Running Head: INFORMATION MODEL

Information Model for the Academic Library Adriene Staggs and Megan Hertel Emporia State University

INFORMATION MODEL Abstract When presented with a research assignment, students undergo a series of steps to complete their information search. They have a tendency to start their process with informal searches that are familiar to them, such as internet or database searches. Depending on the results from their first, informal search, students may chose to continue on their own with a formal search or seek guidance from others before moving forward. During the entire search process, students are faced with varying degrees of uncertainty and must narrow the focus of their topic. Eventually, students evaluate their sources and decide if they have enough information, want to gather additional information, or desire to begin the search again. The Information Model for the Academic Library has been created to highlight the steps students go through to complete information searches in academic libraries. Keywords: information search, students, academic libraries

INFORMATION MODEL Information Model for the Academic Library Patrons use libraries every day. Young children may go to their schools library to find a picture book about whales. A camping enthusiast may use the public library to locate information about canoeing down a particular river. Doctors and nurses may use a medical library to find information about a particular diagnosis. Genealogists may seek the assistance of materials in an archive. College students may need information for an assignment they are working to complete. Obviously, each of these scenarios presents a different clientele, each having their own unique search process. Realizing that college students often delve into the search process based on a particular kind of information need and that their habits differ from those of many library patrons, this paper seeks to present a model of information searching relevant to students in an academic library. In an effort to articulate clearly the stages of information seeking in the academic library, a model is included on the next page. The model indicates that students begin the search process by recognizing an information need and developing a general topic of interest. However, interest in a general topic is often crowded out by other commitments, activities, and situations. Once students proceed past general interest, they begin searching easily accessed and familiar sources but experience information overload or insufficient information. During these stages and those following, students may fell uncertain or unfocused. This may prompt some students to turn to mediators. Finally, students will evaluate their information and make decisions concerning its usefulness. Following the model, a discussion of each stage is presented.

INFORMATION MODEL Figure 1. Information Model for the Academic Library

Recognizes information need

Procrastination Time Constraints Life situations Other assignments Overwhelmed

Procrastination Procrastination

Ambivalence about rains assignment

Social life

Work rains Outside Factors of Influence: Personality Position Knowledge Time Constraints

Rely on the familiar. Scan available information

Information Overload

Insufficient Information

Heightened Uncertainty

Seeks Mediation

Informal Mediator (family, friends, classmates)

Narrowing Focus

Formal Mediator

Evaluation of Information
A. Need satisfied (presentation and dissemination) B. Need more information(Seek additional information and/or mediation) C. Need not satisfied (Restart at the beginning)

INFORMATION MODEL Recognizes General Information Need Each year thousands of college students receive paper and project assignments from their professors. While students may complete the assignment the day before its due date, they actually begin the search process when they initially receive the assignments criteria. Receiving the assignment triggers an information need, the first step of the academic search process. In Donald Cases (2008) work Looking for Information: A Survey of Research on Information Seeking, Needs, and Behavior, he defines information need as a recognition that your knowledge is inadequate to satisfy the goal that you have (p. 5). In the experience of most students, the final goal is a well-written, well-developed paper or presentation; however, few students have the ability to achieve this goal without first consulting other sources of knowledge. Frequently, students do not know enough about the assigned topic to begin writing straightaway. This experience highlights what Dervin (2003) terms an information gap, meaning one encounters a gap between ones understanding of the world and ones experience of the world (as cited in Godbold, 2006). For example, a common assignment in Composition II classes at Emporia State University requires students to write an eight to ten page paper with a clearly defined thesis using credible sources (Smith, 2010). This assignment clearly prompts students to seek information they do not already know. Assignments in other colleges function similarly because professors push students to engage in new conversations, dialogue, and knowledge. Develops General Topic of Interest The assignment also provides a general area of interest. Teachers of psychology expect their students to write about psychology. A beginning English class may require students to write about a controversial issue. A science class may ask students to find information about

INFORMATION MODEL erosion. In these instances, the assignments and the classes supply students with a general topic. However, most students will not have a narrowed down focus or topic at this beginning stage of the search process. At this point in the process, students topics relate to the criteria of the assignment, as suggested by J.R. Hayes and L.B. Fowler (as cited in Lindemann, 2001, p. 26). Hayes and Fowler also explain that students contextualize their interests based on information and experiences stored in [their] long term memory (as cited in Lindemann, 2001, p. 26). Therefore, students formulate general topics of interest based on their previous knowledge and encounters. Some students may even begin brainstorming about specific directions to take in the search process. Interest Crowding While students general interest in a topic, depicted in the model as a large circle, proves to be an important step of the search process, this step often collides with interest crowding. Ideally, students would identify a general topic of interest and proceed to using familiar search techniques and scanning available information. Unfortunately, this rarely happens. Instead, of moving directly to the next step of the search process, students often linger in the general interest stage because other interests, unrelated to their information need, hinder movement. The Savolainen model of Everyday Life Information Seeking (ELIS) accounts for many processes that people encounter unrelated to their search. Savolainens model (2005) points out that specific projects of everyday life, problematic situations of everyday life, and situational factors such as lack of time can influence search processes (as cited in Case, 2008, p. 131). In an exploratory study of Net Generation students, Susan Gibbons (2007) identifies some specific factors that may slow students search processes. She writes, From the time they woke, these students were constantly on the move between classes, group study, part-time jobs, meetings,

INFORMATION MODEL trips to the gym, extra hours in the lab, and an occasional social event (Gibbons, 2007, p. 17). Other issues that may stall students at this stage include procrastination, ambivalence about the assignment, and feeling overwhelmed. All of these interests make the journey to reaching the next part of the search process like squeezing through a narrow tunnel. The other activities and commitments may seem to push the walls of the tunnel even closer together. Ease and Access Finally, however, students move from general interest, through the tunnel, and into the main portion of the search process. After settling on a general topic of interest, students normally use familiar search techniques and scan available information to begin to bring closure to their gaps in knowledge. Students take this step based on Zipfs Principle of Least Effort that posits individuals regularly choose paths requiring the least amount of average effort (as cited in Case, 2008, p. 151). According to this principle, a person may choose to look at an outdated copy of a text because it is conveniently located next to him rather than go downstairs to retrieve the updated version. Zipfs principle relates to students who regularly choose to consult familiar and readily accessible sources first. People often start with what they know. Steinbruner (1974) maintains that many people make cybernetic decisions in which standard operating procedures are established by prior experience and altered only in the event of negative feedback (as cited in Case, 2008, p. 87). Steinbruners assertion holds true for many students enrolled in an English studies research class. According to an ongoing study, many students became familiar with the database Oxford Premium Reference as they conducted searches (Staggs, 2010). In subsequent searches, they continued to use this database despite the fact that finding relevant information in this database was unlikely (Staggs, 2010). Such behavior seemed to stem from familiarity with the database.

INFORMATION MODEL Zipfs principle also applies to the information mediums students choose. They prefer mediums that provide easy access. Robert Taylor (1968) writes, Studies of information-seeking behavior indicate, for example, that ease of access to an information system is more significant than amount or quality of information retrievable (p. 181-182). Therefore, students are more apt to access internet search engines, commercial databases, friends, and classmates in the beginning stages of their search processes because these sources are readily available. Some may use familiar library databases. Few, if any, will take advantage of interlibrary loans at this time in the search process. Information Progression: Overload and Insufficient As students collect information from familiar and easily accessed materials, they experience either information overload or insufficient information. Everett Rogers (1986) defines information overload as the state of an individual or system in which excessive communication inputs cannot be processed, leading to breakdown (as cited in Case, 2008, 103). Individuals who experience information overload may respond in several ways. According to James Miller (1960), people may omit, wrongly interpret, delay processing, filter, lower, compartmentalize, or reevaluate information (as cited in Case, 2008, p. 104). Whatever response individuals practice, they are unable to make sense or meaning of the information because of its sheer volume. Conversely, some students may experience insufficient information in which the individual or system continues to experience gaps in knowledge due to the informations unavailability or the informations lack of relevance. Although this quandary is the reverse of information overload, the results are the same. Students who face insufficient information are unable to create adequate meaning from their sources.

INFORMATION MODEL Students experiencing information overload or insufficient information have reached a critical point in their search for information. Based on the assertion of the Leckie, Pettigrew, and Sylvain model (1996) that outcomes can redirect or direct searchers choices, the Information Model for the Academic Library recognizes students may follow divergent paths at this juncture. Students may return to their general topic interests and reevaluate the direction of their search. They may proceed directly to the evaluation stage where they try to draw conclusions based on the information they currently have. They may seek assistance from mediators. Uncertainty While students decide in what direction to move, they often experience some level of uncertainty. Uncertainty can be caused by a lack of ability to find needed information or being overwhelmed by the quantity of information (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 112). This feeling may present itself at anytime during the search process. Students may experience uncertainty upon receiving an assignment, during topic selection, during the search process, and after receiving assistance. Narrowing Focus Throughout the entire model, there are bold, dark lines that indicate narrowing focus. It is necessary for students to narrow the focus of their project during the research process. Students may feel more confident after narrowing their focus; it gives them direction for their library search (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 39). The formulation of a focus provided a guiding idea or central theme that gave a direction to pursue on which the information seeking was centered (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 41). With a direct focus, students are able to progress more smoothly through the search process. As students work on narrowing focus, they may choose to seek assistance from another person.

INFORMATION MODEL Seek Mediation: Informal or Formal While students may struggle with uncertainty or narrowing of focus during any stage of the search process, it often prompts them to seek mediation. Either an informal mediator or a formal mediator may provide mediation. Informal mediators include family members, friends, and peers. Informal mediators assisted students by listening, offering encouragement, and sometimes recommending a strategy (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 109). An informal mediator is more of a sounding board for students and can only offer a limited amount of help. A formal mediator, such as a professor or a librarian, is able to offer assistance that is much more extensive to students during their research process. In an academic library, all levels of mediation are present (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 115). This model assumes that students will seek mediation from an advisor or counselor (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 115). However, this does not negate the importance of seeking mediation on an organizer, locator, or identifier level. All levels of mediation are important to the Information Model for the Academic Library. The level of assistance sought by students depends on the level of difficulty students are having with their project. With the assistance of a formal mediator, students are able to locate relevant information on their topic. Formal mediators offer assistance by either helping students sift through their information or by helping them locate proper information that they lack. However, some students see librarians only as the people to help them locate materials, not as subject specialists (Burns & Harper, 2007, p. 10). Consequently, some students may not engage mediators as counselors or advisors. Evaluation of Information Once students collect all of their desired information, it is necessary for students to evaluate the found information. Students will come up with one of three results. Their

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INFORMATION MODEL information need is satisfied; they need more information; or their need is not satisfied, and they must repeat the search steps. If students feel they have sufficient information to proceed with their project, the need is satisfied. They feel that their search results have produced enough relevant information to construct an acceptable product to be evaluated or presented. When students believe they are on the right track but need more information to produce an acceptable project, they may return to a previous step to locate additional information by conducting another internet/database search or seeking mediation. Students will need to restart at the beginning of the process if their need is not satisfied. At this point, they may choose a new topic in the hopes of finding the necessary information. During the evaluation stage, students must decide when enough information is good enough to continue. Another term to describe this is satisficing. Satisficing is described by Herbert Simon (1955) as an information competency whereby individuals assess how much information is good enough to satisfy their information need (as cited by Prabha, Connaway, Olszewski, & Jenkins, 2007, p. 75). Often students decide that they have enough when they have plenty of information to meet page requirements, they have met the required number of sources, they start to run out of time, or information starts to repeat itself (Prabha et al., 2007, p. 81). Clearly, not all students use the same standards when determining if their need has been satisfied. Outside Factors of Influence Just as different students employ various standards to determine when their information need is satisfied, different students also encounter diverse outside influences that affect the way they perform an information search. Besides things like time constraints and other assignments, personality types should be taken into account. Borgman (1989) states that personality

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INFORMATION MODEL differences should be considered when designing information retrieval systems; they have been acknowledged as being influential on database searches (as cited by Heinstrm, 2004, p. 231). Heinstrm (2004) explains that personality type influences how students understand their own learning and approach the retrieval of information (p. 232). Another outside factor that influences student searches relates to the searchers position. For instance, freshmen students may approach searching differently than senior students. Conway mentions that the need to satisfice may not occur at the same time for undergraduate and graduate students. Graduate students may prefer to spend more time on research before deciding they have found enough information (Connaway, 2007, p. 228-229). The position of these students in their academic career directly relates to their search process. Students advanced in their academic progression may have additional knowledge of information retrieval, topics, and subject matter that influences their search processes. Limitations and Further Considerations Noting how the differences personality types and levels of study could affect students search processes, highlights the Information Model for the Academic Library as a very broad model. Further study could lead to a narrowed model based on a particular type of personality or level of study. The presented model provides an in-depth look at the way students conduct information searches for assignments. Consequently, it is only useful for academic searches; it is not effective for searches concerned with leisure reading. The literature reviewed for this model indicated that one of the biggest challenges associated with information searches in academic libraries is increasing students awareness of librarians subject expertise (Burns & Harper, 2007, p. 11). Additional research could be undertaken to determine the most effective method of highlighting librarians expertise.

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INFORMATION MODEL The Information Model for the Academic Library was not based on any field research. The included information came from journal articles, books, and recollection of the authors own research experiences. However, providing surveys, interviews, and observations of students and library staff in academic libraries to undergird the models assumptions provides an avenue of further research given the time and resources. The research completed at the University of Rochesters River Campus Libraries provides an example of research methodology directly applicable to expanding the Information Model for the Academic Library through additional research (Foster & Gibbons, 2007). Unlike Foster and Gibbons (2007) work that is also concerned with the redesign of academic libraries any additional research for the Information Model for Academic Libraries would concentrate solely on the research habits of students. Conclusion While many avenues for additional research exist, the presented Information Model for the Academic Library forms a foundation for exploring the search processes of college students. The model explains that the search process begins immediately after students receive their assignment and recognize their information need. Unlike some previous search models, this model accounts for other interests that may conflict with students information need. The model describes students tendencies and common experiences as they begin investigating sources. The ability to move between stages of the search process is also accounted for since students may either seek mediation or evaluate information without assistance. Additionally, upon evaluation, students have the opportunity to complete or redirect their search. Clearly, this model accounts for many factors and choices that influence a majority of students in their search for information.

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INFORMATION MODEL References Burns, V. & Harper, K. (2007). Asking students about their research. In N. F. Foster & S. Gibbons (Eds.), Studying students: the undergraduate research project at the University of Rochester (pp. 7-14). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Case, D. O. (2008). Looking for information: a survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior (2nd ed.). Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald. Connaway, L. S. (2007). Mountains, valleys, and pathways: serials users needs and steps to meet them. The Serials Librarian, 52:1, 223-236. doi: 10.1300/J123v52n01_18 Foster, N. F. & Gibbons, S. (Eds.). (2007) Studying students: the undergraduate research project at the University of Rochester. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Gibbons, S. (2007). The academic library and the net gen student. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Godbold, N. (2006). Beyond information seeking: towards a general model of information behaviour. InformationResearch, 11:4, 269. Retrieved from http://InformationsR.net/ir/11-4/paper269.html Heinstrm, J. (2004). Fast surfing, broad scanning, and deep diving: the influences of personality and study approach on students information-seeking behavior. Journal of Documentation, 61:2, 228-247 doi: 10.1108/00220410510585205 Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking meaning. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

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INFORMATION MODEL Lindemann, E. (2001). A rhetoric for writing teachers (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Prabha, C., Connaway, L. S., Olszweski, L., & Jenkins, L. R. (2007). What is enough? Satisficing information needs. Journal of Documentation, 63:1, 74-89. doi: 10.1108/00220410710723894 Smith, R. M., (Ed.). (2010). Emporia State University composition manual (10th ed). Southlake, TX: Fountainhead Press. Staggs, A. (2010). The Search Behavior of English Graduate Students. Manuscript in preparation. Taylor, R. S. (1968). Question-negotiation and information seeking in libraries. College & Research Libraries, 29, 178-194.

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