network are data dissemination, that is, the propagation of data/queries throughout the
network, and data gathering, that is, the collection of observed data from individual
sensor nodes to a sink.
Data dissemination is the process by which queries or data are routed in the
sensor network using directed diffusion protocol. The data collected by the sensor
nodes has to be communicated to any other node interested in the data.
Traffic models have been developed for sensor networks such as data collection
and data dissemination models. In the data collection model, the source sends the data
it collects to a collection entity. This could be periodic or on demand. The data is
processed in the central collection entity.
2.1.1 Flooding
• Implosion: this is the situation when duplicate messages are sent to the same
node. This occurs when a node receives copies of the same message from many
of its neighbors.
• Overlap: The same event may be sensed by more than one node due to
overlapping regions of coverage. This results in their neighbors receiving
duplicate reports of the same event.
• Resource blindness: The flooding protocol does not consider the available
energy at the nodes and results in many redundant transmissions. Hence it
reduces network lifetime
2.1.2 Gossiping
Rumor routing is an agent-based path creation algorithm [6]. Agents are long
lived entities created at random by nodes. These are basically packets which are
circulated in the network to establish shortest paths to events that they encounter. They
can also perform path optimizations at the nodes that they visit. When an agent finds a
node whose path to an event is longer than its own, it updates the nodes routing table.
When the agent visits a node, it updates its own path state information to include the
path to an event.
When a query is generated at a sink, it is sent on a random walk with the hope
that it will find a path leading to the required event. This is based on the high
probability of two straight lines intersecting on a planar graph, assuming the network
topology is like a planar graph, and the paths established can be approximated by
straight lines owing to high density of the nodes. If a query does not find an event path,
the sink times out and use flooding as a last resort to propagate the query.
2.1.4 Sequential Assignment Routing
The sequential assignment routing algorithm creates multiple trees, where the
root of each tree is a one-hop neighbor of the sink. Each tree grows outward from the
sink and avoids nodes with low throughput or high delay. At the end of the procedure,
most nodes belong to multiple trees. Each sensor node records two parameters about
each path through it, the available energy resources on the path and an additive Qos
metric such as delay. This allows a node to choose one path from among many to
relay its message to the sink.
Two phase pull diffusion algorithm includes two phases. The initial flooding of
the interest, together with the flooding of the exploratory data, constitutes the first
phase. The path reinforcement, and the subsequent transmission of data along
reinforced paths, constitutes the second phase.
Push diffusion algorithm is similar to that of two phase pull, where the roles of
sources and sink are reversed. The source will send an exploratory data, after path
reinforcement is set and data is sent.
One phase pull diffusion algorithm avoids one of the two phases of flooding
present in two phase pull. Here interest is disseminated through the network and the
data is sent.
The above algorithms are used in routing the data in sensor networks. For
reliable data delivery to the sink, we are in need of transport layer protocols.
The transport layer protocols for wireless sensor networks should support
reliable message delivery, efficient energy usage, congestion control. The need for
reliable message delivery and congestion control suggest that WSNs should have a
transport layer, just as 802.3 and 802.11 networks need a transport layer. However,
WSNs add a new constraint—energy efficiency. To prolong the lifetime of a WSN, an
ideal transport layer needs to support reliable message delivery and provide congestion
control in the most energy efficient manner possible.
2.2.1 Tcp/Ip
TCP/IP has been used successfully in wired 802.3 and wireless 802.11
networks and has been discussed as a possible transport layer for WSN [14]. Certain
attributes, such as IP addressing for individual nodes, unnecessary header overhead for
data segments, no support for data centric routing, a heavyweight protocol stack, and
an end-to-end reliability scheme that attributes segment losses network congestion, of
TCP/IP; however, they make it unsuitable for use in WSNs.
TCP/IP may not be suitable for standard sensor nodes in a WSN, but may still
be used at the sink to communicate with other remote endpoints. Sensor nodes with
high robustness, such may use TCP/IP as a virtual sink or proxy between the WSN and
the remote host to reduce the number of retransmissions of a data segment by less
powerful sensor nodes.
Pump Slowly Fetch Quickly (PSFQ) [7] is a transport layer protocol, designed
specifically to meet the unique resource challenges presented by WSNs. Here the data
is pumped slowly from a root node into the network. Sensor nodes that experience loss
can recover data segments by fetching them quickly from their immediate neighbors
on a hop-by-hop basis. To reduce signal overhead, nodes signal the loss of segments
using negative acknowledgement, rather than acknowledging each received packet.
PSFQ is based on the assumption that a WSN will generate light traffic most
of the time; thus, it is designed to avoid loss due to instability of the wireless medium,
rather than loss due to network congestion. As such, it does not offer any active
congestion control scheme. PSFQ is designed for tasks that require reliable delivery of
all message segments. Its focus is on the transport of binary images, such as new
sensor control programs used for sensor retasking in the field. Since PSFQ expects low
network traffic and does not provide any active congestion control scheme it may not
be efficient for reliable transport of data.
2.2.2.1 Loss Detection/Recovery
RMST is a reliable transport layer for WSNs. RMST is meant to operate on top
of the gradient mechanism used in directed diffusion. RMST adds two important
features to directed diffusion
1. Fragmentation and reassembly of segments, and
2. Reliable message delivery.
RMST will be the more energy efficient protocol compared to that of PSFQ,
since it can handle out-of-order delivery of segments and has the ability to signal
several missing segments with one NACK.