Question Paper

Computer Fundamentals and PC Software (BC111): July 2007

Section A
Answer any two from the four questions given below: (2 × 20 = 40
marks)

1. a. Define a computer. State the characteristics of computer.

b. Give a brief note on the classification of computers.
c. Draw the block diagram of a computer and explain the functions of different components in the computer.
(5 + 5 + 10 = 20 marks) <Answer>
2. a. State the features of MS-WORD.
b. How can we enter text in MS-WORD? Explain the procedure for editing text in MS-WORD.
c. Give a brief note on Spell check concept in MS-WORD.
(5 + 10 + 5 = 20 marks) <Answer>
3. a. State the steps for generating an Animation sequence in POWER POINT.
b. Explain in detail the On Screen Presentation concept in POWER POINT.
c. Explain in brief the procedure for generating Graphics in POWER POINT.
(5 + 10 + 5 = 20 marks) <Answer>
4. a. Define a Macro. Explain in detail the procedure for generating Macros in MS-EXCEL.
b. Give a detail note on functions in MS-EXCEL.
c. State the procedure for designing templates in MS-EXCEL.
(5 +10 + 5 = 20 marks) <Answer>
Section B
Answer any two from the three questions given below: (2 × 10 = 20
marks)

5. Give a brief note on Window accessories concept. Explain the procedure how to make use of the accessory
calculator.
(10 marks) <Answer>
6. Explain in detail the Disaster Recovery concept.

(10 marks) <Answer>

7. What is a Virus? State the different catagories of viruses. Suggest the counter preventive measures for a virus.

(10 marks) <Answer>

Section C
Answer any two from the four questions given below: (2 × 20 = 40
marks)

8. Give a detailed note on the different styles of formatting text in MS-WORD.

(20 marks) <Answer>

9. Define Cryptography. Give a detail note on different types of Cryptographic algorithms.

(20 marks) <Answer>

10. Explain in detail the procedure to generate different types of charts and graphs in MS-EXCEL.
 (20 marks) <Answer>
11. a. Explain in detail how to create a table and selection of rows and columns in MS-WORD.
b. State the procedure for converting text to a table.
c. Explain the Table Auto format concept.
(10 + 5 + 5 =20 marks) <Answer>

END OF QUESTION PAPER

Suggested Answers
Computer Fundamentals and PC Software (BC111): July 2007
Section A
1. a. A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its
memory unit. A computer accepts data from an input device and processes it into useful information which it
displays on its output device. Actually, a computer is a collection of hardware and software components that
help us to accomplish many different tasks. Hardware consists of the computer itself, and any equipment
connected to it. Software is the set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a task.
Characteristics of computers
Speed, Reliability, Storage Capacity and Productivity
Computers of all sizes have common characteristics -- speed, reliability, storage capacity, and productivity.
Computers are the foundation of business, travel, and leisure life today. Computers provide the processing
speed required by all facets of society. The quick service we expect at the bank, at the grocery store, on the
stock exchange, and on the Internet are dependent on the speed of computers.
Computers are extremely reliable as well. Most errors are caused by humans, not computers. Computers are
capable of storing enormous amounts of data that must be located and retrieved very quickly. The capability
to store and retrieve volumes of data is at the core of the Information Age.
b. Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified many different ways -- by size, by function, and by processing capacity. We will
study the classification of computers by size. The size of a computer often determines its function and
processing capacity. The size of computers varies widely from tiny to huge and is usually dictated by
computing requirements.
The largest computers are supercomputers. They are the most powerful, the most expensive, and the fastest.
They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per second. Examples of users of these computers are
governmental agencies, such as the IRS, the National Weather Service, and the National Defense Agency.
Also, they are used in the making of movies, space exploration, and the design of many other machines. The
Cray supercomputer is nicknamed "Bubbles", because of its bubbling coolant liquids. Cray supercomputers,
the first of which was invented by Seymour Cray, now maintain 75 percent of the supercomputer market.
Supercomputers are used for tasks that require mammoth data manipulation.
Large computers are called mainframes. Mainframe computers process data at very high rates of speed,
measured in the millions of instructions per second. They are very expensive, costing millions of dollars in
some cases. Mainframes are designed for multiple users and process vast amounts of data quickly. Banks,
insurance companies, manufacturers, mail-order companies, and airlines are typical users. Mainframes are
often ‘servers’-- computers that control the networks of computers for large companies like catalog
merchandiser L. L. Bean.
Microcomputers can be divided into two groups -- personal computers and workstations. Workstations are
specialized computers that approach the speed of mainframes. Often microcomputers are connected to
networks of other computers. The price of a microcomputer varies greatly from less than $1000 to several
thousand dollars, depending on the capacity and features of the computer. Microcomputers make up the vast
majority of computers.
Another classification of computer is the notebook computer. A notebook computer can fit into a briefcase
and weigh fewer than two pounds, yet it can compete with the microcomputer. A larger, heavier version is
called a laptop computer. Notebooks generally cost more than microcomputers but can run most of the
microcomputer software and are more versatile. Like other computers, notebook computers are getting
 faster, lighter, and more functional.
The smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or a PDA. PDAs are used
to track appointments and shipments as well as names and addresses. PDAs are called pen-based computers
because they utilize a pen-like stylus that accepts hand-written input directly on a touch-sensitive screen.
You have probably noticed delivery employees using these.
c. Block Diagram of a Computer

Central Processing unit:

At the heart of the computer is the Central processing unit. This contains several REGISTERS to store data
and an ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU) which manipulates data. It carries out a sequence of
instructions, called a program. The program may be stored in memory, as software, or written into the
memory from tape or disk.
Memory
There are two types of memory.
Read Only Memory (ROM) which stores software permanently. The software is not lost when the computer
is switched off but the stored data cannot be changed. Random Access Memory (RAM) which can be written
to and read from. The stored data is volatile. It is lost when the computer is switched off.
Hardware
The actual computer, its case and printed circuit boards etc are known as hardware.
Interfaces
The computer needs to communicate with the outside world. It does this via interfaces which are usually a
plug or socket of some type.
The computer is a digital device. It may need to communicate with an analogue device such as a loudspeaker
or variable speed control. To do this it uses digital to analogue and analogue to digital converters.
Input/output (I/O)
Hard disks are common I/O devices used with computers.
I/O is the means by which a computer receives information from the outside world and sends results back.
Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer,
peripherals include inputs like the keyboard and mouse, and outputs such as the display and printer. Hard
disks, floppy disks and optical discs serve as both inputs and outputs.
< TOP >
2. a. Microsoft Word is the single most popular word processing software package.
 Features of MS-Word:
Spellchecker: No spellchecker is perfect. The MSWord built-in spellchecker is about as far from perfect as
it is possible to imagine, BUT it is a valuable part of the program - there is no excuse to EVER submit
written work containing elementary spelling and typig errors. USE IT! Tools: Spelling and Grammar
MSWord's built-in grammar checker is less useful. If we want to turn the grammar check off: Tools:
Options: Spelling & Grammar
Graphics: There are two basic types of graphics that you can include in MSWord documents: drawing
objects and pictures. Drawing objects include AutoShapes, curves, lines and "WordArt". These objects are
part of your Word document. Use the Drawing toolbar to change and enhance these objects with colors,
patterns, borders, and other effects. Pictures are graphics that were created as another file. They include
bitmaps, scanned pictures and photographs, and clip art. You can change and enhance pictures by using the
options on the Picture toolbar and a limited number of options on the Drawing toolbar.
Views: View menu
MSWord can display documents in a confusing array of different views:
• Normal view: Work in normal view for typing, editing, and formatting text. Normal view shows text
formatting but simplifies the layout of the page so that you can type and edit quickly. In normal view,
page boundaries, headers and footers, backgrounds, drawing objects, and pictures that do not have the
In line with text wrapping style do not appear.
• Outline view: Work in outline view to look at the structure of a document and to move, copy, and
reorganize text by dragging headings. In outline view, you can collapse a document to see only the
main headings, or you can expand it to see all headings and even body text. Outline view also makes it
easy to work with master documents. A master document makes it easier to organize and maintain a
long document, such as a multipart report or a book with chapters. In outline view, page boundaries,
headers and footers, graphics, and backgrounds do not appear.
• Print layout view: Work in print layout view to see how text, graphics, and other elements will be
positioned on the printed page. This view is useful for editing headers and footers, for adjusting
margins, and for working with columns and drawing objects.
• Print preview: In print preview, you can display multiple pages of a document in a reduced size. In
this view, you can see page breaks, hidden text, and watermarks, and you can make editing or
formatting changes before you print the document.
b. Entering and Editing Text in Microsoft Word
Step 1. Open Microsoft Word. Remember to leave your browser window open until this lesson is
finished.
Step 2. Open a new blank document using keyboard commands
• IBM - Use Ctrl+N (Hold down the Ctrl key and tap the N key one time)
• Macintosh - Use Command+N (Hold down the Command key and tap the N key one time)
Step 3. Enter the following line at the top of the page:
Step 4. Highlight the line of text and perform the following actions using toolbar buttons, menu items or
keyboard combinations:
• Format the text to Bold
• Increase the side to 18 pt.
• Center the text
• Press Return/Enter two times
• Click Bold button to remove Bold
• Return text size to default
• All of these actions can be performed using the Formatting toolbar.
Step 5. Copy any paragraph and paste it into your document two lines below the headline using toolbar
buttons, menu items or keyboard combinations:
*Click and drag to highlight the paragraph you see above. With the text selected use the toolbar
button, menu item or keyboard combination to copy text. Go to the new Word document and paste
what you copied using the toolbar button (it looks like a clipboard), menu item (it is in the Edit
menu) or keyboard combination (IBM=Ctrl+V, Mac=Command+V).
Step 6. Enter a list of stations in the form of a bulleted list. That can be done in two ways.
 1. Select the bulleted list button, copy the list, paste it into the document. (be sure your cursor
is at the bullet)
2. Copy and paste the entire list, highlight the list, select the bulleted list button
or
1. Select the items one at a time
2. Copy and paste into the Word document
3. Select the bulleted list button
After all bulleted points have been entered hit the Return/Enter key one time. Another bullet will
be displayed at the cursor.
Step 7. Remove the last bullet produced. The most simple way to do that is to deselect the bullet button in
the formatting toolbar.
Step 8. Highlight the five bulleted points. Go to the Format menu, select Bullets and Numbering and
change the style of the bullet.
Step 9. Add one final paragraph. describing what the report should look like. You may generate your own
text or copy the paragraph below:
c. Spell Check in MS-WORD
Word checks your spelling and grammar as we type. Spelling errors display with a red wavy line under the
word. Grammar errors display with a green wavy line under the error. If you want to spell check your entire

document, press F7 and click the spelling icon , or choose Tools > Spelling and Grammar from the
menu. If you want to spell check part of your document, highlight the area you want to spell check. Then

press F7 and click the spelling icon , or choose Tools > Spelling and Grammar from the menu.
Find and Replace
If you need to find a particular word or piece of text, you can use the Find command. If you want to search
the entire document, simply execute the Find command. If you want to limit your search to a selected area,
highlight that area and then execute the Find command.
After you have found the word or piece of text you are searching for, you can replace it with new text by
executing the Replace command.
< TOP >
3. a. Add "Preset Animation" to a PowerPoint Slide

Step 1: Open . Choose and click OK.

Step 2: Choose a slide layout from the "auto layout" menu. For the title slide, usual choices are

and . For a chart, is a useful choice.

Step 3: Add a title by clicking on any area of "Click to Add Title" region. Type in the title of the slide.
You can adjust the font type, font size, and font alignment by using the format toolbar options, just
as in Microsoft Word.
Step 4: Add text by clicking on any area of the "Click to Add Text". Be sure to save this presentation by
going to the pull-down menu, choosing Save As, and assigning an appropriate file name.
Step 5: A design can be added to the slide by going to the pull-down menu and selecting from
"slide layout, slide color scheme, background, or apply design template". Again, always be sure to
save the file after making changes.
Step 6: Now the preset animation can be applied to the text. First, "left click" on the text you wnat to
animate. The box around the text region will appear.
Step 7: Go to the pull-down menu, select "preset animation", and choose an animation of
 preference, such as "dissolve". Remember to save the file after making changes. In order to preview the slide
animation, go to the pull down menu and select "View Show"
Step 8: To add a new slide to the presentation, go to and select "New Slide", or use the button
on the "standard" toolbar. Follow steps 3 - 8 to format and animate new slides.
b. On-Screen Presentation
To deliver the presentation as an on-screen electronic slide show, open the presentation in PowerPoint, select
Slide Show from the View menu or the icon. By choosing Setup Show from the Slide Show menu you
can choose which slides you want to show during the presentation.
During the Presentation
To move to the next slide, press the spacebar, click the left mouse button, or press N on the keyboard. To
display the previous slide, press P on the keyboard, backspace in Windows or Delete on a Mac. To get a
menu of available slide show commands, click the right mouse button in Windows or on a Mac, hold down
the Control key and click the mouse button.
• To go directly to a particular slide, select Go To, Slide Navigator from the menu. On the Slide
Navigator dialog box, select the slide and click Go To.
• To annotate a slide during a show, select Pen from the menu and the mouse pointer toggles to a pen.
Click and drag to write or draw on the slide to add temporary comments to your slide. To return to
advancing the slides, switch back to the arrow by selecting Arrow from the menu.
You can deliver an on-screen PowerPoint show on a computer that doesn't have PowerPoint installed using
the PowerPoint Viewer, freeware that you can download from the Microsoft Web site by choosing Microsoft
on the Web from the Help menu. You can create disks that contain the presentation and PowerPoint View.
Select Pack and Go from the File menu and the Pack and Go Wizard guides you through the process.
Slide Timings
When delivering an electronic slide show, you have the option of manually advancing the slides or using

slide timings. In Slide Sorter view, click the Rehearse Timings button on the Slide Sorter toolbar and
rehearse the delivery of your presentation. The Rehearsal window which stays on the screen during the slide
show, keeps track of the time elapsed since a slide appeared on screen. At the end of the slide show,
PowerPoint gives you the total time of the presentation and the option to At the end of the slide show,
PowerPoint gives you the total time of the presentation and the option to record the slide timings. If you
record the slide timings, they will appear in Slide Sorter View. To manually revise the timing set for a
particular slide, select it in Slide Sorter View and click the Slide Transition button on the Slide Sorter
toolbar. Then enter a number in the Advance Automatically after box. To use the slide timings during a slide
show, choose Use timings if present from the Slide Show, Setup Show dialog box.
Transitions
Transitions are special audiovisual effects that occur when moving from slide to slide during an electronic

presentation. To add a transition to a selected slide in Slide Sorter View, click the Slide Transition
button on the Slide Sorter toolbar. From the Transition dialog box, you can choose the effect and speed of the
transition and a sound to accompany the visual effect. A transition icon appears below the slide miniature of
a slide with transition. You can preview the transition on the miniature by clicking on the icon. If you want
the same transition on all your slides, choose Select All from the Edit menu and then add the transition.
c. A picture can provide more detail at a glance than a text description; it also adds visual oomph. PowerPoint
98/2000 provides an easy way to insert graphics into your presentations.
Steps1
Step One
Open your PowerPoint presentation and select the slide you want to insert the graphic into. 2
step Two
Go to the Insert menu and select Picture, then select From File. 3
Step Three
Navigate to a picture file on your hard disk. 4
Step Four
Select the file and click Insert. The picture appears on the slide. 5
Step Five
 Resize the graphic by dragging one of the handles (hollow squares positioned around the outside edges of the
graphic). 6
Step Six
Position the graphic on the slide by dragging it to where you want it to appear. 7
Step Seven
Select the picture to display the Picture toolbar. Use the toolbar buttons to crop the picture, add a border and
sharpen contrast.
< TOP >
4. a. Creating a Macro in MS Excel
Macro
A macro is a pre-programmed set of instructions or keystrokes that are recorded and saved within a software
program, then assigned to a function key (i.e., F1-F12) or a key code. When the user presses the assigned
key, the program automatically executes a series of actions or commands.
Steps for Creating a Macro in Excel
1. To create a macro in MS Excel, first export data into a new Excel file and have this file open but not
formatted
2. With the report data open in Excel, think about what commands or actions you would like to perform
depending on the report.
3. The Record Macro dialog box will come up.

4. Give the macro a name, assign a shortcut key and store the macro in "Personal Macro Workbook." Hit
the OK button to start recording commands. The shortcut key must be a letter.
5. Perform the commands within Excel to include in the macro based on the report you have up. Hit the
Stop button to stop recording a macro.
6. we can now close the file and bring the data in again using the text file. This time (and for all other
times), you can press the shortcut key to run the macro.
b. Functions in MS-EXCEL
Sum Function
Probably the most popular function in any spreadsheet is the SUM function. The Sum function takes all of
 the values in each of the specified cells and totals their values. The syntax is:
• = SUM(first value, second value, etc)
In the first and second spots you can enter any of the following (constant, cell, range of cells).
• Blank cells will return a value of zero to be added to the total.
• Text cells can not be added to a number and will produce an error.
Example table
A
1 25
2 50
3 75
4 test
5
use the table given above .Notice that in A4 there is a TEXT entry. This has NO numeric value and can not
be included in a total.
Example Cells to ADD Answer
=sum (A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 150
=sum (A1:A3, 100) A1, A2, A3 and 100 250
=sum (A1+A4) A1, A4 #VALUE!
=sum (A1:A2, A5) A1, A2, A5 75
Average Function
There are many functions built into many spreadsheets. One of the first ones that we are going to discuss is
the Average function. The average function finds the average of the specified data. Simplifies adding all of
the indicated cells together and dividing by the total number of cells. The syntax is as follows.
• = Average (first value, second value, etc.)
Text fields and blank entries are not included in the calculations of the Average Function.
Example table
A
1 25
2 50
3 75
4 test
5

Example Cells to average Answer

=average (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 62.5
=average (A1:A4, 300) A1, A2, A3, A4 and 300 110
=average (A1:A5) A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 62.5
=average (A1:A2, A4) A1, A2, A4 58.33
Max Function
This will return the largest (max) value in the selected range of cells.
• Blank entries are not included in the calculations of the Max Function.
• Text entries are not included in the calculations of the Max Function.
Example table
A
 1 25
2 50
3 75
4 test
5

Example of Max Cells to look at Ans. Max

=max (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 30
=max (A1:A4, 100) A1, A2, A3, A4 and 100 100
=max (A1, A3) A1, A3 30
=max (A1, A5) A1, A5 10
Min function
This will return the smallest (Min) value in the selected range of cells.
• Blank entries are not included in the calculations of the Min Function.
• Text entries are not included in the calculations of the Min Function.
Example table
A
1 25
2 50
3 75
4 test
5

Example of min Cells to look at Ans. min

=min (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 10
=min (A2:A3, 100) A2, A3 and 100 20
=min (A1, A3) A1, A3 10
=min (A1, A5) A1, A5 (displays the smallest number) 10
Count function
This will return the number of entries (actually counts each cell that contains number data) in the selected
range of cells.
• Blank entries are not counted.
• Text entries are NOT counted.
Example of Count Cells to look at Answer
=Count (A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 3
=Count (A1:A3, 100) A1, A2, A3 and 100 4
=Count (A1, A3) A1, A3 2
=Count (A1, A4) A1, A4 1
=Count (A1, A5) A1, A5 1
Count A function
This will return the number of entries (actually counts each cell that contains number data OR text data) in
the selected range of cells.
• Blank entries are not Counted.
 • Text entries ARE Counted.
Example of CountA Cells to look at Answer
=CountA (A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 3
=CountA (A1:A3, 100) A1, A2, A3 and 100 4
=CountA (A1, A3) A1, A3 2
=CountA (A1, A4) A1, A4 2
=CountA (A1, A5) A1, A5 1
IF function
The IF function will check the logical condition of a statement and return one value if true and a different
value if false. The syntax is
• = IF (condition, value-if-true, value-if-false)
• value returned may be either a number or text
• if value returned is text, it must be in quotes
we use the table. We will look at a specific example that show how the IF functions can be used.

A B
1 Price Over a dollar?
2 $.95 No
3 $1.37 Yes
4 comparing # returning #
0.08
5 14000
</TD< tr>
6 8453 0.05

Example of IF
Compares Answer
typed into column B
=IF (A2>1,"Yes","No") is ( .95 > 1) No
=IF (A3>1, "Yes", "No") is (1.37 > 1) Yes
=IF (A5>10000, .08, .05) is (14000 > 10000) .08
=IF (A6>10000, .08, .05) is (8453 > 10000) .05
Mathematical and Trig no metric functions in Excel
Excel has most of the math and trig functions built into it. If we need to use the SIN, COS, TAN functions,
they can be typed into any cell. If you wanted to find:
angle sin cos tan
REF =sin(REF) =cos(REF) =tan(REF)
0 0.00 1.00 0.00
30 0.50 0.87 0.58
45 0.71 0.71 1.00
90 1.00 0.00
180 0.00 -1.00 0.00
format for degrees formula = sin (angle * pi()/180) the argument angle is in degrees format for radians
formula = sin (angle) the argument angle is in radians
To calculate trig functions in degrees you must convert them - otherwise excel will calculate them in radians.
We can type in either an actual number for the REF or you can also type in a reference from the excel
spreadsheet (like A2).
c. The procedure to create a custom template in MS-EXCEL is as follows:
 1. Launch MS Excel.
2. Open a blank document; select all sheets.
3. Go to File | Page Setup.
4. In the Orientation section, select Landscape, and then click OK.
5. In the Header and Footer section, you can either select a header from the Header drop-down menu, or
you can press the Custom Header button to create your header.
6. Click OK.
7. Go to File | Save As.
8. Under File Name, enter a name for your template.
9. Under Save As Type, select Template and click Save.
Now when you create a workbook based on your custom template, the header and print settings will
automatically be set to your specifications.
< TOP >

Section B
5. Windows Accessories
Windows provides several accessories, or applications, that you can use to help you in your work. These
accessories are not full-featured programs, but they are useful for specific jobs in the Windows environment.
Accessories include a calculator, a painting program, a word processor, a text editor, and Internet applications.
Tasks
1. Using Calculator
2. Using Command Prompt
3. Using WordPad
4. Typing Text
5. Selecting Text
6. Deleting Text
7. Copying Text
8. Moving Text
9. Formatting Text
10. Using Notepad
11. Using Paint
12. Drawing a Shape with Paint
13. Adding Text to a Drawing
14. Adding Color to a Drawing
15. Erasing Part of a Drawing
Task : Using Calculator
1. Click Start, All Programs, Accessories, and then click Calculator.
2. Click the buttons on the calculator to enter an equation.
3. You see the results of the calculation.
4. When you are finished, click the Close button.
Calculating with Calculator
Like a calculator you keep in a desk drawer, the Windows Calculator is small but saves you time (and mistakes)
by performing all the calculations common to a standard calculator. The Windows Calculator, however, has added
advantages: we can keep this calculator on screen alongside other applications, and you can copy numbers
between the Calculator and other applications.
The Standard Windows Calculator, works so much like a pocket calculator that you need little help getting started.
The Calculator's keypad, the on-screen representation, contains familiar number keys, along with memory and
simple math keys. A display window just above the keypad shows the numbers you enter and the results of
calculations. If your computational needs are more advanced, you can choose a different view of The Calculator
program performs both simple mathematical and advanced scientific calculations. The Calculator program
provides you with all kinds of computing benefits. Throughout a working day, you use your computer constantly,
writing letters, printing bills, and building presentations. As we work, we often need to make a quick calculation
and, if you're anything like computer book authors, your real calculator is probably covered up beneath papers
stacked a foot high. As soon as you start the Windows XP Calculator program, it is never farther away than the
taskbar.
The Calculator program actually contains two calculators, a standard calculator and a scientific calculator. Most
people need the standard calculator that provides all the common mathematical operations required for day-to-day
 business affairs. The scientific calculator contains additional operations, such as statistical and trigonometric
operations.
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6. Disaster Recovery
Disaster recovery is the process of regaining access to the data, hardware and software necessary to resume critical
business operations after a natural or human-caused disaster. A disaster recovery plan (DRP) should also include
plans for coping with the unexpected or sudden loss of key personnel, although this is not covered in this article,
the focus of which is data protection. DRP is part of a larger process known as Business Continuity Planning
(BCP).
Business Data Protection
With the rise in information technology and the reliance on business-critical data, the landscape has changed in
recent years in favor of protecting irreplaceable data. This is especially evident in information technology, with
most large computer systems backing up digital information to limit data loss and to aid data recovery.
The current data protection market is characterized by:
• Rapidly changing customer needs that are driven by data growth, regulatory issues and the growing
importance to access data quickly by retaining it online.
• An ever-shrinking time frame for backing up data, which is burdening conventional tape backup
technologies.
Events That Necessitate Disaster Recovery
There are many different risks that can negatively impact the normal operations of an organization. A risk
assessment should be performed to determine what constitutes a disaster and which risks a specific company is
susceptible to, including:
• Natural disasters
• Fire
• Power failure
• Terrorist attacks
• Organized or deliberate disruptions
• Theft
• System and/or equipment failures
• Human error
• Computer viruses
• Legal issues
• Worker strikes
• Testing
Preventions Against Data Loss
• Backups sent off-site in regular intervals
o Includes software as well as all data information, to facilitate recovery
o Use a Remote backup facility if possible to minimize data loss
• Storage Area Networks (SANs) over multiple sites are a recent development (since 2003) which make data
immediately available without the need to recover or synchronise it
• Surge Protectors - to minimize the effect of power surges on delicate electronic equipment
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) and/or Backup Generator
• Fire Preventions - more alarms, accessible extinguishers
• Anti-virus software and other security measures
Disaster Recovery Planning
Disaster recovery planning falls into the realm of Business Continuity Planning, as well as Risk management. The
planning process consists of the following steps:
• Assess business impact and risk. This should include an assessment of the business unit's function and,
preferably, a business impact analysis (BIA). The purpose of the assessment is to determine the business
unit's relative contribution to the larger organization (monetary and functional).
• Develop a Disaster Recovery framework. Data should be categorized by importance. Two measures of
importance are used, RTO and RPO. Recovery Time Objective (RTO) is the acceptable amount of time
between the disaster and the post-disaster resumption of function (how long can we wait to restore data?).
 Recovery Point Objective (RPO) is the acceptable data roll-back (how current does the data have to be?).
• Adjust information systems to make Disaster Recovery easier. This includes consolidating servers and data,
perhaps with a Storage Area Network or other archival storage method.
• Address other technical issues. Maintaining logical integrity between data and applications that may be
interdependent is not a trivial matter. The business may consider the use of applications that have recovery
built in to their capabilities.
A good plan takes into account many different factors. The most important are:
• Communication
o Personnel - notify all key personnel of the problem and assign them tasks focused toward the recovery
plan.
o Customers - notifying clients about the problem minimizes panic.
• Recall backups - If backup tapes are taken offsite, these need to be recalled. If using remote backup
services, a network connection to the remote backup location (or the Internet) will be required.
• Facilities - having backup hot sites or cold sites for larger companies. Mobile recovery facilities are also
available from many suppliers.
• Knowledge Workers - during a disaster, employees are required to work longer, more stressful hours, and a
support system should be in place to alleviate some of the stress.
Business Information - backups should be stored in a completely separate location. Security and reliability of that
data is key.
< TOP >
7. Computer virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or
knowledge of the user. The original may modify the copies or the copies may modify themselves, as occurs in a
metamorphic virus. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected
computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium such as a floppy
disk, CD, or USB drive. Additionally, viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file
system or a file system that is accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with computer
worms and Trojan horses. A worm, however, can spread itself to other computers without needing to be
transferred as part of a host. A Trojan horse is a file that appears harmless until executed. In contrast to viruses,
Trojan horses do not insert their code into other computer files. Many personal computers are now connected to
the Internet and to local-area networks, facilitating their spread. Today's viruses may also take advantage of
network services such as the World Wide Web, e-mail, and file sharing systems to spread, blurring the line
between viruses and worms. Furthermore, some sources use an alternative terminology in which a virus is any
form of self-replicating malware.
Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the
hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply replicate themselves and perhaps make their
presence known by presenting text, video, or audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for
the computer user. They typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often
cause erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-ridden, and these bugs
may lead to system crashes and data loss.
Classification
Viruses can be subdivided into a number of types based on their features.
Macro viruses
A macro virus, often written in the scripting languages for programs such as Word and Excel, is spread by
infecting documents and spreadsheets. Since macro viruses are written in the language of the application and not
in that of the operating system, they are known to be platform-independent. They can spread between Windows,
Mac and any other system, so long as they are running the required application. With the ever-increasing
capabilities of macro languages in applications, and the possibility of infections spreading over networks, these
viruses are major threats.
Network viruses
This kind of virus is proficient in quickly spreading across a Local Area Network (LAN) or even over the Internet.
Usually, it propagates through shared resources, such as shared drives and folders. Once it infects a new system, it
searches for potential targets by searching the network for other vulnerable systems. Once a new vulnerable
system is found, the network virus infects the other system, and thus spreads over the network. Some of the most
notorious network viruses are Nimda and SQLSlammer.
Logic bomb
A logic bomb employs code that lies inert until specific conditions are met. The resolution of the conditions will
trigger a certain function (such as printing a message to the user and/or deleting files). Logic bombs may reside
within standalone programs, or they may be part of worms or viruses. An example of a logic bomb would be a
virus that waits to execute until it has infected a certain number of hosts. A time bomb is a subset of logic bomb,
which is set to trigger on a particular date and/or time. An example of a time bomb is the infamous ‘Friday the
13th’ virus.
Cross-site scripting virus
A cross-site scripting virus (XSSV) is a type of virus that utilizes cross-site scripting vulnerabilities to replicate. A
XSSV is spread between vulnerable web applications and web browsers creating a symbiotic relationship
Sentinels
A sentinel is a highly advanced virus capable of empowering the creator or perpetrator of the virus with remote
access control over the computers that are infected. They are used to form vast networks of zombie or slave
computers which in turn can be used for malicious purposes such as a Distributed Denial-of-service attack.
Archaic forms
Some forms of virus were very common in the 1980s and early 1990s, but have become much less prevalent.
Companion virus
A companion virus does not have host files per se, but exploits MS-DOS. A companion virus creates new files
(typically .COM but can also use other extensions such as ".EXD") that have the same file names as
legitimate .EXE files. When a user types in the name of a desired program, if a user does not type in ".EXE" but
instead does not specify a file extension, DOS will assume he meant the file with the extension that comes first in
alphabetical order and run the virus. For instance, if a user had "(filename).COM" (the virus) and
"(filename).EXE" and the user typed "filename", he will run "(filename).COM" and run the virus. The virus will
spread and do other tasks before redirecting to the legitimate file, which operates normally. Some companion
viruses are known to run under Windows 95 and on DOS emulators on Windows NT systems. Path companion
viruses create files that have the same name as the legitimate file and place new virus copies earlier in the
directory paths. These viruses have become increasingly rare with the introduction of Windows XP, which does
not use the MS-DOS command prompt.
Boot sector viruses
A boot sector virus alters or hides in the boot sector, usually the 1st sector, of a bootable disk or hard drive. The
boot sector is where your computer starts reading your operating system. By inserting its code into the boot sector,
a virus guarantees that it loads into memory during every boot sequence. A boot virus does not affect files;
instead, it affects the disks that contain them.
Multipartite viruses
Multipartite viruses are a combination of boot sector viruses and file viruses. These viruses come in through
infected media and reside in memory. They then move on to the boot sector of the hard drive. From there, the
virus infects executable files on the hard drive and spreads across the system.
Anti-virus software and other preventive countermeasures
There are two common methods that an anti-virus software application uses to detect viruses. The first, and by far
the most common method of virus detection is using a list of virus signature definitions. The disadvantage of this
detection method is that users are only protected from viruses that pre-date their last virus definition update. The
second method is to use a heuristic algorithm to find viruses based on common behaviors. This method has the
ability to detect viruses that anti-virus security firms’ have yet to create a signature for.
Many users install anti-virus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the computer downloads
or runs the executable. They work by examining the content heuristics of the computer's memory (its RAM, and
boot sectors) and the files stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those
files against a database of known virus "signatures". Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in
addition to sent and received emails 'on the fly' in a similar manner. This practice is known as "on-access
scanning." Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit viruses.
Users must update their software regularly to patch security holes. Anti-virus software also needs to be regularly
updated in order to gain knowledge about the latest threats.
One may also prevent the damage done by viruses by making regular backups of data (and the Operating Systems)
on different media, that are either kept unconnected to the system (most of the time), read-only or not accessible
for other reasons, such as using different file systems. This way, if data is lost through a virus, one can start again
using the backup (which should preferably be recent). If a backup session on optical media like CD and DVD is
closed, it becomes read-only and can no longer be affected by a virus. Likewise, an Operating System on a
bootable can be used to start the computer if the installed Operating Systems become unusable. Another method is
 to use different Operating Systems on different file systems. A virus is not likely to affect both. Data backups can
also be put on different file systems. For example, Linux requires specific software to write to NTFS partitions, so
if one does not install such software and uses a separate installation of MS Windows to make the backups on an
NTFS partition (and preferably only for that reason), the backup should remain safe from any Linux viruses.
Likewise, MS Windows can not read file systems like ext3, so if one normally uses MS Windows, the backups
can be made on an ext3 partition using a Linux installation.
< TOP >

Section C
8. Styles in Microsoft Word
Styles are the most important feature in Microsoft Word. Because everything that you do in Word has a style
attached. The definition of a style is two-fold. First, we can think of a style as a set of pre-defined formatting
instructions that we can use repeatedly throughout the document. Each heading in a document must be centered,
uppercase, bold, and a slightly larger font size. Each time you need to apply formatting to the heading, you have to
go through the entire process to get the text the way you want it. If you store the formatting commands in a style,
you can apply that style any time you need it without having to do all of the reformatting.
Possibly more important however is that styles are used to "tag" or identify parts of a document. An example of
this is whether text is part of a heading, a footnote, a hyperlink, or body text. These are all examples of styles in
Word.
If we are concerned about whether or not you need to learn styles, we can put it rather simply: you do. Styles are
the architecture upon which Word is based. Just about everything in Word is style-driven. In fact, many people in
the industry refer to Word as a "style-driven" program.
Styles allow for quick formatting modifications throughout the document and can be tied into numbering to make
working with outline numbered lists easier
There are several reasons for using styles in a document:
• Consistency — When you use styles to format your document, each section is formatted the same and
therefore, provides a professional, clean-looking document.
• Easier to Modify — If you use styles in your document consistently, you only need to update a given style
once if you want to change the characteristics of all text formatted in that style.
• Efficiency — You can create a style once, and then apply it to any section in the document without having
to format each section individually.
• Table of Contents — Styles can be used to generate a table of contents quickly.
• Faster Navigation — Using styles lets you quickly move to different sections in a document using the
Document Map feature.
• Working in Outline View — Styles allow you to outline and organize your document's main topics with
ease.
• Outline Numbering – Numbering, when linked to styles, allows you to generate and update consistent
outline numbering in your documents, even ones with complicated numbering schemes.
• Efficiency of Word — Files which are predominantly manually formatted are less efficient than those
which have formatting that has been imposed by styles: manually formatted files, such a converted
documents which have been File, Opened, are bloated in file size (bytes) and do not render to the screen
efficiently when you scroll through them. This is because Word is a styles-based application: it first reads the
attributes of the underlying style, then has to broadcast anything contrary (e.g. manually formatted on top of
that). As such, a lengthy document that has been predominantly manually formatted, will behave sluggishly
because Word has to work harder at managing it. Additionally, the print formatting processes are equally
labored as opposed to using styles.
• HTML AND XML — A fully structured, styled document will move into HTML and XML incredibly well.
Styles are an essential part of Microsoft Word. In fact, everything we type into a document has a style attached to
it, whether you design the style or not.
When you start Microsoft Word, the new blank document is based on the Normal template, and text that you type
uses the Normal style unless you have changed this setting in that template. This means that when you start typing,
Word uses the font name, font size, line spacing, indentation, text alignment, and other formats currently defined
for the Normal style. The Normal style is the base style for the Normal template, meaning that it's a building block
for other styles in the template. Whenever you start typing in a new document, unless you specify otherwise, you
are typing in the Normal style.
Paragraph vs. Character Styles
There are two types of styles in Microsoft Word; character and paragraph. Paragraph styles are used more
frequently than character styles, and they are easier to create. It's important to understand both, however, since
understanding styles is so important.
Character styles can be applied to individual words — even (you guessed it) single characters. Character
formatting is built from the formatting options available from the Format menu, by selecting Font; settings from
the Tools menu, by selecting Language, and then selecting Set Language; and in certain cases from the Format
menu by selecting Borders and Shading, and looking on the Borders and Shading tabs of the Borders and Shading
dialog box. The following table shows the formatting that can be in a style.
A paragraph style contains both font and paragraph formatting which makes it more flexible than a character style.
When you apply a paragraph style the formatting affects the entire paragraph. For example, when you center text,
you cannot center a single word. Instead, the entire paragraph is centered. Other types of paragraph-level formats
that styles control are line spacing (single-space, double-space, etc.), text alignment, bullets, numbers, indents,
tabs and borders.
Formatting Character Style Paragraph Style
Font Yes Yes
Tabs No Yes
Border Yes Yes
Spacing No Yes
Alignment No Yes
Indents No Yes
Shading Yes Yes
Language Yes Yes
Numbering No Yes
Viewing Styles
Styles are listed in two places: the Style drop-down box on the Formatting toolbar and from the Format menu by
choosing Style. They are also available in the styles panel when you are in normal view.
View Styles with the Style Box
The Style box is at the far-left side of the Formatting toolbar. It can be activated by clicking the drop-down arrow
to the right of the words in the box, or by pressing CTRL+SHIFT+S on the keyboard.
View Styles with the Style Box
The Style box is at the far-left side of the Formatting toolbar. It can be activated by clicking the drop-down arrow
to the right of the words in the box, or by pressing CTRL+SHIFT+S on the keyboard.
View Styles Using the Format Menu
You can not only view but also modify styles using the Format Styles dialog box under the Format menu. We will
discuss this dialog box more in the next column.
View Paragraph Styles Using Normal View and the Styles Pane
One of the simplest ways to track styles in use is to view your document in "Normal" view. The "normal" view
can be selected under the View menu or by clicking on the left-most icon among the views icons on the bottom
left corner of your Word screen. You can set normal view to display the styles pane using Tools => Options =>
View tab:
Keyboard Shortcuts for Word
Formatting and Styles

Key What
Ctrl - Space Bar Remove character formatting from selection
Ctrl-Q Remove direct paragraph formatting.
Ctrl-Shift-S Style Dropdown or dialog
Ctrl-* Show All non-printing characters toggle
Headings
Headings are a special kind of style and are built into Word at the foundation level. Here are some of the shortcut
keys for them:
 Key What
Alt-Shift-Left Arrow Create or promote heading
Create subheading or demote
Alt-Shift-Right Arrow
current heading.
When in Outline view, move
Alt-Shift-Up Arrow
current heading up.
When in Outline view, move
Alt-Shift-Down Arrow
current heading down
Alt-Ctrl-1(-9) ** Heading Style 1(-9)
< TOP >
9. THE PURPOSE OF CRYPTOGRAPHY
In data and telecommunications, cryptography is necessary when communicating over any untrusted medium,
which includes just about any network, particularly the Internet.
Within the context of any application-to-application communication, there are some specific security
requirements, including:
• Authentication: The process of proving one's identity. (The primary forms of host-to-host authentication on
the Internet today are name-based or address-based, both of which are notoriously weak.)
• Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the message except the intended receiver.
• Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has not been altered in any way from the original.
• Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this message.
Cryptography, then, not only protects data from theft or alteration, but can also be used for user authentication.
There are, in general, three types of cryptographic schemes typically used to accomplish these goals: secret key (or
symmetric) cryptography, public-key (or asymmetric) cryptography, and hash functions, each of which is
described below. In all cases, the initial unencrypted data is referred to as plaintext. It is encrypted into ciphertext,
which will in turn (usually) be decrypted into usable plaintext.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS
There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms. For purposes of this paper, they will be
categorized based on the number of keys that are employed for encryption and decryption, and further defined by
their application and use. The three types of algorithms are
• Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption
• Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for decryption
• Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly "encrypt" information
Secret Key Cryptography
With secret key cryptography, a single key is used for both encryption and decryption. As shown in Figure 1A, the
sender uses the key (or some set of rules) to encrypt the plaintext and sends the ciphertext to the receiver. The
receiver applies the same key (or ruleset) to decrypt the message and recover the plaintext. Because a single key is
used for both functions, secret key cryptography is also called symmetric encryption.
With this form of cryptography, it is obvious that the key must be known to both the sender and the receiver; that,
in fact, is the secret. The biggest difficulty with this approach, of course, is the distribution of the key.
Secret key cryptography schemes are generally categorized as being either stream ciphers or block ciphers. Stream
ciphers operate on a single bit (byte or computer word) at a time and implement some form of feedback
mechanism so that the key is constantly changing. A block cipher is so-called because the scheme encrypts one
block of data at a time using the same key on each block. In general, the same plaintext block will always encrypt
to the same ciphertext when using the same key in a block cipher whereas the same plaintext will encrypt to
different ciphertext in a stream cipher.
Stream ciphers come in several flavors but two are worth mentioning here. Self-synchronizing stream ciphers
calculate each bit in the keystream as a function of the previous n bits in the keystream. It is termed "self-
synchronizing" because the decryption process can stay synchronized with the encryption process merely by
knowing how far into the n-bit keystream it is. One problem is error propagation; a garbled bit in transmission will
result in n garbled bits at the receiving side. Synchronous stream ciphers generate the keystream in a fashion
independent of the message stream but by using the same keystream generation function at sender and receiver.
While stream ciphers do not propagate transmission errors, they are, by their nature, periodic so that the keystream
will eventually repeat.
Block ciphers can operate in one of several modes; the following four are the most important:
• Electronic Codebook (ECB) mode is the simplest, most obvious application: the secret key is used to
encrypt the plaintext block to form a ciphertext block. Two identical plaintext blocks, then, will always
generate the same ciphertext block. Although this is the most common mode of block ciphers, it is
susceptible to a variety of brute-force attacks.
• Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode adds a feedback mechanism to the encryption scheme. In CBC, the
plaintext is exclusively-ORed (XORed) with the previous ciphertext block prior to encryption. In this mode,
two identical blocks of plaintext never encrypt to the same ciphertext.
• Cipher Feedback (CFB) mode is a block cipher implementation as a self-synchronizing stream cipher. CFB
mode allows data to be encrypted in units smaller than the block size, which might be useful in some
applications such as encrypting interactive terminal input. If we were using 1-byte CFB mode, for example,
each incoming character is placed into a shift register the same size as the block, encrypted, and the block
transmitted. At the receiving side, the ciphertext is decrypted and the extra bits in the block (i.e., everything
above and beyond the one byte) are discarded.
• Output Feedback (OFB) mode is a block cipher implementation conceptually similar to a synchronous
stream cipher. OFB prevents the same plaintext block from generating the same ciphertext block by using an
internal feedback mechanism that is independent of both the plaintext and ciphertext bitstreams.
Secret key cryptography algorithms that are in use today include:
• Data Encryption Standard (DES): The most common SKC scheme used today, DES was designed by IBM
in the 1970s and adopted by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) [now the National Institute for
Standards and Technology (NIST)] in 1977 for commercial and unclassified government applications. DES
is a block-cipher employing a 56-bit key that operates on 64-bit blocks. DES has a complex set of rules and
transformations that were designed specifically to yield fast hardware implementations and slow software
implementations, although this latter point is becoming less significant today since the speed of computer
processors is several orders of magnitude faster today than twenty years ago. IBM also proposed a 112-bit
key for DES, which was rejected at the time by the government; the use of 112-bit keys was considered in
the 1990s, however, conversion was never seriously considered.
Public-Key Cryptography
Public-key cryptography has been said to be the most significant new development in cryptography in the last
300-400 years. Modern PKC was first described publicly by Stanford University professor Martin Hellman and
graduate student Whitfield Diffie in 1976. Their paper described a two-key crypto system in which two parties
could engage in a secure communication over a non-secure communications channel without having to share a
secret key.
PKC depends upon the existence of so-called one-way functions, or mathematical functions that are easy to
computer whereas their inverse function is relatively difficult to compute. Let me give you two simple examples:
1. Multiplication vs. factorization: Suppose I tell you that I have two numbers, 9 and 16, and that I want to
calculate the product; it should take almost no time to calculate the product, 144. Suppose instead that I tell
you that I have a number, 144, and I need you tell me which pair of integers I multiplied together to obtain
that number. You will eventually come up with the solution but whereas calculating the product took
milliseconds, factoring will take longer because you first need to find the 8 pair of integer factors and then
determine which one is the correct pair.
2. Exponentiation vs. logarithms: Suppose I tell you that I want to take the number 3 to the 6th power; again, it
is easy to calculate 36=729. But if I tell you that I have the number 729 and want you to tell me the two
integers that I used, x and y so that logx 729 = y, it will take you longer to find all possible solutions and
select the pair that I used.
Generic PKC employs two keys that are mathematically related although knowledge of one key does not allow
someone to easily determine the other key. One key is used to encrypt the plaintext and the other key is used to
decrypt the ciphertext. The important point here is that it does not matter which key is applied first, but that both
keys are required for the process to work .Because a pair of keys are required, this approach is also called
asymmetric cryptography.
In PKC, one of the keys is designated the public key and may be advertised as widely as the owner wants. The
other key is designated the private key and is never revealed to another party. It is straight forward to send
messages under this scheme. Suppose Alice wants to send Bob a message. Alice encrypts some information using
Bob's public key; Bob decrypts the ciphertext using his private key. This method could be also used to prove who
sent a message; Alice, for example, could encrypt some plaintext with her private key; when Bob decrypts using
 Alice's public key, he knows that Alice sent the message and Alice cannot deny having sent the message (non-
repudiation).
Public-key cryptography algorithms that are in use today for key exchange or digital signatures include:
• RSA: The first, and still most common, PKC implementation, named for the three MIT mathematicians
who developed it — Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. RSA today is used in hundreds of
software products and can be used for key exchange, digital signatures, or encryption of small blocks of data.
RSA uses a variable size encryption block and a variable size key. The key-pair is derived from a very large
number, n, that is the product of two prime numbers chosen according to special rules; these primes may be
100 or more digits in length each, yielding an n with roughly twice as many digits as the prime factors. The
public key information includes n and a derivative of one of the factors of n; an attacker cannot determine the
prime factors of n (and, therefore, the private key) from this information alone and that is what makes the
RSA algorithm so secure. (Some descriptions of PKC erroneously state that RSA's safety is due to the
difficulty in factoring large prime numbers. In fact, large prime numbers, like small prime numbers, only
have two factors!) The ability for computers to factor large numbers, and therefore attack schemes such as
RSA, is rapidly improving and systems today can find the prime factors of numbers with more than 200
digits. Nevertheless, if a large number is created from two prime factors that are roughly the same size, there
is no known factorization algorithm that will solve the problem in a reasonable amount of time; a 2005 test to
factor a 200-digit number took 1.5 years and over 50 years of compute time.) Regardless, one presumed
protection of RSA is that users can easily increase the key size to always stay ahead of the computer
processing curve. As an aside, the patent for RSA expired in September 2000 which does not appear to have
affected RSA's popularity one way or the other.
• Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA): The algorithm specified in NIST's Digital Signature Standard (DSS),
provides digital signature capability for the authentication of messages.
Hash Functions
Hash functions, also called message digests and one-way encryption, are algorithms that, in some sense, use no
key (Figure 1C). Instead, a fixed-length hash value is computed based upon the plaintext that makes it impossible
for either the contents or length of the plaintext to be recovered. Hash algorithms are typically used to provide a
digital fingerprint of a file's contents, often used to ensure that the file has not been altered by an intruder or virus.
Hash functions are also commonly employed by many operating systems to encrypt passwords. Hash functions,
then, provide a measure of the integrity of a file.
Hash algorithms that are in common use today include:
• Message Digest (MD) algorithms: A series of byte-oriented algorithms that produce a 128-bit hash value
from an arbitrary-length message.
o MD2 (RFC 1319): Designed for systems with limited memory, such as smart cards.
o MD4 (RFC 1320): Developed by Rivest, similar to MD2 but designed specifically for fast processing
in software.
o MD5 (RFC 1321): Also developed by Rivest after potential weaknesses were reported in MD4; this
scheme is similar to MD4 but is slower because more manipulation is made to the original data. MD5
has been implemented in a large number of products although several weaknesses in the algorithm were
demonstrated by German cryptographer Hans Dobbertin in 1996.
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA): Algorithm for NIST's Secure Hash Standard (SHS). SHA-1 produces a 160-bit
hash value and was originally published as FIPS 180-1 and RFC 3174. FIPS 180-2 describes five algorithms in the
SHS: SHA-1 plus SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512 which can produce hash values that are 224, 256,
384, or 512 bits in length, respectively. SHA-224, -256, -384, and -52 are also described in RFC 4634.
< TOP >
10. Charts and Graphs in MS-EXCEL
Procedure for generating a Bar Graph
1. Go to Options, select Make Chart.
2. A window will appear with the different types of graphs.
3. Select Bar and consider the different options at the bottom of the window.
Try them and see which ones enhance your graph. Remember that you are displaying data to present information!
Your graph should be clear.
4. Go to Labels, type in your Title.

5. Go to Axes, notice that y-axis is selected. Type a name for the y-axis (That is the line going from top to
bottom on your graph).

6. Select x-axis. Type a name for the x-axis (That is the line going from left to right along the bottom of the
graph).
7. Now you are ready to make your graph. Select OK.

Change Fonts and Colors in Bar Graph

1. To change the font of the title or the legend, click on it once so that it is selected and then go to Format in
the menu bar.

2. You may change the font, size, style and/or color of the text.
3. Remember that your chart should have clearly displayed information.
4. The colors displayed above are the default colors that Claris Works uses. They can be changed very easily
to be colors of your choice.
5. Go to View, select Show Tools.
6. On your graph, select one of the small squares of color by clicking on it once. Use the paint palette. Select a
different color and you will see that the original color will be replaced.
Enter Data
1. Open a new Claris Works spreadsheet file. In Column A type in labels for your data. In Column B type in
the data.

Procedure for generating a Pictogram

Make Pictogram
1. Select all of your entries in Column A and B.

2. Go to Options, select Make Chart.

3. A window will appear with the different types of graphs.

4. Select Pictogram and consider the different options at the bottom of the window.
5. Try checking 3-dimensional. It adds a nice effect.
6. Go to Series, check Repeating.
7. Your graphic should still be available for pasting from the clipboard.
8. Click one time on the arrow (default graphic) and paste.
9. You will see your new graphic now in place.

10. Now you are ready to make your graph. Select OK.

11. You can adjust the font, size, color and style of the title if you click one time on it so that it is selected and
then go to the menu bar font selections. If you click on the small square so that it is selected you can adjust
the color of the bars using the paint colors in the toolbox.

Enter Data - Percentages to display in a pie chart

1. In Column A type the different categories for your data.
2. In Column B you will want your numbers to show as percentages, so you must set the cell correctly.
3. Click one time on the B at the top of the column. The entire column should be highlighted. Go to Format,
select Number.
4. A window will appear. Select Percent and enter the number 0 for precision.

5. As you enter the data in column B, remember to type the number with the percent sign or type it in decimal
form.

6. Remember that the figures in Column B should total to 100%.

Procedure for generating a Pie Graph
Make Pie Graph
1. Select all of your entries in both Columns A and B.
0
2. Go to Options, select Make Chart.
3. A window will appear with the different types of graphs/charts.
4. Select Pie and consider the different options at the bottom of the window.
Try them and see which ones enhance your chart. Remember that you are displaying data to present information!
Your chart should be clear.
5. Go to Labels, type in your Title.

6. Go to Series, select Label data. You have 3 choices.

7. Now you are ready to make your chart. Select OK.

 Change Fonts and Colors in Pie Chart
1. To change the font of the title or the legend, click on it once so that it is selected and then go to Format in the
menu bar.

2. You may change the font, size, style and/or color of the text.
3. Remember that your chart should have clearly displayed information.
4. The colors displayed above are the default colors that Claris Works uses. They can be changed very easily
to be colors of your choice.
5. Go to View, select Show Tools.
6. On your chart, select one of the small squares of color by clicking on it once. Use the paint palette. Select a
different color and you will see that the original color will be replaced. Continue to select the different small
squares and adjust the colors.

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11. a. Creating a Table
To create a four-column, five-row table:
1. Choose Table > Insert > Table from the menu. The Insert Table dialog box opens.
2. Type 4 in the Number of Columns field.
3. Type 5 in the Number of Rows field.
4. Select Auto in the Column Width field. Selecting Auto allows Microsoft Word to determine the size of
your column widths. Alternatively, you can enter the column width you desire.
5. Click OK. Your table should look like the one shown here, with four columns and five rows.
Entering Text into a Table
To enter text into a table, simply type as you normally would. Press Tab to move to the next cell. Enter the
text shown below into your table.
1. Type Salesperson in the first cell in the first column. Press the Tab key.
2. Type Dolls in the first cell in the second column. Press the Tab key.
3. Continue until you have entered all of the text.
Salesperson Dolls Trucks Puzzles
Kennedy, Sally 1327 1423 1193
 White, Pete 1421 3863 2934
York, George 2190 1278 1928
Banks, Jennifer 1201 2528 1203
Selecting a Row and Bolding the Text
You learned about bolding in Lesson Three. In this exercise, you will select the first row of the table and
bold all of the text on the row.
1. Click anywhere on the first row of your table.
2. Choose Table > Select > Row from the menu.
3. Press Ctrl-b to bold the row.
Adding a New Row to the End of the Table
You can add additional rows to your table. The simplest way to add a new row is to move to the last column
of the last row and press the Tab key. You can then type any additional text you need to add.
1. Move to the last column of the last row of your table.
2. Press the Tab key.
3. Type the text shown here.
Atwater, Kelly 4098 3079 2067
Adding a Row Within the Table
You can add a new row anywhere in the table. The exercise that follows demonstrates.
To add a row just above York, George:
1. Place the cursor anywhere in the fourth row (the row with York, George as the salesperson).
2. Choose Table > Insert > Rows Above from the menu.
3. Add the information shown here to the new row.
Pillar, James 5214 3247 5467
Adding a New Column to a Table
You can add new columns to your table. To add a new column between the Salesperson and Dolls columns:
1. Place the cursor anywhere in the Dolls column.
2. Choose Table > Insert > Columns to the Left from the menu.
3. Label the new column Region and add the text shown in the table below.
Salesperson Region Dolls Trucks Puzzles
Kennedy, Sally S 1327 1423 1193
White, Pete N 1421 3863 2934
Pillar, James N 5214 3247 5467
York, George S 2190 1278 1928
Banks, Jennifer S 1201 2528 1203
Atwater, Kelly S 4098 3079 2067
Sorting a Table
With Microsoft Word, it is easy to sort the data in your table. To sort your table data by Region and within
Region by Salesperson in ascending order:
1. Click anywhere on your table.
2. Choose Table > Sort from the menu.
3. Select Region in the Sort By field.
4. Select Text in the Type field (because you are sorting text).
5. Select Ascending.
6. Select Salesperson in the Then By field.
7. Select Text in the Type field (because you are sorting text).
8. Select Ascending.
9. Select Header Row (because your table has titles across the top of the table).
 10. Click OK.
Microsoft Word should have sorted your table like the one shown here:
Salesperson Region Dolls Trucks Puzzles
Pillar, James N 5214 3247 5467
White, Pete N 1421 3863 2934
Atwater, Kelly S 4098 3079 2067
Banks, Jennifer S 1201 2528 1203
Kennedy, Sally S 1327 1423 1193
York, George S 2190 1278 1928
b. Converting Text to a Table
we can convert text to a table; however, a delimiter such as a comma, paragraph marker, or tab must separate
columns of text. In the exercise that follows, you will convert comma-delimited text into a table.
1. Type the following as shown (do not bold).
Color, Style, Item
Blue, A980, Van
Red, X023, Car
Green, YL724, Truck
Name, Age, Sex
Bob, 23, M
Linda, 46, F
Tom, 29, M
2. Highlight the text.
3. Choose Table > Convert > Text to Table from the menu.
4. Type 3 in the Number of Columns field.
5. Select Auto in the Column Width field.
6. Select the Commas radio button in the Separate Text At frame.
7. Click OK.
c. Table AutoFormat
we can use AutoFormats to apply borders, shading, special fonts, and color to your table. Microsoft Word
lists all Formats in the Table AutoFormat dialog box. While in the Table AutoFormat dialog box, click a
format to see that format displayed in the Preview box. You can customize how the format is applied. Check
the features you want in the Formats to Apply and the Apply Special Formats To frames. Microsoft Word
comes with a long list of AutoFormats.
To apply an AutoFormat to your Name, Age, and Sex table:
1. Click anywhere in the table.
2. Choose Table > Table AutoFormat from the menu.
3. Click Table Colorful 1 in the Table Styles box.
4. Select Heading Rows and First Column in the Apply Special Formats To frame. Do not select Last
Row and Last Column.
5. Click Apply.
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