SOLID MECHANICS LAB LAB-REPORT NO.

ANIL KUMAR CHEJARA ROLL NO. - 09003022

Universal-Axial Tension Test

OBJECTIVES: 1) To familiarize the students with the common procedures and instrumentation used to conduct uniaxial tension tests. 2) To determine the value of impact toughness for given material samples. 3) To determine the values of Modulus of Elasticity, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Rupture strength, Elongation to Failure, Fracture Toughness etc.

EQUIPIMENT: Universal axial testing machine, Computer, various types of specimens to perform this test. THEOARY: When a load is applied to a material, deformation will occur. The relationships between load and deformation of materials are usually determined by testing, in which the load and deformation are expressed in terms of stress and strain. Stress is the internal force per unit area experienced by the material while strain is the unit change in deformation of the material. The stress-strain relationships can then be used to establish the compressive or tensile yielding strength, the modulus of elasticity and the ultimate strength. Below is a typical stress-strain curve for a structural mild steel specimen subjected to tensile test under normal conditions.

1. Proportional Limit In the region 0A the stress and the strain are proportional and the stress at A is the proportional limit. If upon removal of the stress (load), the strain in the specimen returns to zero as the stress goes to zero, the material is said to remain perfectly elastic.

2. Modulus of Elasticity

The constant of proportionality in the straight-line region 0A is called the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus. Geometrically, it is equal to the slope of the stress-strain relationship in the region 0A.

3. Yield Strength Upon loading beyond the proportional limit, the elongation increases more rapidly and the diagram becomes curved. At point B, a sudden elongation of the specimen takes place without significant increase in the applied load and the material has yielded. The value of stress at point B is called yield stress or yield strength. The deformation of the material prior to reaching the yield point creates only elastic strains, which are fully recovered if the applied load is removed. However, once the stress in the material exceeds the yield stress, permanent (plastic) deformation begins to occur. The strains associated with this permanent deformation are called plastic strains.

4. Ultimate Tensile Strength

When the material has passed through the yielding point, stress continues to increase with strain, but at a slower rate than in the elastic range, until a maximum value is reached which is termed the ultimate tensile strength. The increase in stress upon yield stress is due to material strain hardening. Beyond this point the stress decreases until the specimen fractures or fails at point D.

Yield strength and ductility Most structures are designed so that the materials used will only undergo elastic deformation. It is therefore necessary to know the stress at which plastic deformation (yielding) begins. For metals which experience a gradual elastic-plastic transition, the yield stress may be taken to be the point at which the stress-strain curve is no longer linear. A more precise way of determining the limit is to use the stress at a strain of 0.002, this value is known as the yield strength. PROCEDURE: 1) First of all measure the cross sectional diameter of all given specimen and mark gauge length points on the specimen with the help of digital vernier caliper. Make 4 to 5 reading on every specimen and take average diameter (d). 2) Now the specimen in uniaxial tension machine between the fixed cross head ad moving upper cross head. Make sure that the specimen is symmetrical with respect to its longitudinal axis throughout the length. 3) Apply the load gradually. Gradually increase in load prevents sudden shocks. 4) Take note of ultimate load and breaking load. 5) Measure the distance between gauge points and reduced diameter of failure. 6) Predict the type of failure using observations and notes. 7) Repeat the whole procedure for rest specimens and observe the failures. 8) Plot a graph of load verses deflection and find the value of the modulus of elasticity. 9) Determine the stress strain characteristic and type of material from fracture. DIAGRAM:

The specimen is specially prepared as per prescribed standard guidelines, which are so framed as to introduce failure with in the length earmarked for observation called the GAUGE-LENGTH. Test pieces, the original gauge length of which is related to the original cross sectional area (Ao) by the equation Lo = 5.65Ao are called proportional test piece.

CALCULATION OF DIAMETERS AND GAUGE LENGTHS

Speci men Nam e Steel 1 Steel 2 Steel 3 Alum inum Cast Iron

Gauge Length L0 (mm) 150 150 150 150 150

Diameter D1 (mm) 8.00 8.28 8.24 8.15 7.98

Diameter D2 (mm) 8.02 8.25 8.27 8.11 8.06

Diameter D3 (mm) 8.04 8.27 8.22 8.12 8.13

Diameter D4 (mm) 8.05 8.19 8.08 8.15 8.09

Diameter D5 (mm) 8.03 8.09 8.22 8.06 8.01

Average Diameter D0 (mm) 8.03 8.22 8.21 8.12 8.05

OBSERVATIONS: The graph between load and crosshead as obtained from UTM is attached.

Other Observations are tabulated below:

Specimen Name

Steel1 (graph 1) Steel2 (graph 2) Steel3 (graph 3) Aluminum (graph 4) Cast Iron (graph 5)

Final Gauge Length L1 (mm) 154 158 154 161 151

Yield Load Py (KN) 30 44.5 16 17 -

Ultimate Load Pa (KN) 30.07 44.28 34.90 18.75 8.22

Breaking Load A1 (KN) 19 38.5 29 14.5 8.22

Modulus of elasticity, E (*103 MPa) 29.35 30.85 42.60 19.22 29.91

RESULTS AND CONCULISONS: : The following results were obtained from observation of specimen during loading and the graph between loads vs. cross head: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. From graph no. 5 of cast iron it is found to be brittle. The rest specimens i.e. graph 1, 2, 3 &4 are ductile in nature. The strength of the steel is maximum. The order of strength is steel1 >steel2>steel3 >aluminium >cast iron Steel2 has maximum yield load. Modulus of elasticity is maximum in steel3. All three Steels and Aluminium break in CUP CONE pattern. Cast iron breaks in GRANY KIND pattern.

Necking in a tensile specimen

Cup-and-cone fracture in a ductile metal

Aluminium is more ductile and it can be seen from the graph that the distance between yield point and fracture point is more and perfect cup cone fracture is obtained. Cast iron is most brittle in all samples and fracture occurs without any yielding.

Bibliography: Wikipedia Ntpel website Reference sheets E funda