ATOM In 1808, an English School teacher john Dalton says that law of conservation of matter and law of definite

proportion explained by the existence of atom. Atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction and has no charge over it. He & Ne have atoms, which have independent existence. H, N, oxygen do not exist independently Atom is further composed of sub atomic particles like electron, proton, neutron, neutrino, anti neoteric etc. More than 100 particles are thought to exist in an atom. Electron, proton and neutron are fundamental particle. A Swedish chemist J-Berzelius (1779-1848) determined the atomic masses of elements. Berzelius also developed the system of giving element a symbol. Wave light of electron is shorter than that of visible light,. 20th century X ray shown that the diameter of atom is 0.2nm (2 x 1010m) Mass of atoms ranges from 1027 to 1025 kg 1 a.m.u =1.661x1027kg = 1.66 x 1024g A full stop may have two millions atoms present in it.

MOLECULES A molecule is the smallest particle of a pure substance which can exist independently. The number of atoms present in a molecule determines its atomicity. Molecules of elements may contain two or more same type of atoms e-g He, Cl2, O2, P4, S8 Molecules of compounds consist of different kinds of atoms e-g HCl 2 NH3 H2SO4 C6 H12 O6. Ions are those species which carry either positive or negative charge. Positive ions are called cation, need sufficient amount of energy to be ionize (endothermic) Negative ions are called anion, energy is released by forming by loss of electron. The number of charges present on an ion depends upon the number of electrons lost by the atom. Molecule may lose or gain an electron to form a molecular ion, e.g CH3+, N2+. Cationic molecular ions are more abundant than anionic ones. These ion can be generated by passing high energy electron bean as xparticle or x-rays through a gas. Relative Atanic mass is the mass of an atoms of an element as compared to the mass of an atom of carbon taken as 12. (a.m.u) atomic mass unit is used for atomic mass. Unit and it is 1/12 th of the mass of carbon atom.

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 The relative atomic mass of Hydrogen is 1.008 a.m.u . Atoms of the same element can possess different masses but same atomic numbers such atoms of an element are called isotopes. The isotopes of element possess same chemical properties and same position in the periodic table. This phenomenon is discovered by soddy. Isotopes have same proton but different neutron. Carbon has three isotopes C12, C13, C14. Hydrogen has three isotopes H1 (protein) H2 (Detrain H3 (Tritin). Oxygen has cadmiums nine and tin has eleven. The relative abundance of the isotopes of elements can be determined by mass spectrometry. 280 isotopes occur in nature. 40 radioactive isotopes. 300 unstable radioactive isotopes. Produced through artificial disintegration. Those which has single isotopes are called mono isotopic elements e.g Arrenic, fluorine, Iodine, and gold. Elements of odd atomic number never possess more than two stable isotopes. Elements of even atomic number have larger isotopes. Out of 280 isotopes 154 have even mass and even atomic number. MASS SPECTROMETRY It is an instrument which is used to measure the exact masses of different isotopes of element. Aston's mass spectrograph is used to identify the isotopes of element on the basses of atoms mass. Dempster's mass spectrometer is used to identify the elements which are in solid state. The substance which is analysed is converted into the vapour state (pressure is 10-6 to 10-7 1022) m/e = H2 r2 / 2E. H= Strength of magnetic field r=is the radius of circular path E= is the strength of electric field. Combustion Analysis is used to determine empirical formula of organic compound which consist of carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen. Weighed sample of organic compound is reacted with oxygen to produce CO2 & H2O in combustion tube. H2O absorbs by Mg (ClO4)2 CO2 absorbs by 50% KOH CHEMISTRY: Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with study of composition, changes in matter and properties of matter. OR It also deals with the chemical change involve in the matter and principles governing these changes. BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY:

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The main branches of chemistry are: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the laws and principles governing the combination of atom and molecules in chemical reaction. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon and hydrogen containing compounds except CO2, CO metal, carbonate, bicarbonate and carbide.OR It is the study of hydrocarbons (carbon and hydrogen) containing compound. INORGANIC CHEMNISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of element and their compound generally obtained from non living organism i-e minerals. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the methods and techniques involve in the kind quality and quantity of various components in a given substances. BIO CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the compound of living organism i-e plant and animal and their metabolism in the living body. INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of different chemical industries for the manufacture of synthetic products like glass, cement, paper, fertilizer etc. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of changes occurring in the nuclei atoms. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the interaction of chemical materials and their effect on the environment of plants and animals. POLYMERIC CHEMISTRY: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of polymerization and the product is obtained through the process of polymerization. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Definition: The method which helps to collect facts on the basis of observation and experiment is called scientific method. Steps: The scientific method includes the following steps. OBESERVATION: Definition: The process of observing natural phenomenon with the help of five senses and the scientific equipment is called observation. Explanation: Observation is a basic tool to go forth to elaborating a phenomenon but it may vary (change) from person to person accordingly to own skill of elaboration. Means of Observation: Five senses of man. Equipment (microscope, thermometer, sensitive, chemical balance etc) HYPOTHESIS:

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The explanation of observation and fact is called hypothesis. When phenomenon is observed a scientist ponders over it and carried out relevant experiments. He sieves through data and arrives at a possible explanation. The explanation which is only a trial idea is called hypothesis. THEORY: Definition: It hypothesis is accepted it is called theory. Explanation: When the hypothesis is support by a large amount of different types of observation and experiments then it becomes a theory. Examples: Dalton atomic theory, Bohr atomic theory etc. SCIENTIFIC LAW: Definition: A theory which is tested again and again and found to fit the fact and from which a valid prediction may be made is known as scientific law. Explanation: Not all hypothesis and theories pass successfully to become scientific laws some may sound very convincing and be supported by mathematical calculation but very difficult to prove experimentally such as Avagadro's hypothesis. THE GREEK PERIOD: Greek Philosopher: following philosopher contributed a lot to the early development of chemistry. Plato (347 - 428 BC) Aristotle (322 384 BC) Democritus (357 460 BC) Concept: "The introduced the concept of elements, atoms, and the chemical reactions. They thought that all matter was derived form four element." 1. Earth: - Earth was dry and cold. Fire: - Fire was hot and dry. Water: Water was cold, hot and wet. THE ROMAN PERIOD: They developed the chemical arts. They improved metallurgical process and introduced the enameling of pottery. There works were all empirical (experimental). THE MUSLIM PERIOD: The Muslim period was from 600 to 1600 A.D in the history of chemistry. It is known as period of "Al Chemist". In the foeld of chemistry Muslim made such contribution and introduced scientific method and experimentation. Discovery of Laboratory Equipment: Al chemist developed and used many laboratory equipment such as: Funnel Beaker, crucible for melting and fusion. , Balance for weighing. They discovered various acids, alcohol and medicine. THE MODERN PERIOD: Robert Boyle is the father of chemistry. Robert Boyle formulated the Boyle's law. J Black (1728 - 1799) made a study of carbon dioxide. J Priestly (1733 - 1804) discovered oxygen O2 sulphur dioxide SO2 and hydrochloride HCl. Scheele (1743 - 1786) discovered chlorine.

2. 3. 4.

Air: -

Air was cold, wet and hot.

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 Covendish (1731 - 1810) discovered hydrogen. John Dalton gave the atomic theory of matter. This theory is known as Dalton's atomic theory. This idea of atomic weight was also given by John Dalton. Gay Wssac (1778 - 1850) Avogadro's (1776 - 1856) Dulang (1785 - 1838) Petit (1741 - 1820) JJ Berzellius (1779 - 1848) introduced the idea of symbol, formulae and chemical equation. Mendeleeve (1824 - 1907) discovered the periodic arrangements of the element. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: The SI system is a decimal system of units for measurements of mass, length, time and other physical quantities. It is based on a set of base units and uses factors 10 to express larger or smaller number of these units. Quantities Greater Than One Prefix deka hector kilo mega Symbol Da h k M Numerical value 10 = 102 100 = 102 1,000 = 103 1,000,000 = 106 Quantity Ten Hundred Thousand Million

QUANTITIES LESSER THAN ONE Prefix deci Symbol d Numerical value 1 0.1 or = 101 1 0 0.1 or
1 = 102 100 1 1000

Quantity One tenth

centi

One hundredth

milli

0.1 or

= 101

One thousandth

micro

0.1 or

1 1,0 0 ,0 0 0 0

= 101

One millionth

SI BASE UNITS: The SI units are based upon seven physical quantities and their units are considered as the base units. International system Base units of Measurement

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Quantity Name of unit Symbol Length Metre m Mass Kilogram kg Temperature Kelvin k Time Second sec Amount of substance Mole mol Electric current Ampere A Light intensity Candela cd QUANTITIES: LENGTH: The distance between two points is called length. The standard unit of length in the SI is the metre. A metre is 39.37 inches, a little longer than a yard (36 inches). UNITS OF LENGTH Unit Symbols Metre equivalent Exponential Equivalent Kilometer km 1000 m 103 m Metre m 1m 10o m Decimeter dm 0.1 m 101 m Centimeter cm 0.01 m 102 m Millimeter mm 0.001 m 103 m Micrometer m 0.000001 m 106 m MASS: The quantity of matter contained in a body is called its mass. Kilogram is the unit of mass. The kilogram standard of mass is a cylinder made up of platinum and iridium metal kept at Sevres near Paris under the control of international bureau of weights and measures. UNIT OF MASS Unit Symbol Gram Exponential Equivalent Kilogram Kg 1000 g 103 g Gram g 1g 10o g Decigram dg 0.1 g 101 g Centigram cg 0.01 g 102 g Milligram mg 0.001 g 103 g Microgram g 0.000001 g 10-6 g TIME: Time is the interval between two occurrences. The standard for measurement of time is dependent on the speed of rotation of the earth. The average time the earth makes to make exactly one rotation on its axis is defined as a solar day and this is the standard of time. There are 86,400 seconds in one solar day. One minute = 60 seconds One hour = 60 minutes

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One solar day = 24 hours One year = 365 solar days TEMPERATURE: Measures of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature. There are three measuring scale of temperature. FAHRENHEIT SCALE In this scale melting point and boiling point of water at 1 atm is 32oF and 212oF respectively. It is denoted by oF. CENTIGRADE SCALE OR CELCIUS SCALE In this scale freezing point and boiling point of water at 1 atm is 0OC and 100OC respectively. It is denoted by OC KELVIN SCALE This scale is based upon absolute temperature. The absolute temperature is 273.16OC. In Kelvin scale freezing and boiling point of water is 273 and 373 K respectively denoted by K. The temperature at which sodium chloride melts is 800oC. What is the temperature on the Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales? K F F O F
O O

VOLUME: The SI unit for volume is cubic metre (m3). Smaller units are cubic decimeter (dm3). One dm is only one 10th of m. A dm3 is also called a liter and denoted by letter I. It is defined as the volume occupied by one kilogram of pure water at 4OC (39.20F) Since 1dm = 101m 1 dm3 = 103m3 1 m3 1dm3 = 1000 Similarly 1 cm = 102m 1cm3 = 106m3 1dm3= 1 litre 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 1 cm3 = 1 milli litre 1 litre = 1000 milli litre. LITRE:

= = = = = =

C + 800OC + O (1.8 x C) + O (1.8 x 800 C) + 1440 + 32 800 OC =

O

273 273 32 32 1073K

= 1073 K

= 1472 OF = 1472 OF

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One litre is equal to one thousandth of a cubic metre. The litre can also be defined as the volume occupied by one kilogram of water at 4OC. litre is not strictly an international unit of volume, however, it is used for measure the volumes of liquids and gases. Decimeter cube and centimeter cube are related to litre and milliliter as follows: 1dm3 = 1L 3 1000 cm = 1000 ml 1cm3 = 1 ml MATTER: Matter is the stuff of which the universe is made. Any substance which possesses mass and occupies space is called matter. ELEMENTS: An element is defined as a substance in which all the atoms are chemically indentical having same atomic number. For example, iron, silver, gold copper, oxygen, hydrogen, etc. The percentage of common elements in the earth crust is as follows: Oxygen 50% Calcium 3% Silicon 26% Sodium 2.5% Aluminium 7% Potassium 2.5% Iron 4% Magnesium 2% Other elements 3% At present 92 elements are found in nature and another 26 have been artificially prepared in laboratory. There are two main classes of elements: (i) Metals (ii) Non Metals METALS: These are the elements which have a luster (shine), like gold and silver. They reflect heat and light. They are good conductors of heat and electricity. Some are ductile and can be drawn into wires. Some are malleable and can form thin sheets. Iron, copper, silver, aluminium, tin and lead etc., are typical examples of metals. NON METALS: These elements are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They cannot be drawn into wires or sheets because they are brittle. Sulphur, carbon phosphorus and iodine are non metals and are solid at room temperature. Bromine is the only liquid non-metal. Some other non metals are gases such as oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen and nitrogen. COMPOUNDS: Compounds are pure substances which consist of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion by mass. Compounds have definite proportion. When two or more elements react chemically, they lose their respective properties and form a compound. For example, zinc is a grey metallic solid and sulphur, a yellow solid at room temperature. When they are heated together, a white solid ZnS is formed. MIXTURE:

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A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more pure substances, not chemically combined with each other brass (an ally of copper and zinc) soil, air, etc. Mixtures are different from compounds. Types of Mixture: Mixture is of two types: (i) Heterogeneous Mixture: The mixtures which do not have uniform composition throughout their mass, are called heterogeneous mixtures. They have visible boundries of separation between the substances e.g., rocks, soil, food products, ice cream etc. (ii) Homogeneous Mixture Mixtures have uniform composition are called homogeneous mixtures. These are also known as solutions, e.g., salt and water, sugar and water, air etc., are examples of homogeneous mixtures. Mixture Compound 1. It is an impure substance 1. it is a pure substance 2. It can be separated into its components by simple physical methods. 3. Substances making up the mixture do not lose their original properties. 4. Its composition is not fixed 5. The melting points and boiling points of a mixture are not sharp. 2. It cannot be separated by physical method. 3. Elements forming compounds lose their original properties. 4. Its composition is fixed. 5. The melting points and boiling points of compounds are sharp and characteristic of each compound.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: In 1985 a French chemist Antoine Lavioser put forward a law which is known as law of conservation. "During the chemical reaction mass neither be created nor be destroyed but its can change its form" "In a chemical reaction initial mass of reactant substance is equal to the final mass of product" This law can be explained with the help of examples. Water is formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen. 2H2 + O2 2H2O If we weight the mass of hydrogen and oxygen before the chemical reaction and weight the mass of water after chemical reaction. The masses of reactant and product always equal. Iron rust in the air. 4Fe + 3O2 1Fe2 O3 It is noticed that the weight of iron has increased but rust (Fe2O3) is equal to the weight of iron and oxygen.

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LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION OR LAW OF DIFINIFITE PROPORTION: Lious Proust in 1799 proposed the law of constant composition. "A compound always contain the same element in the same proportion by mass" "When different elements combine to gives a pure compound. The radio between the masses of these elements will always remain the same" Every example of pure water though prepared in the laboratory or obtained from rain, river or water pump contains 1 part hydrogen and 8 part oxygen by mass. H2: O 2 : 16 1 : 8 Berzelius heated log of lead with various amount of sulphur (s) he got exactly 11.56g of lead sulphide and the excess of sulphur was left over, when he used 18g of lead (pb) with 1.56g of sulphur (s) he got exactly 11.56g of lead sulphide (PbS) and 8g of lead remained unused. LAW OF MULITPLLE PROPORTION: In1803 John Dalton proposed the law of multiple proportion. "If two elements combine to form more than one compound. The masses of one fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole number or simple multiple ratios" There are some compound formed by the same two elements in which weight of one element is constant and weight of other element are in the ration of small whole number. Compound Mass of Carbon Mass of Oxygen Ratio of Oxygen CO CO2 12 12 16 32 1 2

Compound H2O H2O2

Mass of Hydrogen 2 2

Mass of Oxygen 16 32

Ratio of Oxygen 1 2

LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION: This law was given by Ritcher. "When two different elements separately combined with the fixed mass of the third element, the proportion in which they combine with one another should either in the same ratio or same multiple of it." When two elements carbon and oxygen separately combine with hydrogen t form Methane (CH4) and water respectively. 1. In methane ratio between carbon and hydrogen is 12 : 4 = 3 : 1

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hydrogen combine with each to form CO2. They do so in the same proportion i-e 12 : 32 = 3 : 8 parts by mass. ATOMIC MASS: "The mass of an atom is called atomic mass." "The atomic mass of an element is taken as the average mass of natural mixture of isotopes which is compared to the mass of one atom of C-12 "a.m.u" " "The sum up of number of proton and neutrons present in the atom is called atomic mass" Unit: The atomic mass of an element expresses in atomic mass unit (a.m.u). Example: Some atomic masses of element are given below: Element Atomic mass Sodium (Na) 23 a.m.u Potassium (K) 39 a.m.u Hydrogen (H) 1 a.m.u Oxygen (O) 16 a.m.u MOLECULAR MASS: "The sum of atomic masses of all atoms present in the molecular of the substance or molecule is called molecular mass" Example: The molecular mass of H2O is 18 MOLE: The atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass of substance expressed in gram it is called mole. Gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass and gram formula masses called mole. The mass of any substance equal to its atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass in gram.OR The amount of any substance which contains the Avogadro's number of particles. Example: The atomic mass of Na = 23 mu 1 Mole of Na is equal to 23g. 100g of CaCO3 is equal to 1 mole. Calculation: No: of moles of element = mass in gram Atomic mass No: of moles of compound = mass in gram Molecular mass AVOGADRO'S NUMBER (NA) This number is named after an atom scientist Avogadro. A mole of any substance contains the same number of particles (atoms, ions, molecular or formula unit). This number is called Avogadro's value. Its value is constant which 6.02 x 1023 atoms ions, molecular are. Example: 1 mole of C = 12g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

2. In (H2O) ratio between hydrogen and oxygen is 16 : 2 = 8 : 1 when carbon and

12 By: ZUBAIR AHMED SHAIKH

1 mole of Mg = 29g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms 1 mole of H2O = 18g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms 1 mole of CaCO3 = 100g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

chemical equation

The short hand method of describing (expression) the chemical reaction in terms of symbol and formula is called chemical equation. OR The symbolical representation of a complete chemical reaction is called chemical equation. Parts: There are two main parts of a chemical equation. Reactant: The starting substance area called reactant. OR The substance which is going to reach to called reactant. The reactants are always write on the left hand side. Product: The substance which are produced (formed) are called product. The products are always writes on the right hand side. Coefficient: A coefficient is small whole number that appears in format of formula in an equation is coefficient of no coefficient in an equation. It is supported to be one. How chemical equations are balances? A balance chemical equation obeys the law of conservation of matter mass. The balance chemical is that in which each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of each element. Rules for Balancing Equation: 1. Write the correct formula for all the reactant and products in the reactant. 2. Write the formula for the reactant as the left and formula for the product in the right with an arrow between them. 3. If two or more reactants or product are involved separate those plus sign. 4. Balance the element one at a time by using coefficients. 5. Check each atom or polyatomic on balanced to be sure that the equation is balanced. 6. Make sure all the elements are in the elements are in the lowest possible ratio. CHEMICAL REACTION: The process by which one or more substance is changed in to one or more new substance is called chemical reaction. OR The chemical reaction or chemical change in which the composition of a substance matters. Representation: The chemical reaction is represented by the chemical equation. Types of Chemical Reaction: There are five different kinds of chemical reaction. 1. Decomposition reaction. 2. Addition reaction (combination reaction). 3. Single displacement reaction. 4. Double displacement reaction. 5. Combustion reaction.

13 By: ZUBAIR AHMED SHAIKH

1. Decomposition Reaction: The chemical reaction in which substance breaks down to form two or more simple substance is called decomposition reaction. Example: General equation AB A+B 1. CaCO3 CaO + CO2 Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbondioxde. 2. 2K Cl O3 2KCl + 3O2 Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride + Oxygen Most decomposition reaction usually requires energy in the form of light heat and electricity. It is endothermic reaction. It is very difficult to predict the product. 2. Addition or Combination Reaction: A reaction in which two or ore substances combine to form one new substance is called addition or combination reaction. Example: General example: A + BC CaO + CO2 CaCO3 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl 2H2O + O2 2H2O 3. Single Replacement (Displacement Reaction): The reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms displaces another atom or a group of atom forms a compound. There are also called single replacement reaction. General example: Zn + 2HCl ZVCl2 + H2 2Na + 2H2O 2Na OH + H2 4. Double Displacement Reaction:
The reaction in which two compounds exchange their partners so that two new compound are formed general example

AB + CD AB + CB Eg: NaCl + Ag NO3 NaNo3 + AgCl Neutralization and hydrolysis are also the examples of double displacement reaction. 5. Combustion Reaction: The reaction in which substance react with either free oxygen of the air is called combustion reaction. In this reaction the rapid release of heat and flame take place. Example: CHO (g) + 2O2(g) CO2 + 2H 2O + A H (heat)

14 By: ZUBAIR AHMED SHAIKH