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32 A(IADF,MI(l \\tRI I'lN( I /\Nl) ( :l Nl{l'l
lnore abstract, tcxtual patterning, su('lr:lli lirrrrrirl s( lr('ilrltta. Tl-ris is eviclent
in the rrtove stnlctrlrc filr introcluctiorrs lo prrlrlislrcrl l'('sc:rrch articles and
leqal cases. The ESP approach clocs lr()t ;rll('rrtl)l to l\rlly acconrlnodate the
rnore gencral, rhetorical structtlrcs (strt lr lts lhc frtnntl .\chc'mo,ta) Proposecl
by Carrcll (1988). rv\thile acknorvlc<lgirrg tlrc lok's of lwo types oI'schema,
content an<l formal, Swalcs suggests tlrirt il rrrry lrc rlillictrlt t<l maintain a
distinction betlveen the two when cxrrrttittitrg gt'rrlt', itr that'the natttre of
genres is that they coalcsce zuhat is say:rlrlt'witlt rlirai ut'd lntu it is sayable'
(1990, p. 88). I-Iowevcr, in failing t<t lttltltt'ss tltt' cognitivc, rhetorical
organizatioltal dirnension as an orsarrizrrliortitl ittlltt<.rtrcc in discourse, it
:rppears that the ESP appr<lach to scttlt', likt'tlrt'systemic Iirnctional
approach, involves t.lle attcmpt to rll:ttclt socitrlly cotrstrttcted Pattcrns
(usecl in the staging of content) tvitll tlrc lingtristic systems of the
language. Thcrcfrlre , thc ESP appr()ach [o scrlrc is ltrirrr:rrily a social genre
constmct although it :lcknor'vlcclges thc cxislctrcc ol' more general
cognitive elernents that are integral to tltc crctttiolt ol'tliscottrse.
2.8 An ESP framework for genres
Rekrw the genre level at rvhich categorization is tlcterrnine<l by the:
cornrnunicative purpose, the tcxt-internal elcments of crltrtent and
lingrristic encocling arc analysccl in relation to: (a) rlrctorical ntoucs an(l
slcps; antcl (lt) linguistic stnrctures whicl'r rclate to thcse lltoves ztntl steps.
Ducllcy-Evans (1994) susgests that'clecisions about the classification of thc
moves are tnade on the birsis of lingtristic cviclence , c<tnrprehension of tl-re
tcxt and nnclerstancling of the expectations that both the ge nerarl
acaclemic cornrnunity and the pirrticular discourse comrnttnity have of
thc text' (p. 226). For cxarnple, Swales (1981) proposes a four-nlove
structrlrc lbr the introdtrct.ory section of rcsearch articles, consisting of:
o Establishing the researcl'r fielcl;
o Surnrnarizing previotts rescarch;
o Preparing lbr present rcsearch;
o Introclucing the present rescarch.
Later Srvales (1990, p. lal) rctises this strtlctural rnodel, proposing
three-rnove CXRS (crcate a rcscarclt space) strtlcttlre:
o l'lstllrlislrirru lr tt'rrit,rry:
e listirlrlislrinu u rrit'lrc';
o ()<r'rrpyirrg llrt' rri<'lr<'
i t lurt gr.rrrr. is':r rlctr.r'rrrininrt ( )l lirrpirrist il clroi<.<'s' ( 1 990, p. 42).
'l'lris sllrr< trn:tl
l):tlt(.tlt is llrctr <lislrrsscrl :rl ;r tttir to lltll itt lcttrts ol lltc
lirrp,rristir t'lcrrrctrls rllrit lr rrlrr' ,,r'r'rrr tvillrirt lltl ttt,\r'r ,ttt(l rlr';rs lt;ttttc
,rr 1., l\l,,rr l('r ('nll\', Sl':tlcr (il(X)'l) rlicr tt',rr
" llrr Pult'llll.ll lttt lltct
11
FROM SO()AI. (;l,lNtilt 'l ( ) t,t,])A(i(xty .1.1
variations of the CARS model ol'rrrovc stlu(ttrr(:s and in his 2004 book he
proposes ftrrther possibilities Ior str'11 !itlu( llucs r,vithin the three overall
rnoves (pp.230-2).
Bhatia describcs nloves as 'discrirrrinirlivc clcrnents of generic structnre
... lrvhich clependl upon the conrrrrturi<irtivc purpose(s) that it ser-ves in
the genre and thart is why it varics li<lrrr <>nc genre to another' (1993, p.
32). In analysing legal cases, Bhatia (1903, pp. 135-6) offers a four-move
stnlctrlre consisting ofi
o Iclentifying the case;
o Establishing the facts of the cirsc;
o Arer.ring the case;
o Pronotrncinu.juclgement"
As well as examining legal cases at thc level of move s, Bhatia also exarnines
their linguistic prope rties in terms of sentence lengtl-r, norninal character,
complex prepositional phrases, and binominal and rnultinominal expres-
sions (Bhatia, 1993, pp. 106-ll0).
Other sturlies that examine texts in terrns of moves and steps include
Crookes (1986); Dudley-Evans (1986, 1989, 1994); Hopkins and Duclley-
Evans (1988); ancl Conn<-rr and Mauranen (1999).
2.9 ESP approaches to the analysis of texts: summary
IiSP-rel:rted analysis of texts appears to involve two broad approaches:
of a rype (or types) of linguistic fearures which
identification
commonly occur within texts from certain fields of special-purpose
activity;
a genre-basecl approach involvinq the identification of a genre by
investiuating the operation of texts within a context in terms of 'sets
of conrrntrnicative purposes' (Askehave and Swales, 2001, p. 210).
Strch a genre is ernployecl by a discourse cornmunity engaged in a
cornrnon sphere of activity.
lrr llotlr tyltcs of analysis, the focus is on certain types of larrguaee
a (lirrgrristir: I'cirturcs) proposed as characteristic of the language of certain
li<'lrls of':rt'tivity. In the casc of the genrc-based approach, attention is paid
to l<'xi< ll ()r' syntlrctic clcrrrcnts [hat zrre commonly employed within
ccltirirr lirrrctiorrrrlly r<:lut<'rl s<'r'tions ol'tcxt.s. Thus, althougl-r Swales does
tr()t r( ( ('l)t tlr<'r'orrct'pt ol srrlrlcr't s1><'< ilic r<'gistcrs, Irc ncverthcless claims
l'lSl) gctrtr' :rnlrlt,sis llrs 1,,, rrcr.rl rln it t;utll(. ol (sor.i:rl) gcnrcs from
Itr';ttlt'tttit lttrrl ptolcssiott.rl rlottr,titts, \nttr.'lint('s r orrlirrirrg lltt'ir':ttt:tlysis lo
r)tt(' r)l ttlor(' \('( liottr ol lr'\lt lrr'ltn|lttrH ln lltcsr. H(.1il(.s (strllr :rs llx.
34 .\(.Al)F.\ll(l \\RI'l-lN(, \\l) r .l \lil
introcllction scctions ()f rcsearch irr-l iclcs). llrr',)rHiltriz:tti()nal st.rtLcttrrirlg
pr()posed is a stnrcturing o{'c()trt(:nl (r orrtcrtl s( lt(^lllltllt) an(l is ustlally
rclatively specific. This sociitll,v rccoerrizcrl sl;rtiirrg ol tltc colltent ol :r
genre is iclenti{ied in tcnns o1' nr()v('s rrrrrl str'1rs, wlti( ll are tliscrrssecl ir-r
relation to those linguistic lcatttrcs lvltillr :rt(' ( ()lrrlll()ltly crnployc<l lbr
t[eir realization. Tl-ie higherJcvcl stnr( tulin,] l):rt1('r'ns ()l'tcxts belonging
to a genre category arc not tlre ty1;c ol tttotc lrro:r<lly applicable lirrrnal
schelnata rvhicl-r (larrell (1988) pr()JX)ri(':i. r\ltlrorrglr llrcrc is an acknowl-
edeement o1'diff'erent types of scllclrt;t, lltosc rvlto w()l'k within tlrc ESP
ct()ntext gencrally clo not attcrnpt to rlt'sclilrt':r Iu()l'o ttnivcrsal, illterrlis-
ciplinary rhetorical pattentinpi. Ratlrcr, tlrt'y prrrpos(' sclrcrnatir which :rrc:
spccific to tcxts within a particular ficltl or srrlrjt'tt llrca. Bhati:l (199u),
Irorvcver, notcs the necd fbr appr()acllcs to llrc lt'ltcltitrg arr<l learrritr5J ol'
:rc?rdclnic cliscourses rvhich are approplirttt'lirt tttrivcrsity-levcl Pro-
urrunnles corrcer-rrctl with interclisciplirrur.r :lll(l rtrtrlti-rliscilllinary
irpproaches to knorvlcclge. Irt comparins tcxtlrooks irr di{'f'crent stlb.iccts
(lirrguistics vs larv), lcctures in clil'lbrcrrt clisciplincs (lttrrnarrities lln(l social
s< icrrces vs la$I lectures), irn(l the {rcnres of' cascs irt Lrttsiness an(l l:11v,
lllratia obser"ves:
Wt' trced the sophistication irncl sul)tlcties ol IISP brtt :rt tlte sarrtc tilttc
\,v(' llcecl to rnaster thc powcr r)f gcilcraliz.ati()ns across clisciplinary
lrorrrr<l:rrics... Ortc cotlld see a nlovenlclrt away fitxl the clisciplinc-
lr:rs<'rl llSP course design altd lnctlrod()logv to a lnorc cliscorrrse alrd
1,,t,rrrr.-lr:rsecl cross-clisciplinary approach, lvhiclt lvill chartgc t.htr
t:tttit-t'
li,Sl'lrru'lrrliern by takinu into ar:count tlrc dynir.rnic aspects o{'clisciplinan
lrorrrrrllrrics ... Ilolvever, in ortler to cleal \'vit.h thc c()lllPlcxit)/ ol'getleric
l):rlt(.r'nri so cornrnonly interhvinccl in acaclemic ciiscortrse across discill-
lirrr^s, orrc neecls a system o1'linguistic analysis rvhich is polverlirl en()tlsh
l() :t( ( ()ullt fbr the intricacies of ircaclctnic gcnres across disciplines.
(11)1)lJ, pp. 26-7)
lrr :r lirr-tlrcr cxpansion of'his ideas about the types cl1'knor'vlc<lge tllat
,j('n r'('s <lralv ttpt-rn, Blratia (2004) revisits his six Proposcd stePs
li)r
:rrr:rlyzirre lJcrrrgs atttl irtcltt<lcs sit1l:itioll:Il/ctintexttrlrl analvsis, tcxttral,/
irrtt.r'lcxlrurl rn(l (lis('lu-sivc l;crsl>cctives, ancl ctltn()graPhic alralysis (;111.
r(; I 5).
2. l0'l'hc lwo lrctl;rgogit' :t1r;>ro:tchcs l() g('llr(': rlis<'tlssiorl
lrr tlris r lt;t1rl.t' l\\r():llrlrto:tt ltt's lo s,l i:tl 1't ttt. l'r'tlt r'I ttlrir lr lrltvt'ltt't'tt
trrllttr trlr.rl rrr ;,,.rl,rt,,,l,tr I rrnl( \l\ \\( tI tr rt, tr, rl lrr lrotlr r.ts|r, 1'1'1111 i1
.,(.r'lt lltttt,tttl\',r.t.l !ilr t.rl r otrrltn{ l, ( \r\lnr1' rr.trlr t l,'.tr ltlr'\t kitttl
"orrrc
,,1 rrrtr\r'lllr,,rr,rlrzr,l 1,tttl)(,.,( \\tllilll .r lr.ttltrttlrt ,rrllrtt,rl rr)lll(\l
FROM S(XllAl. (;l'.Nl(l' lr I l'l':l),\(i()(;Y .11)
discourse community. In botlr ol tlrt'rrp;irou<lrcs itttclnpts ?rre nt:r(le to
relate the conventionally recourriz<'<1, olgruriz:rtional sta!{es ol' a s()cial
genre to actual linguistic I'cattrrt's of cx<'rrrJilar tcxts, these features being
seen as clraracteristic of the pa|li(il1ilr'gcrrlc tlrat thc text belongs to. In
the case of the systemic functionrrl rrpprriach, the lexico-grarnrnaticirl
charactcristics tend to be resnr<lt'<l :rs u('lirc-definins. It is intcrcstintt,
however, tl-rat Biber's extensivc cor'prrsJrii.scrl stucly o{: texts does not
support such an approach:'lglcnrr,r urc <lclinecl ancl distin{ruisl.red on thc
basis of'systematic nonlinsuistic critcria, arld they nre vali(l in those tcrnrs'
(Biber, 1989, p.39). Tlrus, fbrcx:rrnplc, Biber (1988, l9tl9) proposes that
genre catesories (such as n()vcls, ncrvspaper articlcs irnd eclitorials,
:rcaclemic articles, public spe cchcs, raclio broaclc:rsts, and cveryclay
conversations) are 'clefinecl prirnarily on thc basis of' cxt.crnal lbrrlat,
Ithese clistinctions beingl relatecl to other clifl-ercnccs in purposc arr<l
sitttation' (Biber, 19t39, p. 6). Furtherrnore, Luke (1996), in cliscussing
genre from a sociological perspective :rncl drawing on Voloshino\"s n()tion
of speech g?nreq emphasizes that (social) {rt: nre s arc 'sites fbr thc
contestation of difference' (p. 318), rvhich is not reflectecl in a'{tncly
lirainecl synchronic analysis of texts' (p. 333).
The vierv that social gcnrcs canllot be iclentificcl in linguistic ternrs is
also supported by Paltriclge's (19932r, 1997) investig:rtion of a single social
genre, using tlre systcrnic functional approach to genre analvsis. Paltri<lgc
fbund no systematic relat.ionship trctr.r'cen social prlrpose and lexicci-
grammaticir.l charzrct.eristics. It rnay bc, however, that there is a systern:rtic
lclationship betr'veen genre itnd sornc aspccts of languagc. What is likely,
Irowever, is that it is a relationslrip involving ()r me(liatecl by counitive
gcnre rather than social genre. This will involve rnakirrg a tlistinction along
tlrc lines proposccl by Pileuaard ancl Franclsen:
kxt gcnres, (e.g. novels, instnrctions, rlewspaper eclitorials, legal text or
... Iancl] ... text types ... (c.g. narrativc, cxl-rository,
lrrrsincss letters);
<lcscriptive, arsumcntative or instructional text types). (1996, p. 3)
f ilcgaarrl and Franclsen su{r{rest tllat tut genre ancl l?xt ryp? rn:ry bc
rlistirrerrislrctl in thc following w:ry:
'l'lrc critcria rlcfininq tcxts as text types will usuirll,v apply only to t.cxt
;xrrls (or text sequences ...) whcrcas tlrc criteria clefining text us lpr!'l
rvill corrrrrronly apply only to whole texts, i.et. except cases rvltcre
{r'rrrr,,r
()n(' t('xl ut'rrrt: is crnbeddccl rvithin another getire. (p. 3)
llrt'\,go orr lo rlr'(irrr:'.r t.r,xl. t\l)t,(\l llrc lnsis o1'tlrc loll<trving critclia:
l. llr, tttltlilil4 olntrrlitttt it rlllr', l\ 1rr tllll's('rrls (r'.t1. lo <l<'s<r'ilr<'or'
il.ilt.rl( )'
{)l
 (;l'.Nl{l'l FRON,{ S(X]lAL (il,tNt{t,. t( ) I't,.I),\(;()(;y
36 AcIADEMIcI \\rRI'rINo ANI)

cleploys to pertirrnl this operation

(the l)isc<tltrsc procltrction irtvolves tlrt' n'pn'scrrtatiorr ol a language user's
2. the lingttistic 'mea"n's it ttnclerstartcling of concrete featurcs of'llrc rclrl worltl, or of abstractions.
strllctlrral criterion) ;
That reprcsentation rnay involvc citlrcr- spccch or writing. Rosch (1978),
3. tlrc cotnmunicatiae Junctlon the sender
or receiver intends [o realize
(Pilegaarcl ancl Frandsen' 1996' pp' 3-4)
when discussing httman catcgorizutiorr ol' knowleclge, obsenrcs tl-rat 'it
(the functior-rirt.iit"tit"-t)' shotrld be ernphasizecl that rvc arc talkirrq erltout the perceivcd worlcl and
t)?e is similar. ttl that not a rnetaphysical world without a knower' (p. 29). With ref-erence to the
This clistinction between text senre and t'ext idcas of Putnarn (1981), Johnson (1987) obscn'es that 'all knorvlcclqe
genre in Chapter l '
propclsed be tween social genre' a'-tct cogttitiue reqtrires structllre ancl categoriz:ltion. Specifically human knowledge
' Tt conclude, it is sr"rggested that an adequate appro.ach to cliscotlrse
involve three elernents: rcquircs categ;ories of un<lerstancling that hurnans can nrake sensc ol- in
analysis, sttch as in termi-of gcnre' mlrst te rrns of their own rncdiatecl expcrience and can trse lor human prlrposes'
element.s genre: this arca of (p. 206). It is suggested, therelbre, that discourse creation is a process of
o the .social motiuntion and .socia,lly con,structed
oJ'

the firnctionally related

knowledge *itt-oi''"t-'*t cert;inly inclucle rcpreseDtation. It involves the representation of cognitive categorics in
schematic strnctllre or Inoves
staging ,i tn" conterlt (in terms of-a tcrrns of the lingtristic possibilities of a language (which rvill, of nccc.ssity,
ancl steps), ur-r-"i"nr.r-ri consiclercd central to the two pedagogic
crnploy the orgzir-rizational ancl categorizing systcms of that lanutragc),
in this chapter' However' as the
approaches u' gt'lt" reviervecl
of a particular trsually to achieve a social prlrposc in socially prescribecl rvays (see Hyland,
research S,"d:' ii;uaj , irt his tle tailed exarnination 2003, p. 166). It is conclucled, therefcrre, that an adequare rhcory ol'
"f
cliscourse ..nt**tiif 1'y'tentutit botanists)
stlggests' there needs to
in to the senre and <liscoursc (arrcl discourse categories, such :ts genres) tirkes into acc()unt tl)c
be a greater fbcus on i"ttt' t'f context relation
types oI social, linsuistic ancl cognitive knowleclge that are involved in thc
[lIc context.,otiy atiut'-t elemcnts of genre knowledge',knowledge rcpresentatioll process.
that Bhatia tzo'oii^-r"g.gests coulcl be urrcovelccl by ethnograpflc
"e 't,rtto-i'g
i'vestigation. cr]up,", provicles f.rther clisctrssion of this Chaptcr 3 reviews a range olcognitive appro:rchcs to the classificati()n ()1'
arca ancl p.opor.i a her'rristic for exparrcli:C ',ht
tt:l'" examin- knorvleclge, incluclirur scherna tlreory, prototypc tl-reory ancl rclatc<l
t'f genre kti<'rvlcclgc b1' rlovice. :.f
writers' Irl (:onstrlrcts. Thc revielv will particularly focus on approachcs to knowleclgc
ation of ttt.r"""t"'l-t"'-'r' chapter
ir..ition r" dr;. tu;;ii""or i,ugi"g of contenr, rhis also t l:tssificatiort that relate to the stmcturing clf extendecl writtcn cliscourse,
('Plslcmulogy arrd mt'tadiscottrse in
tliscttsses llte aspecrs ol'( olll('xt' ilt orcler to establish the principlcs tlrat ought to constrain any theoret.ical
to gcnre tnowle.dge;
,i,.', propo*of f"i o ttia"t approach social ltpproaclres to clescribinq cliscoursc in tenns of cogr.ritive genres.
of Biber (1988'
o contitiue organi"zational stru'iti'res: thc corpus ristarch (1993a' 1997) borh
Itlri{)) arrcl tf t" lt'n'" rcsearclr ol Paitrirlgc. social genre
(luestion tft. ial:r a clcterministic link between
knowledge and
"t'
linguistic featurcs' Paltriclge (2002) and Pilegaard
and" text types
itttd Frandse n ( 19ii6) sce ge nres (stlcial --gerrrcs) of discourse
(cognitivc g",-tr.,; operatirig synergisticalJy lt qit:
krrorvleclge' ancl Paltritlge slrggcsts tliat
botli shc'uld be inclucled in
cop;nitive ge nre constrlrcts
any cliscourse focus or aii rap i.rurse. The
1:roposedinitiall,vinClrapterlareftrrther'clevelclpeclincletailin
Chapters 4 ;;i'i L'll;;tg' In-Chapter 4 a rnoclel for cognitive
catesories of text rypes that
senres i, p..rp.rrJ, itooui"f on Biber^'s
occur in o.oa.irrri. prosc. I,T.wever, rather
tiian .escri'ing them in
linguistic ternls, they irrc proposecl to bc cognitive organizational
structlrres employing prt,ceclttral knowledge; clistin-
this includes
c tlu ncttuil. tinfttts'tic"re)t]izrtfi0ns o;f tltc disciwse.['lt:xical
elemcttts clrt>ice (such
s.isli.s t.*L"tt"i1.' ,.rli,,rry <l.i'u.r-t
lirrgrristi. li :rlrrr'('\ irrlluc'cc<l by
as spccializc.t.-ic.lr,ri.,,l ltxis a'<l
lll:lr licl<l irr wlritlr
tlttl c:llistt'rtlokruy lrrrtl lll('tll(lisc()tll''t't'i ll"'l);illlr,\t,,i, t' rlt^r'ivirlg li()rrt
()l lirrgrristir
tlrt, gcrrr.<, ,,,.,,ii;, lrrrrl tlrr. ltsl)('(.ts
tltt'lot'itt,l 1""11u'";rrrrl tlrt'ir irlllrtt'"tt'tttt
t"ltt lItt" 'ttttl r.lltt'sirltt'
 Chapter 3: Constraints on a cognitive genre construct

3.0 Introduction

In Chapter 2, the review of two influential approaches to social genre used

to categorize and analyse texts (for pedagogii purposes) reveali that both
approaches tend to focus on the conventionally recognized staging of
content, which is related to the actual linguistic features of exemplar texts.
These two aspects are seen as characterizing the particular genre to which
a text belongs although corpus and genre studies appear to question the
validity of this approach. In neither of the two approaches to genre that
were reviewed is there an attempt to acknowledge the additional existence
of more general cognitive discourse structures that may in sorne way
mediate between socially constructed, conscious patterns of textual
organization and the linguistic sysrems that they employ. However, if a
,Case for modelling such mediating structures is to be presented, it is firstly
l. necessary to identify the aspects of cognitive theories of knowledge
,Categorization and organization that ought to constrain any such model.
,To identify these constraints, the first part of this chapter reviews the
principal features of theories and constructs proposed for the categoriza-
tion and structuring of knowledge. This review includes:
o fundamenral notions in cognitive approaches to categorization,
including those of prototype and hierarchyi
' . theories of underlying patterns employed in the structuring of
1' knowledge in specific domains, including: schema theory, scripts and
goak, scenarios and framc theory;
r theories of procedural or organizing structures that integrate
' knowledge from multiple domains, including mental spaces
(Fatrconnier, 1985); image schemafa (Johnson, 1987); and, idealized
cognitiue models (Lakoff, 1987).
'It
At the end of the review of each theory, a summary section discusses
lmplications (of the reviewed theory) for developing an approach to
Clt€gorizing extended discourse, The second part of the chapter then
ffovides firrtl-re r cliscussion o1' tlre significance of this range of concepts in
lEnns of how they rrriglrt conllrnin nny approaches to discourse classifi-
cntlon ancl organization.
40 A(lAl)EN,{I(l \\Il{l llN(; \Nl, {.1 Nlll
3,1 Fundamental notions in cognitivt.' ilPPt'();tt'ltt's l(, categorization:
protot'?e and hierarchy
This revie'rv begins by exanrinirlg (ltt' ltvo r t'ttlt:tl (()ll(:cpts in catcgoriza-
tiorr tlreory, the concepts of prok.tLyln,lnt<l lrtr'trttr lt1'. I'lris rcview will consiclcr
tl-rc grigins of tl-resc terms ancl also corrsirlct ltotv lltt'v relatc conceptually
to any typc of catcgorizat.ion, inclrrrlirru llrt t :rlcgotiztttion of cliscottrse . "language" has not the formal ullity tlurt I irnaqinecl, but is the larnily of
Wittgmstein and'family resemblances'
The icleas of the lingnistic philosoplrcl l,rr<lrvis Wilt.scnstcin have bccn
infltrential as a basis fbr c:rtegorizllti()ll lll('()tv:ttt<l relatecl rcsearcl],
inclucling the categorization olllspec:ts ot lrtttuttrtgt'. Wittgcnsteir'r proPoses
that a cornplcte hurnan unclerstanrlinr.t ol r'vot<ls ittvttlvcs r'vhat he tcrtns
'ostcnsive clcfinition'. IIe proposes tltat:t l:ttrgtt:tgc tls1rr is n<lt:lble tcr
achieve an trnclerstancling of thc ostensivc rlr'{inition ol a word trntil 'the
overall role of the worcl in the langtrilge is cl(:rtr'' (Wittecnstein, 1953/1963'
Rernark 30). He explains this by analog)': cxplrtirrirt{ ttl a learner o['chess
Irow the king piccc fr-rnctions involves tlrt-'assrrrrrJrtiorr that the learner'h:rs
alreacly playecl othcr (boarcl) garnes, or has rvatcltctl other peoplc playing
Irn<l rtnderstoocl - and similar tl-rings' (Rernark 30). Tlrc sugucstion seenrs
to bc that to clevelop an ostensivc clefinition tlf a lvorcl reqttires
krrowledse paracligm or settinq into r'vhich thc ttew \'v()rcl nlay bc graftcrl.
'l'lrc nclv word, therelcrre, clrarvs its rneaning, in part, fiorn thc learner's
pr1l,i6us gnclcrstandirrg of thc meaning sctling to rvhicll the lvorrl most
, loscly relates. This vicw has irnplic:r.tions ftrr the naLrtrc tlf categoritls and
lrorv llrcy are forlnccl. It also bcgins to question thc iclea ol'the l>ottttclecl
nlttlu(' ()r Separatcltess of catceorics, irrrplying a clcgrele of'orterlap in the
rv;ry tlrt' rnind btrilcls trp its knolvlcdgc of :r catesory.
Irr rlrrcstioning classical icleas of bountled catesorizatiorl in rclatiorl to
lrrrrgrurr{c, Wittgenstein (1953) tlevelops the ir.lea o| fttmi\ resc'n'blartccs, an
irlt'lr llrat ltc presents by analoSry lvith boartl galners:
Wc scc a complicated netlvork of similarities rlverlapping ancl t:riss-
< rrrssing: solnctimes overall sinrilarities, sontetintes sirnilarities
of clctail.
I t trrr think ol'no ltette r expression to characterisc thesc sirnilarities than
ltrrrrily rcscrrrblanccs ... one rnight say thc collccpt,'gatlre', is a cortcept
witlr lrlrrrrcrl crlgcs. (Rcrtrark 71).
Wittgcrrstcin rrckrrowl<'<lst's tlt:rt a<lopting this position irnplics an ol)crl-
r.rr<lr.<lrr<,ss o{ rrrr.trrring, 1ul ()lxrn-clrrlcrlness tltal rttny ltc rletcctalllc ct'ctt
rvitltin lr sittglt' s('11('tl( ('. I I6rVt't,t't', rvltt't't'lts 'lltt' st'tts<' <)l :t s('lll(lll((' ...
lll\, ... lt:rt,t. llris ot lll:tl ()lX'tl ... llrc s('lll('ll( (' lllllsl ttt'r'r'tlll<'l<'ss ltltYt' lt
rlr.lirritl st.rrsr,' (l{r.rrrtrrli 1)1)). 'l'lrrrs, llrt'rc is .t Ilt ( r",\ll\ l,tt lrotttttl;ttit's
rrlri, lr ,tt( . rl( \('t llrllcss, 'irrrlclirritr" { licltt,rr i 'l'tl I lrr". 'rl lirst siulrt,
lrr l.rr I ltotvctr'l
(loNS'I'ld\INl's ( )N ( :( x :Nt I tVl (ll,tNlilts 41
the contr:rcliction may be rnorc :ll)l)lu(.nt tlr:r1 r'r'll: 1r sentence rnay, in otrc
context, convey the nteaning rr'<lrrirtrl lirr irrt<'r'prctation in tha.t contcxt;
in another contcxt, holvevcr, wllitl is < onvt'vcrl lry the san)e scntcnce lnav
be clifferent. In other worcls, tlrclc is rrr olrr:n-encleclncss in relation t<r
sense which is generally resolvcd irr lt'llrtiorr t() :r(lequatc contexttraliz-ation.
Thus, as Wittgenstein (1953/l9ti3) olrst'rr,,cs, 'rvhat we call "sentence" and
stmctures rnore or less relatecl t() ()r)(. arrotlrer' (Remark 108).
In reflectine on tltousht an(l its rclationslrip to languaue, Wittgcrrstcirr
proposes sornc kind of ccxrnitivc orclcrins of concepLs bcfore they are
cncoded as langrurge:
Thousht is surrounded by a halo - Its cssence, louic, presents an orcler,
in fact the a priori order o{'the world: that is t}re orrler of possibilities,
r,vhich rnnst be comrnon to both tvorld and thouglrt . . . the orrlcr
existins bctween the possibilities of proposition, word, truth, experi-
ence and so on. This order is a super-orclcr bettveen - so t<.r spcak -
super concepts. (Remark 97)
ln these very brief'rernarks, wittgenstcirr raises issucs ancl qrrcstions of'
r:onsiderable importance to later cosnitive psycholow and inlonnation
ir
processing. The extrerrre brevity of his rcnrarks and, tlrereforc, their olvn
l:rck of firll contextualization lncans that thcy rernairr ol)clt to a rztnge of
irrterpretation, irnd thus servc as littlc rnore than an illustration of his
tlresis. Ncvertheless, Wittgenstein's disconrfbrt rvitlr ar)v c()nccpt of stable
(':rteeories, unrelatecl to context, is clcar.
Thus, Wittgenstein prcligr.rres rnany of thc ideas of rnodern cosnitivc
lrsyclrology related to cateuory. In partictrlar, hc:
. presents thc concept of farnily resemblanccs in attcnrptinq trr
account frrr how categorization occrlrs in l:rnguagc (using as an
cxarnple the analogy of thc category of uames) ancl proposcs that
cateq()ries should bc seen as consistins of rnore typical and less
ty;licll nrt'rnbt,rs;
. Pr()poses thc iclea of tl-rotrght irnposing its orcler <)n lirnsuage, tlrus
prc{iuurine the irleas of cognitive rnodel and cateuory efl'ects that
wcrc latcr dcveloped in cognitivc psychology;
o lroirrts to tlrc cognitive lrhcnomenon of cornrnonly shared concepts,
tltkirrg ils rul ('xlnlplc lrrrrrurrr pcrccption and coiour attributiclrr.
.\trttrtrrrrty rr.rttl irttllittrtiotts lut rlivttrtt.sr,utlt,tlor"izttliott
Wittgcrrsl<'irt's i<lt'lrs point to rrrrrlt rlt,irrg l)l(x'('sscs 9l' cognitivc orclering
ittvolt'r'rl irr tlilli'r('nl tVl){ \ ,rl lrrrrrr.rrr (:lt('g()lil.ltliolr, strc:lr :ts r1lt actiyities
,ttttl t olottts, ;ttttl lltctclotr', l,t l,,lli,,rl cr.lt.rrsirltt, t1()t(.trltttltlt'x c()lcepts
:ttr lt tts lyl)('\ t'l tlt',,,'ttt',, I Ir ,ltt,1r'\ llr,rl :rrt trrrrlr.rsl:trt<lirrg rll tltc
oslcrrsitc rlIlrrrrlron 'rl \\"trl.. tr rltiltr ., ,t Lltr['r. ol t.r1lr.t it.ttr.r.s if f fVlti<.lr
lltcsc rt,rtrl', ,ttl r rrnlr rlrr.rlr..,,l rt rvrll lrr. ;q11'1;q.11 lrr.rc llt:rl
"nlll.ult.
 A(lADEN.{ltl \\RI]'lN( i ,\Nl) ( ;l'Nlil
[rndcrstancling w-hat characterizes a( ( ('l)l:rl)l(' ('xrtltll)lcs of a clisr:ottrse
category or {renre rcqllires a rangc ol'cx1rt'ricttr t's irr r'vllich texts are seerl
as beinC representative of the particulltr ( rrl('ll()r'y. .Jtrst as Wittgenstein
ll()tes that meanilig lllLlst., ill a scns6, lrt'opt'tt-t'tl<lq<I, being subiect to
rcvision in the liglrt of experience, s() iL is rttsttt'tl ltt:rc that categorics used
Ibr the classificatirirl of cliscollrsc (strcll :ts st'tttts) 1lr-c open-enclecl, being
subiect to increasingly cornplex relbrrntrlutir)ns in thc light of exporiencc.
Rosch and'proto$pe tlteory'
Wittgenstcir] 's idca of farnily rescrnblanccs was c()nfirlnecl by the rcsearch
ol Rosch (1973, 1975) ancl Rosch ancl Mer-vis (1975). Their findings
l)r()vi(lc e nlpirical evicle nce that, lvhcn catcgori/-ing ce rtain types of
olrjccts, shapes ancl colours, thc principle of family resemblance - central
:rrrrl pcriphcral category members - is lirndamental t() hurnan pcrccption
iul(l nn(lcrstanding. Knowledge of a cate.qory ancl ability to categorize
rrpprrrll'i:rtcly appear to relate to knowledge of the ccntral melnbers or
l)r.()l()lyl)cs o{'the category. Since the research of Rosch ancl her
r ollcrrgrrt's, tlrc 'lamily reserlrblances' idea ol' Wittgenstein has been
It.r rrrcrl ltntlot,ltfxt Llteory. -[he lbllowing pitrasraphs are brief surnrnarit:s of
rolrr ol tlrt' 1'sglrrch that Rosch an6l her colleaglres clrried out, the
lrtllrrrl,s 9l r,vlrit lr slll)p()rt the fanrily rescrnblance aPproacll to hltman
r ,rllp,1v1 rz:tliott.
l{,,.,r lr (l')7ii) Pr.r'lirlrrrc<l colonrexperirlrents ir-rvol'n'ing the Dani, a tribe
rrr lr r,rrr l,rr,r rrr lrrtlorr<'silt, r'r'll()sc language hircl oniy two colour catcgories:
,rrilr rrl.rrl ,,,,,1. rrr, lrrrlirrg lrllrck, green and bluc) arrd mola (liuht-warrn,
irr, lrr,lrrrl, rrlrrrr'. rcrl :urrl r'<'llolv). She dcrnclnstrated that, in learnirtg a
r rr!!. ,,1 , ,,l,,rrr n,unr'\. tlrc l)lrtri acquired frlcal colour terms (the
I'r, :inti, rl n,rtrr,rl '.1,'r( ol\'lx's) rvillt grcater case than they dicl thosc
rr lrtrnp rrr n,ll l,,r,rl ,,rlrlurs. l'.\'('rl rvlt<'tt {rt>ttpccl in categories with focal
r r rl'rr, l, rrt ir r { r t r,r l rrrlrttl rlt s ol lt t ltlt'qttry grouPins, local colours werc
l, ,rlr, rl rr rtlr 1y i ,rtr r r',r',r' Irr :trlrliliotr, trsinS; two-clirnensional figures
,.llr, lr lrrlrrr rr',r,rrr lr ',lrorrlrl tvctc ttol ltltt'lt<ly clilssifiecl into form classcs
l,r tlrr il.urr trrl,, llr,',, lr rlltttottslt:tlt'tl llt<' rrllc o{'natural Prototypcs in
l,riin trli.rlrr I r,rtr 1,r1;r',,, tlrr\ lrrof irlilvg l l)ilr:tllctl sltldy to that involving
The
"rlrrlt tr 11,:, lrlt orr llr,rl ltt\'olvcrl ;t <lilli'r'crrt :rrc':r tll'PcrccPtiorl.
',,rrrrr lr\;rollrr:i',rltr{'tttlnlillt('lt'ltttrirrg()[ il(:lt()g()rywllst(lslo(l-thatis,
rlr.rt tlrr. 1,lr..ilrrr,=,1 rr,rtrrr,rl l)t()lr)l\'lr| sllirgrcs \.t't't'tt'ttltltl tttt'ttrllt't-s o[ thc
r,ttr.l'r,rr. ,rrr,l ,t lf toillr ol rlrslorli()rrs r'vcIt' 1lt'r'illlrt't-ltl tttt'tttlrt'r's. Il wlts
l,,rrrrrl tlr,rt tlrr.rr,rtrrr,rl ptotolyl)('s rvr^tc lt';ttrtt'tl llrstcl lltlttt llt<'<lislotliotts,
r \r 1 \\lrr.rr tlrr.\ (tlrr'lrrotol\'pirlrl slr:r1rt's) rvctc tltttgltl (lo stttttt'strlljt'tts)
.1., lr( tr1,lr,.r,rl rrrr,trrlrlrs .l ;t 1ir,,rr1rirrg ol slr;t1rcs. ()rr llrc lt:tsis ol lt<'t
r( 1r.u, lt .tt lrltr {'ltlrt.rl (.tl{'l',()tics rvitll llrc l)lrrri, liosr lr ( l1)7lt) r t'ttr ltttlt'tl
llr,rl 1rr,l.l\lrl llllr l: tttott'r"tstl\'l('( i)f'lli/('tl I I'llll'll tttt'tttltt'ts;ttttl lcss
,.r',rlt rrrrll'lt/r,11,,=ttl,lt,r,rl lrr,ntl,,tr ,,,ttlrl lr,,tlt"tttlrltttllr, l,.rrrrittl',
c()NSTRf\lN't'S ( )N ( r( )( ;\ IH Vt ( ;1,:NI{llS 4?t
of thc rrarnes of the membcrs ()l llr(' l)('r( ('l)llr:rl c:rtegories of colour ancl
shapc.
In a clifferent series of expcrinl('nt:i tlr:rt irrr<rlved native speakers of
Flnslish, Rosch (1973) attcrrrptc<l lo rkrtcrrninc whether ccrltrality and
pcripllcralit,v wcrc also rncaninelirl lirr tlrosc types of noun catcgory tllat
did not rcllrtc directly to pcrccptiorr. Wlrcn askcd to make sclections as to
the centrality or pcriphcrality ()f a \'v()rd, subjects' reaction tirncs rvere
lnr.lch firster when the \\'orcl was sclcct.c(l as a central rnember of a category
than lvhcn it was a peripheml one. A seconcl study in this scrics
hypothesizecl that central or prototypical mernbers of a catesory arc
learnecl bclbrc lcss typic:rl, more peripheral mernbcrs o{' thc sarne
category. IIere, tl-re expcrilncnt irrvolvccl ans$'ering 96 true/false questions
rubout the catcg()rJ nrcrnbcrship of nouns. Rcltlr clrildren and adults
of a category, although children
rczrclily rccognizcd the ccntral rnernbers
rcrluired rnore rcirction tirnc than achllts. For thc re cogllition of
l)cripheral category menrbcrs, chilclren require(l more tinre zrnd nlacle
nlore err()rs, whereas the proportion of errors adults made in relation to
r:c:ntral ancl peripheral cate6iory rnenlbership \\'as not significantly cliff'cr-
crrt. Adtrlts, Ilor'r'cr,er, took longer to recoqnize peripllcral catcuory
nrcrnbers tl-ran they clicl to recognize centr?rl rnembers. In both cascs,
tlrc recognition tirnc requircd by acltrlts was less tlran that requircd l)y
< lrilclren. Fnrtherrnore, the proport.ional cliflerence betr'veen the tirncs
rt:quired fbr the two types of recognition was much less for aclults.
TIrus, Rosch was able to <lemonstrate prototype effects opcratirls in u
\,rrricty o{ types of noun category, inclucling colour and shape pcrccptior.t
( iltcgorics. Frorl hcr expcriments \'\.ith other sem2rntic catcqories rvith
:rrlrrlt ancl chilcl subjects, it appears that categories are learned, and tllat
l)r1)t()typical rnernbcrs of a categon arc learncd beforc pcripheral ones.
Sirrrilar-finclings emergecl from a lirrther series of nine experimenLs irr
lvlric:lr various aspects of the prototype-effect in the area of catesoriration
rvt'r't: cxaminecl (Rosch, l97li). Most of these experirnents involved the usc
ol l 'prirrte' (zl superorclinate c:rtegory name) which was thcn followecl by a
st'r'onrl lloun, the airn being; to examine the natrlre olt cognitive
t t'1rt t's<'tttlrl iott of c:tlegories.
'I'lrx'r' hcy [indines emerged frorn these experilnents:
r 'l'lrc' irrl.crrr:rl stnrctlrrc of ir cate5iory reprcsentation appcars to aff-ect
tlrt' p<'rccrpt.iorr of subsequently represcntccl stinruli wlrcn they are
:r( livrl('(l ,/llrirnecl by a category nanle. \A4ren activated, tl-ris intenral
lr'pr'<'scrrtlti()n irppcars to bc more c{'fcctivc in facilitating the
lr'< ogrriliorr ()l'ccntnll rrrcrrrlx:r's of the category than it docs it-r tlrc
r lrst' ol ;rclilrlt<'r':tl ort<'s.
r 'llr<'r'll<'r'l ol (:tl('Hor\ r('l)rcscntlrliorr:ll)l)c:lrs to ltc tltrc to tlrc
:tltslt;tt I l( l)l( s('lll:tliott itl lltl r;ll('H()l\"li lllllll(', t':ttltt:r t.ltatr ttl
{ on{ t( l(' lrlrtsir:rl lr'.rlrrrr", .r!.{}i r,llctl l'itlr tlr<' (:tl('Jl()l'\,.
r Ilrr'!1(.,11111\,rl rrt;,, rrrrrlrrr,rtr r,rlr l,ut\ l('tnls (lor 1,,rott1ls ol n()lllls,
44 ;\cAl)E\'llc \\'RI I'lN(; ,\Nl) (:l Nlil
c.g. 'velticlc' lor car, tnlck, lr)()t()r-r'r'r'lr') :u (' n()l specifically coded itr
l llr:tt lcss tirnc is netltlcd
tcrrrrs of-rvortls or pict.trrcs. Ilorv<'r't'r', llrt' l:rt
to classily pictures sturgcsts tlrltt pi< trrr('s llllly bc closer to the
trnclerlyinu nrer:rtritrg than ltt-c tvot tls.
As arr extcnsion ol- the expcrinrents tllrl irl<'rrtilir'<l l)r()totypclcl'l-cct lvithin
c:ttcgories, Rosch ancl Mcr-vis (l97ir) ptrrtt't'tlt'<l to itrvestiqate lrow lhe
internal strlrctrlre of categorics nriscs. Artt'r'rlotll irrlbrtnation ancl sorne
inrlications frortr thc previcnrs stu<ly (Rostlr, l1)75) sttsqcstetl that the
iclenti{icati<ln of prot()types (lcveloPs tlrrottelr lcarttilts. Rosch and Men'is,
hor.vever, dicl not illt.cn(l to Proviclc lt ltroccssittu nrodcl ftrr lcarning or
rlcvckrpir-ru knolvledqe of' prototypes. Ratllcr, tlrcir intcntiotr lvas to
rcscurch 'one of thc rnajor strtlcttlrzll principlcs lvllicll . . . nray govcrn thc
firrrrrzrtion of thc prototype structtlre ()f sclnar)tic cateliorics' (p.574), that
is, tlrc principlc <tf .fruni\ resnnbla,nr:es. Ilerc, thc ccntral basic ltypothesis
rvus tlrat 'nlcrrlbers oI :r category corne to bc viervcd as prototyPical of a
cirtcg()ry as a whole in proportir)n to rvhich they bear a farlily resemblance
to (lrave attribuLes r,vhich overlap th()se of) otherr tnembers of Lhe catep;ory'
(1r.57r-r).
(lr:rrtral to this hypothesis is the cttr ttrtlidity model pr<lp<lsed by Rcccl
( 11)72). Rosclt an<l Men'is ( 1975) rlcfine cue valiclity as a characte ristic of a
( ll(.l{()ry lvhich dcpcnrls on its 'total lr-equcncy within lthat] category ancl
irs l)r'()p()rtiolt:tl Iieqtrency in that cateqory relative to contrastirlg
rrrlr.g<lr.ics'(p.575). Ilorvever, tlrcy retain the terrn farnily resetnblance
(rrrtlrr.r'(ltiur ctrc r,aliclity) in ordcr to indicate that thcir conccrn is r'vitlr
proli<lirrg 2r (lescriptiort of the strtlctttral principles of cateqories, rather
tlr;rrr rlr.r't'lopitrU a proccssiltg rnodcl for categorics. Threc types o{'notttt
r.rr('l{()ry rvcre usccl in thc sttrcly'. s1.4)fford.ina,Ic ca,tegories (strcl-r as'furniture'
.rrrrl 'r'r'lriclt:), ba.sic-kuel categ'ories, (strch as'car'and'chair') ancl atlifcial
r rrlr'gtttir'.s lirrrrrcd liom scts ol'lctter strinS;s. For each type of catcgory, the
t\v();rsl)(.( ts ol'the farnily resetnblatrce hypothcsis wcrc exanritrecl: 't-hat the:
lt()st l)tl)l()tyytical rnernbers o{'categories are those with tnost attribrrtt:s in
( r)ltnl()lt witll othcr ttrenrlters of thc category', ancl that they 'are those
u'itlr l<'trst trttribtttcs itt cotrtnron lvit.h othcr cat.egorics' (Rosclt antl Men'is,
l1)7ir, p. 576). In this sttrcly, farrrily rcscrrll)lancc, <lcfirrc<l itt tt:rms of
<liscrttc irt.trilrtrtcts, lv:ts slrolvrr to lrc a nrlrjor lactor- in category lirrtrtat.i<ltt,
lrltlrorrglt arrrily rcst:tttbllrtt t' irt tltis t't:scat'clt was 'a <lcscriptivt:, not :r
f
'l'lrt'
Plo<r'ssirtg lllirrt'i1llt" (1r. ti(X)). lrrirrrltrl'{in<lilrgs wcr'(: :ls lirllor'vs:
. I)rr)l()lyl)<' r'lli'r't tvlts Iirtttttl l() ()lx'l:ll(' itt t't'l-lltitl <:ttt'Qol'it's, sJltltil'
ir':rllv r,rl,rur ;rrrrl lirlrrr pcrr'<'lrliorr :rrrrl scvct:tl olltt't ttotttt < lttt'gotit's.
Irr t'trr lr r:rrr', tlrr' llr()l()l\,1'(' t'llt't l r ottl:tittcrl ccttlr::rl t'x:tttllllt's llt:tl
\\'('r(' sllorrf'|ll t{l( tllilicrl :rs l('l)l('s('lllirrg tlr,' ( ill('}l()lt'. l lr<' irl<'rrtili
r.tliott ol pltrlrlrlr.rl ,'r.ttttlrl,'s \\';ls ttt tl'l.tliott lo <lr';',tct' ol
I r'l )l r"'r'll1,ll l\ i llr'!,'t ''ll.tlllrl
r ,\r lr\,rlrln ,rl lll t {rl'tttlt\r' t( lrl( \( lll.lllttll ol ,t r.llll'r}l\ .llll)(.ll\ l(r
(]ONSTR\IN'I'S ()N ( :0( ;NTII\T (}ENR]iS
aff-ect the rccognitiorr ol'irrrlivirlrrlrl itcrns as rnembers. The under-
lying rcprescntation facilitlrtt's rrror-c: rapid recosnition of ccntral or
prototypical nrembers of a r::rtcuory ratirer than peripheral ones.
o Strbjects' ratings of prototyl)iclrlity ;rn<l fanrily resenrblance attributes
wcrc significantly correlatc<I. 'I'his supports the iclea of graduated
catcgory rncmbcrship or prot()tyl)c-cf1'ect in relation, at least, to the
categories exarnined.
These experiments on prototypc-efl'cct do not, in thernsclves, corrstitute
:rn explanation of categorization. As Rosch (1978) hcrsclf notes:
. prototype . . . is a convenient grarnrnatical fiction; rvhat is really
referretl to are jucleements of clegree of prototypicality;
. prototypcs clo not constitnte any particular processing model for
categories . . . [but] . . . processing models should not be inconsistent
rvith the knorvn lacts abotrt prototypes;
. prototypes clo not constit.ute a theory of representation for categor-
ies . . . the lacts about prototypes can only constrain, but do not
clcte rrnine rnodels of representation;
r althotrsh prototypcs rnnst be learnecl, they clo not corlstitute any
particular theory of'lanquarse learning. (pp. 40-l )
,'irt,'mmaty an, d imp li c otion s for d,i.s ourse ate gorization
c c
'flre ernpirical studies of Rosch (1973, 1975) and Rosch and Mer-vis (19711)
provide powerfi.ll evidcncc lor the opcration of a prototype effcct within
Irrrman cognition and categorization. However, prototlpe effect cloes not,
irr itsclf', provicle a theory of categorization. Nor clo the experiments to
wlrich reference has been made provide an explanation of prototype
cl'lcct. Thcy clo, however, establish a basis frrr later research that seeks to
(rr) provide a theory of categorization, and/or (b) explain prototype effect
(s<'c the following section). If cateqorization involves making'juclgements
ol'<lcsrees of prototypicality' (Rosch, 1978, p. 40), this would suggest that
tlrc rlcveloprnent of a cornplex langr.rage skill (such as exercising cliscourse
(()nrl)ctcncc rclating to acaclemic r,vriting) would appear to require
llrrrrilirrrity lvith the protot)?es tlrat occur within this tlpe of discourse.
lrr r'<:l:rtion to discotrrse knorvlcclge ancl discorrrsc cornpetence, it may
sullll('st tlrat irlcntilying and becoming familiar r,vith discourse protot)?es
(srrclr ls social scnres and cogllitive genres) may assist novice lvriters in
rlt'r'r'lollirru Ilr(: typc of awareness that underpins their effective later
cx<'n isr' o['srrclr 1l c()lllpetence.
IIi rt nlqt in ut tcgtrization
llrorvrr (11)51J, l{}(i1-r) srrggcsts tlr:rt tlr('rc arc't}rree lcvcls of czrtesorization:
\up('rorrlirr:rlr', lrlrsir'-lcr,<^l lrrr<l srrlr,rrrlirurtr'. Accorrlinrt t() Br<twn, basic-
lllcl r.rlcgoriz:rtiorr rn:ry lx' llrr' lirst lclcl ol <;rlcgoliz:tliorr lo ltt: lt:arncd,
'tlrc lct'r'l ol rlistirrr tivr' ;rr tiorr' (, 1', llol'r'rs', 'rlogs', '<:rls'). Ilt' srrggcsls
tlt,rt tlrc nt'\l l\;rc ol r;rlcl'r)r\ l, lrr lr,urt,',1 ts lltt'sttlrrtotrlin;tlr'(;tl('l{()ty,
46 A(]ADEMIC] \AIRITIN(; ,,\NI) (;I NI.iI.
involving 'achievenrerlts of the itnagitt:rliorr' (r' 1i. 'lrllrrrts' ancl 'aninrals')'
Thc finil type of'c?ttctgory to bc lculrrcrl is, rtttotrling to Brorvn, tl-re
subordinate (e.g.'jonquil' ancl'Siarncs<').
The first type of categorizatiorl to l)('rtr rlrtirt'<l (lxrsic-level) was.iuclged
by Brown to havc the tbllorving conv<:r'Pitttl propt'ttics:
o the level of distinctive action;
o the level learnecl earliest ancl nl rvlrir'lr tlrirrgs urc namecl;
o the level at which the nalnes arc slr()ll('sl ltrt<l tnost frecluently usccl;
. tlle nat[tral level of categorizatioll,:ts oplrostrtl to the level created by
'achievements of the imaginatiorr'. (l1X;5' p1r' 318-19)
In clocumenting tl-re folk catcgories tll'pl:trrls rtrr<l animals ol'the Tz-cltal
people livirrg in the Chiapas region ol Mt'xir'o, Bcrlin, Breccllove ancl
itou"t't attemptecl to provicle a basis flcrr llsytlrolouical research tln basic-
level categoiization. Tl-rey postulatecl tlr:tt tlris lcvel of catesorizatiorl,
which thcy refcrred to as frtlk generit:' w:rs Ps1't lr'logicirlly basic because lolk
generic taxa:
. represent the most commonly relbrrccl to {rortpinqs of organisrns in
the natural environtnent;
o [are] the most salient psyc]rologically; irilrl
. ior"j likely ro be among itr" firti taxa lcar'e<l by tl'rc chilcl. (1974, p.
27)
Stross ( 1969) , in stuclying Tzcltirl language acqtrisition, discovcrecl that thc
bulk of the chilcl's first-learned plant names 2rre basic-level catcgories,
categories which are in tl-re rniclclle of the taxonotnic hierarchy of Brown
(1g58) of superordinate, basic-lcvel ancl strborclinate. Chilclren then 'lvork
up the hieraichy generalizing, ancl dor,vn the hierarchy specializing. This
'chair'
means that aftcr learning basic-level, gestalt-relatcd worcls srtch as
and'potato', clrilclrcn learn rnorc abstract, organizati6nal categories
within lvhich to strllcture their basic-level knclwledge, strch as 'firrnittrre'
and 'vegetable'. Later, they learn to reducc thcir knor'vrr basic-level
categories to srnaller subordinate trnits, or more specific cxanrples of cach
.ut"[,)ry, snch as 'kitchen chair', 'armchair', 'roilet c]rnir', an(l 'Iclaho',
'Red King', 'Black Kidney' potatoes.
Basic-level cateqorization depe ncls upon expcrirne ntal :rsl)ccts ttl'lntntau
psychology: gestalt percePtion, mental irrraucry, rll()t()r ltctivitics, social
function ancl memory. Berlirl (n.<1. in Llkoll', l1)87, 11.37) srrggcsts thirt
certain cultures, [<lr cxirrrrlrk' rrrlr:ttt t ullrttt's, tttrrlt't-ttlilizt' <<'t'llrirl lttttttlttt
CapaCities ttsccl itt lr:rsi<-l<'vt'l tltl<'Uotiz:tliolt: lol t'xlttttlrlt'. {ll<^;'rrrr<l<'r-tts<'
thc caplcity lirl gt'st:rll l)('t(('l)li()n. l'lrtts, p<'oplt'irt tltlr:ttt <ttllttt<'s tttltl'
lt-(':ll llr("(:ll('ll()l\,'lt('(" tts:t lr;tsir'11'11'l otlr'. l\'lott'ot't't, lltctc ltt:t\' lrt'strlr
p6lrrrllrliorrs ol spcr i:tlisls rvitlrirl;t, ttlltttt'tr'ltt,. tlrrottlill tr:ritlirll',':rr llic|t ;t
rrr,,r,'lirt,'lt'lloll('ll l'r'"l.rll lr{'lt( lrliott lot 't littttltrl r'rtll" ol tlottl'titts' lot
CONSI'RAIN',IS ( )N (:( x lNI HVl] (;t.tNRt.tS 47
example horse breecls or typcs ol crrrs. llcrlirr pn'<licts, however, that tlrcre
will be no ctrlture in rvhiclr rrll rlrr" k'r,r'ls ol' categorization cliffbr
ftrndzrmentally fronr those ol'otlrcr < rrltrrlcs. Irr nrost clomains, thc levels
of categorization will be the satrrt' Iirl lrll lrrrrnirn beinss becatrse lrurnan
beings share the same genenrl clprrr.ilir.s lirr gestalt. perception, an<l
holistic rnotor movement pl:rys :r nr:rj'r' rrrlc in cleternrining basic-level
categorizatiorr.
Sum'm ary and imp lic ati o,n s for dis otus t r g t' izat io n
c t : r r. t
Research on stlperordinate, basic-lcvr:l arrcl strborclinate cartcrrr)riz:rti()n
suggests a sequence or order in clcvelol;ing knor,vleclge of c:rtcgories. This
rnay also be rclatecl to stages in thc dcveloprncnt of a cliscoursc
competence - the ability to rccogrrizc and creatc exanrplcs of typcs of
cxtended text. In the case of teaching :rcaclcrnic r,vriting, n<lvicc rvritcrs
rnay bcnefit frorn an initial cxposurc to prototypical exarnplcs of coquitive
gcnre,:rs a t)?e of basic level cliscourse category. Tl-rc ltasic level rliscoursc:
rrnit of cognitivc genre mzry then be analysed, an<l practise<l so that its
constitlrent elernents rnay be dcvelopcd into knor,vleclge tlnt is nrorc:
irrrtornatically ernployecl (sec chaf'c, 1994, pp. 137-8) lvhcn rhc larrsrrasc
rrscr is involved in thc creation of social genres.
3.2 Theories of underlying patterns employed in the orsanization of
knowledge relating to specific domains
Schema theary
Irr lris I932 rnonograptr entitlccl llemetnbering, Bartlett clescribecl a scrics of
t'xpcriments in r'vhich stuclenLs began by reacling stories from unknor,r'n
r'rrltrrres. The strrclenls therr retolcl the storics from mcmr)ry to other
srtl>iccts. The rccipients of the stories thcn retold the sanrc stories yet auain
li,nr what thcy were able to rec:rll. Bartlert (1932) reported sysrcrnaric
t lt:tttscs t-hat took place cluring the retclling of the cultrrrally unfanriliar
slorics- Thcse werc:
o lnal,lirt14/.fla,ttcning where story-specific details, such as proper nirnles
Iuttl rrrrlurniliar cultural conccpts, are lclst;
o :;lru.r'ltnr,i'trg wlrich inyolves the retenlion of
rlctlils wlriclr rcceive nlore cmpl'rasis, or are sharpened; ^ smaller ntrmber of
o trr.tiottrr.lizalion lvlrich involves (a) the cornpiicting of passagcs that arc
rrr:r<lt'l, <orr[irrrrr to rca<lc:rs'cxpcctations, and (b) the omission oI'
rrrrllrrrrililu < rrllrrr:rl r-t'li'r'<'n< t's, srrt lr as tri glrosts :rncl spirits.
ll,rrllctt lrr1.lrrt'rl llr:rl rr':rtlcrs. irr:rrtlrrrpting lo rn:rkt'slolit's torr[irr-rrr to
lllcit ,tvtt , ttllttr:tl ('xl)('r l.rli,,tt',. .ttr' r'nl',rl'r'(l irr 'r'llirrl :rll<.r'rrrt.lrrrirrg'. I I<.
;rto;roscrl tlr,rt lr',rr rrirrl' ,'1 .r,,,,rrrrrl,rlrrr1,' nr.\\ ru;rlr.r i:tl rcr;rtirr.s sontl
48 A(IADEN{I(l \,VRfllN( ; /\Nl ) ( :l' Nlil
l]]atching by tlre learncr of the new rr)irl('l rirl lo l r is ot l rt'r' existing concepts
<)r sch,ematat 'without solne €fenerzrl scllirrr or l;rlrt'1, its wc have repcatedly
seen, no lnaterial can be assirnilatc(l' (1r. l7'J). lLu.tlctt proposes that
remembcring invcllves a'process ol'corrstr rrction' irr wlrich details recalled
irre latclrecl to an existilS schctrltt, 1vlrit lr is lltt:tr ttsed tn fill out
unrecalled derails.
Rlrnelhar1 (1975) exarrlinecl tllclll()r')':ttttI t<'<'otlllt of stories, the
prlrposc of his research being to ullc()\'('l llrr' 'sttPt:r-scntential relation-
ships'that are irnplietl in orclinary clisr'orrrst'irt ot<lt't 'to in{'er the cattsal
rclationsl'rips bctween propositiotls' (p.212). ()rr tlrt'basis of his research,
Rurtrelhart presents a tentiitivc theory, iltr'ol"'itlU lw() scts of rr.rles in terms
<rl a .slor1 gramm,al, to account for thc irrtt'r'rrrrl slltl( ttlrc of sirnple stories.
These two sets r,rf rules are: (a) a sct of syl){11( li('lll rtll(:s that generatc the
c()nstitucnt structtlres ol stories, ancl (b) ll ( ()l'l (lslx)ll<ling set of senlnntic
ir)t-erprctation nrles whiclr cleterlnine thcir st ltt;ttttic lcprescntation (P.
2r3).
Rumelhlrrt's story granllnat is iln attclllP1, ttsittg a top-dorvn frrrrn of
all2rlysis, to uncover the schernatic patterns rvitlrin what he terms 'the
sylttax and sernantics'of simplc stories, simplc st()ric:s that are , he suggests,
r-c(luciblc to a scries of summary propositions. This story gramlnar is
ill)plicable only to sirnple narratives, narratives that arc generally chrono-
louically seqtrence(l. More cot'nplcx, rhetorically orgar-rized discoursc, such
rrs tlrat involving reportccl itrforrnation or argtlment, wotrld arguably
rr'<lrrire a considerably greater level of cornplexity in terms of what
l{rrrrrclhitrt clescribes as syntactic nlles and sctlrantic relationships.
l{rrrrrclhart and Ortony (.I977) prescnt a sttnunary of schema theory,
rrirnirrg to clescribc the feattrres cofilrllon to tlreir own earlier work and that
ol l|olrrow ancl Norman (1975), Minsky (1975), Norrnan, Runrelhart and
rlr<' l,NR Rescarch Group (1975r), Rtrmelhart (1975), Schank and Abelson
(l(.177) ancl Winogracl (1975). t'irst, schernata are cle{rned as follor'vs:
lSt:lrcrnata are] data stllctlres lbr reprcsenting t]re generic concepts
slorccl in rnernory. They cxist for generalized conccpls, unclerlyinU
olrjccts, sittrations, cvents, seqllences of eyents, actiolls and sections of'
lrcti()ns. (Rurnelhart an(l Ortony,1977, p' 101)
'l'lrt'1,say th:rt schcntirta lrrc suirl t() hirvc firttr csscntiltl charirctcristics. Thcy:
o lrlrvc v:lri:ll)l('s tlr:rt :rrt':rssoci:rlt'tl witlr tlrc (r()tltcxt witlrilr wlriclr thcy
()l)('r'ill(': ':t s< lrttt:t lol gi'u't'wottltl ltltv<'tltr-<'t'v:tlilll)l('s: a givcr, ir uili
:ttttl lt rr'< iptcrrl' (p. l0?);
. (:ul lrr.r.rrrl,,.rlrl,.rl rrillrirr orrc lrrrolltct lrs irt llrc t;tsc ol llt<'s<ltt'ttllt
lor 1",\( il". rrlrir l; 1111',rlrt'', t rrrlrt rlrl<'rl st ll<'tttltllt ('sttlrscltcrttlrllr'), stt<lt
:rs lot llt,,rl l,rl t \l .lll(l tttottllr (1r1t. l(Xi 7);
a (.ilt tr.lrtr',rltl 1,r'nrtt{ (r)il((l}l\:tl Vitti,,ttsl|f'r'lsrtl
cloNSTR\lN I'S ( )N ( r( x;Nt L tvt.r ( il,rNt{I,}.i 49
as schemata lbr lexical itcrrrs tlr:rt rt^l<'r tri tlrirrus, to acti<,rn scqueltces
or plots of stories (pp. 101)-l{)),
. rcpresent knowleclge ratlr('r' rlr:rrr rlr.lirritiorrs (pp. 100-l 1).
Thus, schetltnta rcpresent tllc ( ()nslilil(^rrls trrrd interrelations that are
'nonnally'to be founrl: 'schcnnt:r itll('ntl)t l() r'cJ)rcscnt knowleclge in thc:
kind of {lexible lvay rvllicll rcf lr'< ts lrrrrruur tolcrance lbr vagucncss,
irrrprccision and quasi-inconsistcrrcit's' (l{rrrrrcllrart ?rncl Ortony, 1977, pp.
1 10-l I ). They arc postulatc<l us lr:rvirru Iirru- lirnctions:
. (:om?'rche'nslon: irtvolving rrrlkirru trsc ol'schcmata that appcar to t-fivc' a
sufficicrrt account of'thc irrlorrrration (p. 120);
. rcm(.nt,b(.ri?zg: in\oh'ing rn:rkins rrsc of episodic mcrnory, of 'those
rncmories firr partictrlar cvcnts rvhich we have clirectly or inclircctly
expericnced' (p. 116);
o irtfo'enci'ng involvins assignnrcnt oI'values to variables on the basis of'
wholc/part or part/'lvhole pcrception. TItus, for exarnple , a
RESTAURANT scherna conurins sub-schemata such as WAITER,
MENU, ORDERING, EATING, and PAYING; rhe RIiSTAUR{NT
scherna can activatc the relatcd sub-schenrata (ancl their parts) {br
the purposc of rnaking inferences.
. action: involving tlrc engagerncnt of schernata in the perforrnancc ol'
actions. For examplc, jtrggling involvcs a TRANSFER schema which
contains sLrb-schenrzrta of TOSS, TRAJECTORY, APEX and CATCH.
'lhrcc main typcs of scherna have been idcntified by thcorists and
lcseilrchcrs:
. co'nlent schetnata l,vhich are configurations of knowled[ie or concepts
specific to ccrtain clornains or contexts;
o for'n,ol o'r rltelorical .sclrcrna,ta which account lbr patterns ol organiza-
tion of knowledge in language and the interrelatior.rships betlveen
parts or sections of languagc;
o nbslrru:t schem,ala (introclucecl by Ollcr, 1995) which involve cleducrive
rcasonin{I.
( l<>tttcrtt sche tnata involve the representation of knor'vledge resultine fronr
srlrrrr: kirrrl ol'lrurnan perce pti()n. Thcy arc based on abcluctive judgernents
:rlrorrt fuc:ts ()r stlrtcs ol- allairs in thc rcal lvorld, tlrat is, they involve
irr<lgt'tttt'rtls r('lulirre to ltttrrurrr (o[ir:n scnsory) perceptions: 'Abducticln
()( ( tll's lrl.jtrsl llr<'
;toirtl tvltcrr' :r llrllicrrlirr f act ... is linked with a clistinct
tr'ptts<'ttlrtlion' (()llt'r, l'l)1)fr. p '-lf'l l).
I'ottttltl sr'ltt'ttt:tl:t ittt,,lr,' irrrlrrr tivc rr';rsorritrg rvlti<lr litrks rlilll'rent
('\'('nls, tlcl:rils ()r \l.rl( \ lr llrllr', r,l rinriltrr, slr:ur'<l clurr':r< l<'r-isli(ri: 'T()
( onn( ( I sttr lt sr'1r;rt,tl( ,url rrr,lrrrrlrr,rl, .rlxlrtr litr. ittli'tctrccs lttrrl lo lirtolv
lltr'ttt :ts l)( tl.titttull lo llrr' ,.rrrrr 1,,1't,,rl olr;r'r l, irrrlrtr liqrr is r111rri1r'rl' (11.
ltlrsll;trliott,sttr'lt
:11'{ I) I lrrr',, l,,t lt.rrr;'1, rr ,l'rt. ,,1 l,lrr',rr.rl rlrlllr(.ni ( \. lr,,lr.l l,,lrlrir.s rvill
 (;l'Nlil' C]ONS'IRAIN'I'S ()N ( :( X;NI IIvI.: (;I.]NIIII-S 5l
50 A(lAl)EN'lI(l\ IRI'flN(; '\Nl)

ittr':tt-iltllt ancl which enablel In cxarnininu reacling cornprt'lr<'rrsi,rr, ( lrrlr t'll ( 1988) further distin-
havc ftrrtnal sirnilarities r'vhiclr rcnlaitr rt'llrtivt'll' gtrislres between fonna.l sclrctnn,la tntl tuttlr'ttl rlrcttutta as constructs which
obscn,crs to classily thcttr as lreing tttt'ltrlrt'ts o{ lltt'satne grotlp' These
organize krrowleclge withirr rvrit.tt'rr lt.xts:
sirrrilaritics,.irrdgedl>yincltrcticrll'111.('<lt.1lt'rrrlt'trttlpOnstrtrcttrrcs,rn(l
facts of any
arr?lngclllcllt. olrrtaoa/",I t. s.r.nc tlcgr-t,t, {1rtrr llrt' l)artic.lar One type of schema, clr backqrorrrrrl krron'lcrlqe, a rcader brings to a text
sivett context (P' 28tt)' is a r:ontenl scherna, which is krtorvl<'rl{(' r'r'l:rtivc to the content dornain of
()['irrli'r't'rrt t' itlcrttificcl as d'eduction lirr
Abstract sclrcrilirtn involvc a 'kin<l (he tcxt. Anot.her typc is a.finttrtl stlrrtrtrt,, or knowleclge relevant to the
whichl reitson lvorks orr the basis ()['att rtlrslrrtctc<l syrrrbol which applics
(p' 285)' Accorcling formal, rhetorical orsaniz:rtiorr:rl str.rr<:ttrrcs of clifferent types of texts.
not otrlv to tlre case in halr<I, bttt to all possilrl<'<:ascs' (Carrell, 1988, p.461)
a,'<1, tllcrc:[irrc, t,lrC. llloSt powerftrl o[
t<l ollcr, tltese arc tlre nlost,gelrer:rl
schcnlatic conslnlcts: Prcvious rese:rrch hacl inclicatcrl tlrat tcxts with schemata bascd on familiar
ctrlttrral rtraterial were lnorc easily unrlcrstood than texts with unfamiliar
to ttr:rke a profit, thev rlltlst
For instancc, if hotels arc lxrsinesses thnt airn cultural content (Carrell, 1981; Johnson, 1981). Similarly, it had been
gcrrcrallyC]hlrlgerrrorcfbrtlreirscn'icestllllntlrosesen'icesc(}Stthe slror'vn that texts with familiar rhctorical organizations were more casily
O\{rrers.Tlrtrs,rleclrrctivcirrl.crcrrccsgir,ctlsirgrcatdealof-inf<lrllllrtion
by mcrclv ttnclerstood tltan texts rvhose rl-rctorical strlrcture rvas trnfamiliar. \Arhat was
abont zrll pt-rssiblc hotcls that c<xrlcl not Le llcquired cascs' not kr)oh'n rvas (a) hor'v different types of schcma influenced nnderstand-
lhe rccorcls of however rnany inclivichtirl
cxar,riltirlg .rr ins of rvritten text, and (b) how diIl'crent tlpes of schema influenced one
".,,liti"g
(Oller, 1995, P. 287) irnothcr. Carrcll, thcrcfore, investisatecl the influence of both $pes of
(1977) points to thc'rolc schema (firrmal schcmata and content schemata) in a series of reading
In nrcmory an(r langu..rgc, thc resc:rrch of Meyer conrprchension experiments with sttrdents from two cultural back-
lriglrcr-ler.el clrg:rnizers
irtrtl trpcratitllr of. strtrcttrral ({ilnnal) sclrcnratir as
:r rlttrnbe r of passaues of prose irr grouncls: sttrdents of Muslirn background and students of Spanish
ol' rcr:rtll,arl, htotuledae- N{eyer analysccl C:rtholic background.
rtsiug Fillnore's
tc.rrs ol tlc l.eical relirtio.ships rvithin tlreir co.tctrt ideas witl.rin Carrell's rescarch involved presenting two biographies of religious
(11)6t3) casc qranilrlar. Bascd.rri 1l.. analysis, she iclentified
ligures (one of a Catholic saint, and one of a Muslim relisious figure) to
tltt:1>rtlscpassagesasllcltrrrgirrgt,trcliffbrtlntlevels'strclrasirlcasatatr the the tlvo abovc p;ronps of subjects. The tcxts were historical narratives with a
.r.sarrizi's strpcr'rclir-r^tJ't"i.t i' rclat-io' to ,ther iclcas rvitl-rin sctting and tr,vo episocles. T'wo versions of each text were used, one in
'r relationslrip to the upper-level
slunc passagcs which stancl in sttborclinatc straightfonvarrl tcmporal orcler, and tl-re other involvinu a mixing of events
i<lcits. Thrts, 'a passagc is viewed as beitrg
a cotnplex prop<xition tlrat carr
rerlations to one Iiorn the two episorles (br.rt with markers of time and place added to
lrc <lccotnp<rr.il ir,,,l strb-proposilions bearing certain Iacilitate comprchension).
Meyer perf<rrmecl a
1rn()tlter' (p. l8l). Using' thl analysecl passages' Analysis of the subjects' understancling of all four texts indicated that
to, .r reaclin{,
rr.'rbe r of expcrir'err,r ruiri.l-, i.v.lvecl strl>jccts in listeni.g firrniliar contcnt, even r'vhen orsanizecl in an unfamiliar way, is more easily
a frec rcclrll
pr()sc Passases. Thcsc strb-iccts rvcre Llten aske<l to (a) procltrce
'contert, reacling' antl tttrderstood thatt unfamiliar content, even when that unfarniliar infclrrna-
of the .rf ,ft.:fn*,g", irnrnediirtcly after listeninE; <lr
lion is prescnted in a familiar rhetorical form. Analysis of recall of the
(b)attclrlpttorecalllhecontctttagainsottrelinlel:rter'Ovcraranqeol' lrishcrlevel iclcas - the tr'vo episodes of each text - indicated that the form
in rvhich she cor-rtroll"il tb. typcs o1 conte llt rvithin
passages'
"*p"rirr.r.r-rts sltor'vecl thirt: ol'the tcxt was an irnportant factor. Subjects wcre more likely to rccall the
thc finclings rrurin cpisorlc i<lcas from the rhetorically unadulterated (temporally
rirrtllecasctrfficcrccilll(a)strbjccts\{C]rctlr()r(:likclyttlrccall
Il)1ltt(.r irrrtllc<lilrtely
oruanizc:rl) r'crsions of'c:rch tcxt. Thus, irrespective of rhetorical structtrre,
higlrcr-ler,el (rat'lrcr tlrarr l<lrvcr lc,,'cl) strl>|tlCl ('()rrt('rtl rv:ts lcss l:rrrrili;rr' ('()nt('llt :rl)J)clrrs to be rnore re:rdily r-rnderstood than unfamiliar
a[icr c.c.trrr,;l-i;;;",, (lr) lriglit't-lt'r't'l (()nl('nt. llorv<'r,t'r', lrielr-lcvcl icleas arc more likely to be recallecl if they
^rrrl
likcl,vt<rl>t'fi,l-u.,tt<.,r..,r.'l..tir.r.'lltltrtrv:tslrlrv<.r.lt.r,t'l(.()lIt('lll;
'^sri111]c, rvt''. .r.iuir'rlIv Ir.,st,rrr.rl irr clrron.loeical order.
rittllltlt.ltst'tll'<.trt'tlr<'r.:tll,lriglr<"r..1<.r'<'|((}lll{.lll\!:lslll()l('lr'lr<lilv
;rlllrr,trglr :jl)lll(. lls|)(.( |s r,I lrit,llr.t lr.r't'l t ttttlt.ttt
(srr<.lr
I.t,tttt'tttllt't.t'<l'
Irl lrr'rt'r.:rllr'<l .\rtttttttrrtl,rtrrrl irttftlitrttirttr.s frtr rlist:ottt'.st tultgntiztl!iott
:ts,{tlt ..*..','1,1.'.,1,,.,1,1..'', sr,lrrli.,rr rr.l.rtirrtts) il|)l|('.llt.tl 'l'lrcrt' :rrc rlillcrtlrl lr;rprrr:rclr<'s lo sr lrcrrr;r rlrt.ory, :rrrrl
rn()t(. tr.;rrlilt tlr.ut olltt'ts tlrcsc' <liflt:rcnt
Itlt;rto.r ltcs trsc rlillcrcttl lr.rrrrirrolol'1 1,r1 llrr. ( ()lt:illlt(.ls lltrrltost'tl.
I lotvlrlt, llrc lollorttttl, l'( n('r.rl lrrirr, ilrlr'.. r rrrr.r;,r'
52 ACAD!-MI(l \\IRl l'lN( i ,\Nl) (;l Nlil cloNS'l-IL\IN I'S ( )N ( r x;NI I lvtr (:l,.Nlil,ls t).1

o schemata are gc1eric knolvlcrlgt' l)lrtt( rns u,ltitlt are stored itl Oltr
memory;
. there trre dilTercnt tyPcs of'scltt'ttt:tl:t rr'lrit lt rl;rcrate in rel:.rtiUrr to
clifferent typcs ancl levels of kttorvlt'tlgll
representation, in, fbr cxarnpl<', ( r'(':rlirrg slrolicrr :ur(l written cliscourses.
One exception is the work ()l'S< lrrrrrli. rrrrrl Alrt'lson (1977), rvhich gives
attention to tl-re rolcs of scltcrtr:rl:r in lrotlr lirrowlcrlgc unrlcrstantling an(1
knowleclge representation. W()rki nu i r t lr r^ :rr.<'l o[' artificial intclliscncc,
r

o highe r-levei schenrata reltrte t() nr()r (' gt'ttr't:tl krror'vlecluc, and lower- they aimecl to de\rise colnputcr [)11)!jl:llns tlrlrl r.voulcl enable cornputers to
lcvel sclternata relatc [o lrl()rc s1l<'t ilit lirltrult'tIgc' 'trnclerstand and interact witlr tlrt' orrlsirlc rvorlrl' (p. I ).
Scl-rank ancl Abelson clistingrrislr lrt'trvt'r'rr t\\() typcs of'knowlcdsc \'vllicll
Before proposing any cognitive {r('rrr('. r, rrrplil\'irru tcxts lbr PcdaSosic pcoplc e mploy to interpret nl)(l nn(l('r'slrrn(l sitrlations \,vitll rvhich tlrcy art:
purposc\ (such as the tcacl-ritrg ol' tt< itrlt'rtrir' tvlitirtg skills), it rvill bc confronted: gcncral lmouktd,ge :rtd slnrific hn.ouled,gt. Accorclinp; to thcm,
neccssary to cliscover the Patterlls, sc(lll('rr( ('s :lrtrl t'trlatiollsllips f-h:It are specific knowledse, which is t:rrrJrloyc<l by a lanruase user in the
typical of the cosnitivc genre in clucstiorr. Irt tttosl (1trics, these arc likcly to interpretation of the nrorc cletuilc(l (:vcfllts of a situation, is organize<l in
be rnore colnplex that tllose that Rtrrlrcllrrrrr (11)75) ProPosed for simple tenrrs of scripls:
larratives. Horveve r, tire way in rvhiclr Rtttttt'llutt t 1tl)l)11)achecl tlte problcrn
of spc'cifrcation rnay nevcrthelcss Provi(lc lr rrstr{irl starting poirlt. A script is a strttctt tre that clcscribcs appropriate sequences of events irr ir
Iftflifferent types ofschelnata pl;ry :r r()lc itt t otttl,rt-c:llcnsiorl, ntctttorizlt- particular context. A script is rnaclc up olslots and requirelnents about
tion, inferencing ancl action as Prop()sc(l lry l{trrrrclhart ancl Ortony \'vhat can fill those slots. Thc stnrctlrrc is an interconnected lvhole, and
(1977), they r,vill also bc callccl on in intcrpr-c(itts itttrl creating tcxts:rncl what is in one slot af'fbcts what can be in another. Scripts handle stylized
will, therefore, be relcl,ant at all st:rgcs ol tcxt cottrprcltension ancl everyclay sitnations. (1977, p. al)
lrrrr<lttctiotr. Ilowever, so far irs notice r'vriters ol'rvlrolc tcxls bclon{riug to a
llirrtictrlar social genre are collcerncd, clifl-ercrrl- tyPes of schernata may Tlrey clainr tlrat tlrc plrrp()s('ol'scripts is econorrry in courritive proct'ssinu.
rr...,,1 to be prioritizecl at di{ferent st:rges. Thtts, contcrlt schernata nlay be A styiized or clcl:rult version of a situation cAn lrc callcd rlp fbr tllc
p:rltitrrlarly relcvant where l;ackgrortnrl inforrrtation is proccssecl, 2l)stract interpretation of a new situation, an(l points of' tlillerence which
s< lrr.rrurtit rnay play an important rolc in rrraking dccisions allorrt thc individualize the new sittrat.ion rnay bc iclentified.
orrl<.r'irrg of content, ancl fonnal (rhetorical) sclrcnlata rnlly nec(l to be Schank (1975) notes that scripts are associatecl rvith the clefinition of
l,rior.itizt'<l dtrring the text crea[i()rt l)rcrccss. Nl threc r'vill, ]rowcver, play a ccrtain situational nouns, sllch as restllurant, football, ganrc, birth(lav
r,,1,' irr clt'lttittg a ncw lext or irllerPreting an tllll)miliar one' party, classroorn and meeting. In this contcxt, the,v consist of 'pre(leter-
rninecl sequences of actions that clefirre a situntion' (p.26a). FIc obscn'cs
lhat scripts arc rcco{Inizable because, atter they h:rvc lteen entcrc(I, object.s
ll.il ( )tlrcr sclrematic constructs: scripts, plans, goals, frames and scenarios tltat are part of the script may be refercncc(l as il' the,v hacl bccn
rnentioned bcfore. Hc citcs the following exarnple :

llrr. lrrrrrllrrrr(.ntirl tenets o{'scherna theory have bcen tlsed as the llasis for
r(.\(.:u( lr :rrrrl tlreorctical modelling in a nltnrber of clill'erent ficlcls
rr.rlrririrrg ( ()nstt'ucts fbr the organization of knolvleclge \'vithin languagc.
Witlrirr tlr(.('()ntcxt of linguistics, a schcmatic basis fbr thc lonnal or
rlr< lrrri<:rl ()t'etlnizlrtion of idc:rs has becrt ProPosed r'vithin thc .finme
rltrrtttrtit.s rn()(lcl (Filhngrc 1976, 1977, l98it; Minsky, l97l-r). Within the
( ()11('xl <rl rrrti{icial intclligt:rrcc, tltr.: .stt'iltt/plo,tt. ilodd, l)cr[i)rrrrs a sitnilurr
lirl<.ti6rr (Sllrlrrrl< tpt(l Al)(:ls()rr, l1)77). lrr rcllrtion to tcxl.Ltltl ('()lltcllt (lls
pppos<.<l to llrctoricrrl i<lt'lrs), llr<'rvotk ol sltrrIirlrl ltttrl (]:trt-orl (l{)t3 l) ott
\( ('n (t t ios Irrts Irt'<'tt i rr llrrcrrI i:rl.
,\t'ltttrth rtttrl Altrlsttt: rtirrts, gorrls, ltltttts tttttl striltls
\lrr, lt 0l tlr,'t,'',t'.ttr lt oll st ltIttt.ll.t tIl.tl|s lo lllr' ;'t"' t rsillll 'trrrl slotiltLi ol
l,.rr0t!lr.rlp,,r. i riilllil,.lr,.rr,ltn1,. ilrlr.rr.rr, iltt, .illrl r,,.rll (,otr.,irl,'r.rlrl\' l|Ss
.tllr.lltolt,rlrllr,rr', to lr,r\r.lrr', lr 1r.rr,l 1,, llrl tt',r ,,1 .rlti ttt,tl,t ttt l ttotrl|tl1't'
.f <rhrr r,vent int<t a re.staura?zt \A4le n lrc lookcd at lla rne nu, he cornplainecl
to lle waitress abollt llu lack of choicc. Later he tolcl tlLc chef that il he
c()uld not rnake much, at least he cotrld rnake it right. (p. 264)
'l'lrrrs, Sclrank proposes that a lvorcl, such as rcstarlrant, c:rlls up a script.
()rr llr<' lrirsis ol'tlrat script, roles and props arc rclererrccd (by thc usc ol
tlrc rlt'f irritt' urticlc) :rs prt'r,iorrsly rncntionecl infirrrnat.ion. For rclativcly
(()rnnl()n s(l'il)ls, sil(lr irs Ii<ling rr lrit:yclc:, rnuch ()f the intirrrnatiOn in
rlilli'rtnt pr'o1rlt"s soipts is tlrc s:rrrrr'.
Irr :rllcrrrlrlirrg lo tlr';rl rlitlr tlrl rrror<' r'orrrlllcx llroccssirrtI tlcnr:tntls
irrvollt'rl irr r rctrlin;i ,rs rvcll .r., rrrrrlcrsltrrrrlirrg <lis<orrrsr', Sclrtrrrk :rncl
,\lrt'lsrrtt l)r()lx)s(' lltt t ottr r'1tl rtl ltlrttll.ttttl 1,1111l,,. \\tlr<'tt'lts s1r'i1lls rlt'ltl rr,itlr
slrcr tlir irrlotrrr.rlt,ttt, lrltnt,rrrrl ,',,,r/r,l,,rl trtllr rrror( t'( n('t:rl irrlirrrultliorr.
54 A(|\DEMiCl Wl{l l'lN( L\N l) ( ;l N lil
A plan relates to an overali gcncral gorrl :rrrtl rrr.r\ lrc lirllillcd by a nrrrnber
oI'rnore spccific dttltn-goals (D-goals) ()r /i/\/r tttrtt'rrlrrlrral.s (I-goals).
Accgrcliug to Schar-rk arrcl Abelsorr, l)lirrrs lrrllil go:rls. Iior exarrlple, when
\,Ve listen tO ?r stol-V wC have Certaill t'xp<'r l:tliotts, l'ltt'sct expcctations Will
rclale to evcnts 2rncl to goals. In tlrt: t:tst'ol go;tls, ()lll cxpectat.ions will be
generatccl fiorn our lrelief systenls; itl tlr(' t rttit' ol ('\/('llts, otlr expc(]tations
lvill bc derived lrcirn ottr cxpect:tti()lr\ irr r t'litliott to goals" For the
monitoring ancl tracking of unrlcrlyirtu uo:rls irt <[isctlursc, Schank and
Abclson propose a 'goal monilor': 'tut inl('tlt'llrlt'rl llrndle of'pr()cesses
rvltich recognizes when go2rls are triggt:tr'<1, ittlt't pt'<'ts their natttre, kceps
track o{'their fatc, ancl nrakes preclicti()rrs rtlrottl u<tal-rclated events' (P.
102). In clealir.rg with a story, they su{rs()sl tlrrrt tlrt'goal rnr:lnitor shorrlcl be
ablc to deal with goal o'rigin, goal speci/ica,titnr rr'ttrl .ttrlt.sl,itn,tio'n, goal slrspcnsion
and, goa,l embellish,ment.
Schank and Altclson clain] that 'suclr {.tt1l<lor'vtt l)rcdictions form the
ltasis of oLlr understancling' (p 82).Ilowcvcr, tlrcy:llso acknowlcdse that
the process of discourse creation cannot l)t: at't'otttrrtt)clated in this way.
Thcy see discourse creation (creating a pllrrl) as involving 'stringing
rrrcthods toscther in an optim:rl or adrnissiblc w:ly to realise :r qoal. Plan
o-cation is problcrn soh'inl4' (p 73).
,\ n al1 an d i'mp li t t ti o n. s fr n d, i s o ul tz ate {oriza,tiott
r r. t r r t t: c s r.
Wlrilc thc top-down goal-plan-script hierarchy o{'schank and Abelson's
:rpyrrouch relates to the inferential processes involvecl in reacling and
rlr'< otlirrs text, it appears lcss able to accotrllt fbr the process ofwriting of
rliscoru'sc, ir-r that it is a proccss r'vhich does not necessarily involve
lrr'<'rli<liorr ancl thc nratching of inptrf. t.o pretlictions. A writer may, for
cx:rrrrlrlr', bcgin with (a) an existins set of data or ideas, with, in other
rv,rrtls, tlrc entire conceptttal content of the discoursc, or (b) a clear plan
,rr itlr';r ol'tlrc direction of the cliscourse which s,/he seeks to encode in as
()\,('r'l lr \\ray as possible. Thus, the writcr nta)/ actu:rlly ainl to rninimizc a
rr.rrrl<.r''s rrccd to rnakc extra-linguistic infercnces" In this kincl of creatiolt
l)r'()(('ss, tltc reqtrirenrcnI is to crc]llLe something that is not so rnuch
plr'<litlivc or t.rans:rctiortal :rs rhetorical or structllral. Frcqtlently, aca-
tllrrril rv;ilirrg irrvoltcs tlrc organization of alreacly krtolvn knorvledge, the
prrrlrl<'rrr lrcittg lrorv ltcst to organize or present a. set of ideas or data.
(ir'<':rlirrg ('xl('n(l('(l rvt-ittt'tt <liscottrsc appcars to involve a process that is
plirrrtu ilr, or utrrrizlliorurl or r'<'1rn:scnl.ati()n1Il, rathcr tltan llcine prcrlictivcl
rrrrrl irrli'r crrlilrl.
.*t ttlitnl tttttl ( )ttnui: su'nttrios
S:rrrlorrl:rnrl (ltrrrrirl (11)til) l)t(':i('nl:t ltttlltr't rrltt'ttt;tlikt'rrtlrsltll(1 --
\tt'1tptt,\ irr tcl;rliritt lo lltc rlcr ollirrll :ttttl tr'1rt(".r'lll.llloll rll \vl illltt lt'xl.
Irr 1r,rrlr, rrl.rr, ..r r.n.il rr)\ .l!(. rr.l.rlr.rl lo,r trrrrrrlr|t i,l 1r',\r lt,'1,'1'11.t1 .ts;r|r ls ()l
llrf t,,t,lrrr1, lrrrr r'\\ lll( lrrrllrlli fttltttttt\ tttttl \itItt!tlttt\ ltttttt\\lll!', lrtlttrrtltl\',
t;.
cl()NS'l'RAIN'l S ( )N ( ;( ,( lN 11 tVt,] (;l,tNl{lls 55
forcgrounrLing artd budtS4tott,rul,irt14', r',tftlit il trtrrl ilrltlir:iL rc.ferencc. Sanlorcl ancl
(iarrocl see tcxt. corttprchensiorr lrs irrvolvirll il ( ()ntrirct between the r,vritcr
ancl the reader:
A writer rvishes to convey arr itlt':r to lris rt'ir<lcrs. In essence, this lncalls
that he rnust establislt in tlrc rrrirr<l ol lris rcacler a situational model
lvhich is thc sarnc as (or closcly sirrrillrl to) tlrc one in his own rnind. (p. 8)
Tl-rey there{i)rc pr()pose tlrc corrstr-ucliorr ol'the scenario to acconunorlatc
a nunrbcr of o{'tlris c()r)tl:r('trritl rclationsl-rip, ancl suugest that
aspects
'knorvlcdge of settings arn(l sitrulti()rrs Ican bc thousl]t of] as constituting
the interprctativc scenario bclrincl 1l tcxt' (p. 110).
Sanford anrl Garrod proposc tlr:rt a tcxt selres to set up a searclr in long-
teml rncrnory for a moclcl of :r rccognizarble episoclc or sittration (the
scenario) into which it rvill {it (p. ll7). Scenarios may be simple ancl
rninirn:rl (such as in rclatiorr to a c()ncrete noun), or clctailed, that detail
rcl:rting to cithcr (a) the inforrnation conveyed, or (b) the specifications
()r sequenccs of' cvcnts expectecl in rclation to an entity or se tting. Tlrcy
rnay be activatcd by sp:rtio-ternporal setting or characterizatiorr, that is, thc
rrroclel tlrat is built up of sorneone's personality. A characterization rnoclel
is gencrally zr representation of predispositions. Thus, for example, the
<lccotnposition of the nrcaning of a rvord rnay activatc a possible dornain of
t'c{'erencc containing slots into r,r'hich succeecling itcms within the same
<liscoursc rnay fit.Just as Schank ancl Abelson's (1977) scripts involve roles
rrrrd props, scenarios contain cntities ancl role entitie.s. Thtrs, for example, a
( ()rlrt-case scenario contains a jnclge, ajury and lawyers as entities. Tl-re role
t'rrtities involvecl rnay bc, for example, lawyers probing witnesses, or juries
<'vulu:rting cvicle nce and giving a vcrclict. In this respect, t.here is very littlc
rliflcrcr.rce betlveen scenarios, entities and rolc cntities (Sanforcl and
()rtrro<l, l98l) ancl scripts, roles and props (Schank and Abelson, 1977).
Wlrirt i.r cliflerent, horvet'er, is the errrplrasis ilt the work of Sanfbrcl and
(llrnocl orr rcf'crcncing and, lrcnce, on the establishrnent of texttral
lc lir t i<>rr slr ips.
'l'lris is strpportccl by reacling-t.imc experirncnts which clemonstrate that
llrr':r<'tivatiorr ol-irrzrpJrropriate sccnarios (as, for cxarnple, in thc case of a
trrisl<'l<lins titlc) rvill consiclerably increase reading processing tirne.
S:trrlirrrl atrrl (lrtrrocl (1981) also carried out ernpirical tcsls rncasrrrirrs
t<':ttlinr.l r'('slx)ns('tirrrcs bctwt't'rr pairs of'sentences with statccl anteccdcnts
;rrrrl irrrlrli<'rl :lnt('('('(l('lltri.'l'lrrrs, llr<'y <krnronstratc tlrat reading times litr
spccili< lrlly irl<'rrtili<'<l ('ntiti( s :rrc l:rstcl tlrlrrr [irr l1l()rc {rc]neral statements.
'l lrt't' r'itc llrr' <'xrrrnlrlt ol:
l lrc llrrrli r.un(' lttttrrllirrl', ,u{rnrrl tlr, l,, rtrl.
l'ltt' r'r'lrrr'lt' ('ilnl(' lr lrr(lllnl',lllrtnrl llrr' lrt'trrl.
 (]ONSTIi',\IN1'S 0N ( ,( X;NI'I'IVIi (}F]NRF,S :)l
ir6 \(]ADEMI(] \\RITIN() /\N I ) ( :I..NIII'

Thc rcsearc| th:It rcatlirrg ptrr< t'ssittq tirles 9{' specific

clertt<xtstrates
In order to establish a basis lirl r'orrr;rrrtcr-based organization and
cateeorics), like 'tlrc lrtttk', rtlt' consiste trtly faster than representation of knowledge , Mirrskl ( I1)7ir, l9li5) proposes an integrated
e ntitics (basicJeycl
account of hor'v the lturnan min(l ()rglnizcs ancl represents knowlccl{re in
tlrey.are ir-r tlre cirsc ttf gclcral iterrts (srtllt'l()l-(lil1:ltc categgries) like'the
ecottomical ways, ways which accorrrrt lirr-llrc rrse of a small nurnber of ctres
vchicle'. Tltis lvas tlte basis lirr thcir prollos:tl llrltt llrc-activzrted, context-
to activate sccrninuly organizcd an<l or<lcrc<l complcx knor,vleclge entities.
rlriven infcrencing is invtllvccl in cascs lvltt'l't' lttttccerlents are implicrl'
In rclation to zr rninimal 'story' exarnplc:, Minsky puts for-ward tlte iclea tl-rat
Birscrl on thcse firr<lings, they stls{Iest tlrat ltltlrottsll 'rttrclcrstan(ling
o{'
'tlrc vcfiiclc'] not' g9 firr pcrccpttral expcrienccs aclivat.c slru(:trlrcs callecl frame.r, 'structllres we
ucncral statcl]]elts l'sr.,il-, o, that contlilirrg rnay
have accltrired in the collrse of a ltrcl,iorrs cxperience' (Minsky, 1985, p.
ix-y.,,-r.l t5e cxplicit pr.positi.ns ol' tlrc sc'tcr)cc . . . a sPecific statelllent
easily rnapped intg il 241)" He dcfincs :r framc :rs'a sort of skeleton, somcwhat like an
Isrich as that c6ltaipilg 'thc talk'] rniry wcll |e trlorc
application frlrm with rnany blanks or slot.s to be fillecl'.
sccnnrio rich in clefairlt inf-ornrzrtion, thus sclr/ing to tacilitate lntcr
corrrprchension' (p. 120).
'flrc sccn:trio as ir sclrenratic constrgct is prirnarily concerrrecl with We'll call these blanks its terminals; we use tlrem as connection points tcr
wlrich we can attach other kinds of information. For exarnplc, a frarne
t('xlull refcrencin{r. It oflcrs insights ir.rto t<lpicalization at a nlacro- that represents a 'chair' might have sorne terrninals to represent a seat, a
sll-ll(.trlral lcvel t.hrotrgh an intcgratccl accoutrt of klrot'leclge-types irncl back, ancl legs, lvhile a frame to represent a 'person' would have some
1r,fi'rr:rrcipq within cxt"cnclcfl clisctltrrsc. T[e scclarit>base<l rngdclling of tcrrninals ft>r a bocly ancl hea<l ancl arms ancl legs. (1985, p.245)
s:rrrlirr-rl i[l(l (]lurod proticles an account of the oPeration of irnplicit
lxrckgt orttrtl knorvletlge (sccnaritls) as a neccsszlry clelllcllt i11 tcxt In an earlier cxplanation of the frarne construct, Minsky (1975) ar{rles:
I1 als<>, Sorve'er, pr.r'i<les all of' explicit' non-
1,,,,..:**i,tu. 'rccotlnt
sr'r.rr:rlio-llrst'<l krrowletlge, All accottnt that involves a clctailccl cxplanation Wc can think of a fiame as a network of mocles and relations. The 'top
,rl llrt. lvJrcs ol'1rr.r,r,r,riinul relercncing that operate witlr both tlpcs ol' lcvels' of a lizrmc are fixed, and reprcsent things that arc always true
l.rrorvlr.rlgr.. l()g<,tlrcr, thcse types of rnodelling provicle insiglrts int() text aborrt- tlrc strpposed situation. Thc lower levels have rrtany term,ina,ls -
knowle(lge employccl'
;,r,,, r'ssitt1', :ts rv<'ll :ts ittto thc proccdtlral 'slots' that rnust be fillecl by specific instances or clata. (p. 212)
\\ttttt,tt,tIt ,rtt,I ttttItIit trIittrt.s rlisrnur'se cttte{orizatiott
fitr Minsky suggcsts that frames are storecl in the long-term memory with
I lr, r, ,il r .r rrrrrrrlrr.r ,,{ 1r.',I:tUoUiCal irnplications ass<lCiatc(l
witll the 'rvcakly bound deJault assignments'at every terminal (1975, p.228). By
,,1,, rr.rtrilrr., .rlrilrr' (rr.llrliiltl l<l scCtr:triO-baSed ancl nOn-SCenari<>baSeCl rlcfault assignrncnts, Minsky nteans wltat one usually assigns to the
lrlr rr rrr t11, 1 r ..'r r r.rll\ irt r1'lttli11tt t6 thC COlltgnt <lf fliSCOurSe-fCl:rtCCl tt'rrninals of a remernbere cl frame, such as a stereotypical realization of thc
i..11, 1,,1 I 1 .t rt ,,r.r.1r\ tlrlrt lrtrsir'-lt'r't'l catggory illirrrnation and direct li'lrrne in onc's memory: 'Tl're frarne for a chair may involve four legs, a
;rrl ,,r ,,,1r r l,t rllrr.rr rllr.rr.rrr'itt1l sltotrlrl bC ttsed rvlterelVer possible ir-r s('rrt, ir b:rck ancl possibly anns for most pe ople, as a conceptualisation eif a
rlr, ' .r! lr ,t r1,, ', ,,l l.trtttlt.tt tu,tli,tt tr'illl :t rlisc:<ttlrse tyPc such as a cognitivc sl('rcotypic:rl chirir. These rnanifcst thernselves as often uselirl but
!:, trt, \\lr rr tl, r,,.,,rrr lr r,l \,1rl.rrl trrrrl (lltfr6tl 2lSO Stt{gCStS iS tfiat
(a)
s()rnctirncs counterpro(ltrctivc stereotypes' (p. 228).
rl,, irl"!lrt' l"ri r,l ttttl.rltttll.tt ll('lll('s sllotrltl lle prcccded by thc 'I'lrrrs, Minsky suggests that clefault assignrnents of frames are the ways in
stt'nari(}'
l,r, ,,,rr,rt',r, ,,; 111lilrrrr'rllrrll lll.ll \\rll :rr lir':tlt' illl ilPPI.()l)riatc' tvlrit'lr r,r'e represent onr previous experience: 'We use thern for reasoning,
.rl,l rl,r tlrr ,r lr r lt,,tr ,,1 ltllr'. ol l1( lll('('\('lIIllli{yirtu tclxts sltotrlcl llc
n'r'ogrrizinrr, scncrirlizing, prcclicting what rlay happen next, and knowing
rliril tlr i,Iit,,l trr rrrliltilt,tltoil lllr)\irlr.rl irr llt(' l)t-(.s('lltlrti<lrl phnse that
rvlurt lvc ()usltt to try when expectations aren't met' (Minsky, 1985, p. 245).
1,i,,,,1, lltr tttlt,,rltt, lloll 0l lltI lIrls l)r'lirrrlt assunrptions fill our frames to represent r,vlrat is typical. As soon as
lorr lrr':rr:r lvorrl like 'person', 'frog', or'ch:rir', you assume the details of a
'lylri< rrl'
'l'rv<l lx'rs()n, liou, or chair (Minsky, 1985, p.245).
, .r lrrr tlrlt sr ltcttt;t r'ottslt ttcl, llrltt ol /irrlrr's' lrr rr'prt'scrrtins knowleduc, Winogracl (1977, p. a75) clefines a frame as
r r'n',lrtl I tl ltrttrtr'.1\:l l\ll(,rvll'tlgr'otg:tttizt't lirl lrlti(icilrl ',r <ollccliorr o['fircts:rn11 proct:durcs associatecl with a concept. It [a
,.\.,rrur',1 tlr,rt ,l \\'irr,,1'r,r,l (l()71,. 11177) :rrrtl lllltl ol Ir:rrrrcl rlo<'s rrol t'orn'slrorr<l lo l "sirrglc llrct" as in a formal loeic
lrnllrlr .rlrlllr)'t( ltcs ltorrr lirrl',rrislir\ lll:ll :ll(' lll('ll t('l)t('s('rtlltlion, lrttl is:t r lrrrrrl.irrl' ,rl ittlirr trurliotr :rrotrrtrl :t single cortccpt'.
llrr' ltrttrrr' \t'tttttttlt(\ lrl l"illrrrttr(' ( l1)'i'i ) :ttttl llrt' Sirrril;rt to Nlirrsli.t''s tlt'f ,ttrlt.r'.',r1'r111;,
',,r, Wirrogr':r<l's prrrlroslrl llr:r( t'aclt
is
( rrr Lrttlrt.tl,r') ,,1 \'.rrr I lr;l l ltl'i'l J ,trtrl ll'tt s:tlott
It.ttttt'lt:ts,t scl ol iiltl)(,tl!ut! tlttr,ill\. ttt ltttl)\'lltcsr':rrc llrr'('l('nt('ills (llltl
5u ACAI)ENIICI \ArRI'I'lN( ;,\Nl ) ( ;l.Nltl'
contribute to the ntcaning of thc fi-lttttt'. Iiot t'rlttttPlc, in thc fiarne fbr
gtuing, Winograd proPoses thc ftlllorvirru Ittrps:
[T] he ACTOR cloing the giving, tlrc l]l,lNl,.lil(llAli.Y rcceivitrg it anrl the
OBJECT being givcn are of prirrrury irrrl)0r'tilrrcr:. In Ithe franre lilrl
payng, the OBJH,CT is lirrthcr spcci{ictl lts lrt'itts I1r()ncy, and the reason
lwhich in general is an Imp firr irny a(t) is firrthcr speci{iecl as lteing
some kincl of dcbt. The frarnc lirr 'rlorrirtr" rvottld havc a diff-crent
further spccification ftlr its reason. (l()77, p. 17ti)
An inrportant element in ll'arne reprcscntutiorr, rvl-rich :rccounts frrr tlre
rclationship betrveen liarnes, is what Winogratl tcrnrs 'hierarclrit-'s ol
gcneralization' (p. 48ll). For cxample, an ACT is a very gcneral tyPe o{'
iiarnc clescribing an action, whercas GIVE is a rn()re speci{ic type oIACT
involving:
an ACTOR: a pcrson;
a BENEFICIARY: a person;
an OBJECT: a phvsical object.
['AY is a more specific type of GIVL, involving adclitionally:
rrn OBJECT: morley;
rr ltliA-SON: clebt (surnrnariz.cd frorn Winogracl, 1977, p' 475)'
'llrrrs, Il-itnres rnay be connectecl, u'ith onc being a morc speci{ic or llrore
gr.rr<.r'irl example of another. Inforrnation is saitl to lle orqaniz-cd
lricr.rrrclrically because of ittltedta'nce r{propefiics. Thus, the Intps- important
(,I('lll(.ttt.s - which are trlle of any more gene ral l-ranlc r'vill bc trtte of any
rrror.t. sl.rcci{ic franre belor,v it in the hicrarchy o{'gencralization:
Wlrcl we further specily a frame (that is, move down tlre ge ne raliz:rtioll
Iricrlrrchy) we also ftlrther specify thc IMPs that go with it. This rnakcs
*",rr. .,rily if wc think o[' cach IMP as bcing another liame (r,r'hich in
ttrnr flts iirto thc hierarchy, and so on recltrsivcly). (Winograd, 1975, p-
200)
Iiillrrr6lr l)r()l)()ri(:s lllrt tlrcrc :irc thrcc typcs of lingnistic kttorvlctlgc:
n rrvl
l<. < gt' :t l ro t l {'tzr ttrr u r, lt x i..s ttncl .fra,ttt tt.s'-
<'< l t t t.
e ll'lrt'gr':llnrnru ol rr llrrrurrlrg<'isl 'tlr<'l)rttl ()l lirrgrrist it'krrowlctlgc
llt:tl r:ttt lx' t<'ptt'st'ttlt'rl lry rtrl<'s'.
o I l'lrr.llxirorr isl'tlr;rt plrlt lol lirrllrristir l.rrorrlt'if1r'l tlrlrt l('l)l('s('lrls
ilctrr lrV ilcttt litt,rrvlt'rlgr".
I l lrr. I r)fr||ilivt. :rrrrl itrlr.r;rr liorr.rl lr.trrtr
,. l.rr,' llto:r' .ts;rt't ls ol
Ittr;,,ttr.tt, l.tt,,ltllrl1lr'l irr lt tltts ol trlrr' lr llt' l'ttl'tt t1" tt''r'r ittlctlrlt ls
k',;
( X)NSTRA.INTS ON (](X}NI]'I\'E G[]NI{I.]S
his ertvit-otttttctrt, forrnulates his own messages, unclerstirncls the
messagcs ol'otltcrs, ancl accumttlatcs or creatcs an internal rloclel 6f
this worl<l.' (Fillrnorc, 1976, p. 23)
Two background principles which Fillrnore (1976, p. 24) suggesrs arc
important for trsing and understanding langnaSc are:
o the meanings of words lnav, nlore than we arc trsecl to thinkir-rg,
depencl on contexted experienccs; that is, tl-re corltexts rvithin r,vhiclr
we have expcriencecl the oltjects, properties or f'celings that provi<lc
the perceptual or expcricntial base of otrr knor.vleclge of the
meaning of a rvord (or phrase, or gramlnatical cateeory) ntay be
inseparable parts of those expericnces;
o in order to pcrceive something or to attain a concept, r,vhat is at lcast
somctimes necessary is to have in the menlory a repertoru of
prototypes, the act of perception or conception beins that of
recognizing in what ways an object can be seen as an instance of'onc
or another of these prototypes.
In clescribing a prototypical event, such as a conlnlercial tr:rnsactiorr,
Fillmore (1977) proposes that there are two levels of conccptual
liarnework: 'the one giving a general representat.ion of all of the essent.ial
lrspects of events of a partictrlzrr cateqory and t.he other giving thcr
particular perspective on an event of thc type clictatccl by a casc lrarne' (p.
1-r9). He labels the two levels of conceptualization.rcezes (the levcl of nrore
gcneral rcpresentation) and ca,se framr:s (the linguistic cl.roices associatecl
with a scene, strggesting tlrat inclividtrzrl lvorcls are learncd rvithin suclt
rrreaningfirl contexts as sccnes and liames, e ach rvorcl se n'ing to
Iirrcground some part of the context). Furthernrore, a sinulc worcl rn:ry
lxrlong to more than one franre, even though thc same lristory of'
t'xpcricnces is responsible for each liarne. He hypothesizcs that thc:
l)l'()cess of understancling a worcl requires rccall of rncrnories of cxperi-
t'rrccs throttgh which the labelling or describing Iirnction of thc woruls hrrs
lx'r:n trsccl:
A liarnc is a kincl of outline ftrttrre n'ith not neccssirrily all o{'tlrc dctails
lillc<l irr . . . Oornprehension can be thought ol as irn active pr.occss
rlrrlirre wlriclr tlrc cornprchender - to the degrce that it interests hirn -
st'r'ks to fill in thc dctails of' the framcs that havc been introcltrced,
wlrt'llrt'r'lry Iookirrg Iirr tlre nt:<:dr:cl inforrrration in tlrc rest of thc text, by
lillirrg it irr firrrrr ltis uwitrt'ttt'ss ol'lhe currcnt sittration, or fiorn lris orvn
sysl('rn of lrt.lit.fs, ol lry:rskirrg ltis irrtt'rlricut()r t() say nr()rct. (l97ti, p. 29)
l'illtrror('strBll('sls. r'irllr('r llr,rrr .r r lrcr lilist or 'list ol r'orrrlitiorrs'irpltr<xrch
lo llrr' (:ll('ll()lizlrliolr ,rl l.rr,,rvl, rl1'r'. rlr;rl (;ll('ll()liz:rliorr is ll:rscrl orr :r
l1'ftttrtl ntt, ilr,,ilr ', r \lr{ ttr'tr,r'
lttrtlrtly'ltr'ttt ,1 llt'lX.lict'r.s llr:tl litr.tt.s<';trt.lr
60 A(jADEN,II(I \,\iRll'lN( l,\Nl) ( :l' Nlil
on colour categorization by Bcrlin rur(l l\;r\' ( l1l(;1)) irn(l n:rtural categories
by Rosch (1973) both indicatc thirt lltc rvrtt irr wlrich hutnan beings
catesorizc involves expn'ic'ntia,lrathcr tl'rlrr ftttrrttrllittorvlcrlge (Chafe, 1972).
Fillrnore says th:it'lbrrnal knowle<lgr: is llrt'li.irrrl ol kttowleclsc that can be
expressed propositionally; expcriertti:rl krrorvlr'<lgt' is the kind of knor,r'
leclge that exisLs as mcrnorics ol'cxpt'ti<'tt<r's' (l\177, p.57). Fillmore
proposes t.l-rat knowledgc ol'pr()t()tVl)('ri ol lyliit':tl cases is e.ssenlialll
expericntial:
Prototype selnantics can be thonglrt ol lrs ir l4crtcralization of the vielv
that a theory of language neecls to clistirrtrrislr lx:twcen havins a rule and
using a rulc. It Inay l.urn out to bc ttrttclt trr()l'c rtsefirl to speak oL the
'internalizccl'linguistic rtrles as bcing sirrrplc rules lvhich
prototypic cases. (p. 57)
Sirnilar to Fillmore's proposal fbr propositionally b:rsecl knowledse is Van
Diik's (1977, 1980) proposal for the construct o|macrost:rucfzrzi, which he
says are larp;er stnrctlrrcs witl-rin discourse r'vlrich organize nticro-inforrna-
tion into 'cornplex or hypercomplex inl'orrnation, sttch as discotrrse,
<onversation, :rction sequences' (1980, p. l2). IIe says that rnacrostruc-
Irrrcs scr-r,/e an organizatior.ral ancl rcductive function. They are essentially
s<'rrrantic: 'They clefine hisher-level or p;lobal n'reaning derivcd frorn lor'ver-
It'r,t'l rneaninFis . . . nrzrcrostrllctures clefine thc global coherencc of a text'
(1r. l2).
l r rvolvcd with Lhe constnlct of tlrc nlircrostrlrcture is the idea
prorrrirrtrnce or importancc. Tlrc ovcrall proposition of a rnacro-strtrcttlre
:rssnll)('s a nlore irnportant role in the elobal tneaning o{'a text tiran its
r'orrslilrrcrrI inforrnation. In a sequence of such pattcrns, solnc sections
rr:l), l)(' rnore important to the p;lobal nteaning than others. Accorclinp; to
Vlur l)iik, macro-structures of cliscourse can be summarized in terrns of
tttrtt rrrlrrltositions. Macro-propositions are sonlctimes clircctly expressecl by
tlrt' tlisr'orrrse, usually occurring at thc beqinning of a text (sLlch as the frrst
s('nt('ncc ol'a nervspaper article). Thus, lbr cxamplc, tlrc opcuine section
ol a rrirrnrt.ivc (the setting sccl.ion) rnay be rerducible t() olle or two
slilnnrirny' Propositions tll:It express t.he central meaning.
V:rrr l)ijk s:rys tlrllt firr,nt,.s, urrlikc rnacr()st.l-rrcturcs, orguni./.(' ()ur c()rlvcrl-
tionlrl krron'l<'<lgt' of' tlrc rvorl<l rrrr<l 'crrirlrlc us t() pcrlirrnt srtclt basic
cogrrilivc il( ls 1ls 1it'r'r'<'pliorr,lr('ti()n arr<l llrrrgrurgc contJrrt'ltt'rtsiott. At sorrtcr
lriglr<'r'l<'rtl tlr<'( ()nt('nt o1 :r llrrrrr<'is lixr'<1, lrrrt its lorv<'r-lt'r,r'l lt'ttttitltl t'lttt
lx':rr lorrrrrto<l:rlr'<l lo llrr' ;rropctti<'s ol ittlirntt;tliorr inprrrl' (V:rrr l)ilk, l1)77,
;'. lt)):
\\'r' lrr,rlrosl llr,rt lr,rtrrcs rlclirrt' ttttils ,,t , ltttttl.: rrl 1 lrtr( ('l)l\ rvlrir'lt lttr'
fri)l r'.,\{ rrlr,rllt. lrrrl t1'ltrurlll' tll,tlt'rl llr, r rt"tt,rlll tlt tt,,lt' r t t l.titt
tt,,trt,tl r oilr',r', rrl ltlttlr or t r)urrrr ol .rr lron, tti\,,lrrrrl,, '.('\'{ l.ll olrjt'r ls,
C()NSTRAIN IS ( )N ( ;( x rNt I tVl,t ( :t,tNlil.ts 6l
persons, propcrtics, relatioils, lrrrrl Ilr< tr. 'llr<'sc kinds of'dcnotata, or
valttcs, crr liirmes will bc callc<I tfti.stnlr'.r. It is irr tlris sense that frarnes:rre
highe r-lcvcl orsanizing princiltlcs. l'lrt',v rrrrily' conccpts of variotrs types
ancl at various levels o{'rcprcscllt:rliorr rrnrlcr the constraint of tvpicality
ancl nonnality. (Van Dijk, 11)77, p. 2l)
Later, Van Dijk (1980) clistinsrrislrcs bc:l-rvccn: (a) frarnes which relate to
'complex conceptual stnlctrlres orrly. IIcncc, prototypical knowlcdsc
about books, chairs, builclings,:rnirrvrls' (p. 233); ancl (b) scripts rvhich
rclatc to 'prototypical episoclcs, that is, scquences of events and acti()lls,
taking placc in lrames' (p.%a). Abovc thcse cnt.itics in thc hierrarchy, hc:
places schcrnata, which he dcscribcs as:
cover
the most general in thc prototypical organization of knowleclge . . . to
clenote the ovcrall sttutiulal organizatirin of cornplex conceptLlirl unils
. . . sch,e maln ntrq haue t]rcir orisin i'n perceplual organizatiort, nlong such
catego'ries a.s 'horizonta,l', 'uotical', 'surlace' , 'bottom', and 'tolt'. Irny
ernphzrsisl (p. 233)
Within Van Dijk's rnodcl, both macro-structures and fiarnes organize
< orttplex st'nrarttic inlbrnurt ion.
Fr:rmes, Iror'vcvcr, :ire conventional ancl gencral. Most mcrnbcrs o[' a
socicty or culturc h:n'e uppr<txirnatcly thc sarne set of frames. Macro-
o1'
stnlctllres clo not havc tlris characle r. Insteacl, they are acl hoc
ittlirrmzrtion, i.c., tlre particular slobal contcnt ola particular discoursc.
(Van Dijk, 1977, p. 22)
'l'lrrts rturcro-strllctLlres:rre zr clcvicc conccrnccl r'vith functioning to rnakc ir
svrropsis o1'a <liscorrrsc in the memory of a l:rnguetge Llscr. This givcs the
l:rrrsuagc user the basis fbr rccall, altl-rough what is actr.rally recallecl rvill be
lr srunlnary of the nrain elcrrrents of the particular cliscourse rvhich has
lrt'r'rr pr-ocessecl. Frames or conventionalized units of knorvledge r,vill be
irrclrrrlc<l irr a rnacro-stnrctur:rl surnrnary ol a particular discourse . If there
is sorttc krss tlrrougl-r failure to rcnrcrnbcr thc actual clctails of a cliscourse
ol tlrrrruglr inaccuracics in a uracro-sLructnral sllrrllnary, Van Dijk suggests
tllrl lr':rrrrc knorvlcdse lvill then be usccl, ancl this rlay lcad to somc
irlrccrrr':rt ics irr rccall as t'lrc <lct:rils of a conr,ent.ior-ral frame miry Lrot all fit
()n(' l):u li( ul:rl sittr:rliorr. 'lI srrt lr infitrrnation Irnacro-stmctural] is no
lottllr't t<'lti<'r,:tlrl<', it is srrPPlicrl lr1,tlrc nr()s1 prol):rble components of the
It:tntcs lrsso< ilrlt'rl rvitlr tltc r onr t'1lls ol' llrt' rc:lt:tt:tttt ll)?rcro-st.ructure
;rrrrlxrsitiorr. ( )l ( r)nrs( , tlri: rrr,l' 1,';rrl t,r f lrlsc rtt'ourritiorr' (1977, p. 28).
'l:tttttctt (11)1):l),rvlrrlln{rl l,r!rlttrlrlrvilltr:rlcgolizirrg<lifli'r'r'nt typcsol'
It;utrc or srlrcrrr.r,,r(In'r\\1,,11',', tlt.rl lr('o1rlc lt:tvr''slotcrl llt<'it;rti,rt'
( \l)r'rrn( ( \ ,t\ ,ur orl',ur'., rl ur,t.. ,ur,l \{'{'( \'('nl\ ;utrl ,rlrjcr ls irr llrt'
ka
62 ACAI)IIN{I(I \\IRI'IIN( ;,\Nl ) ( :l Nltl
worl(l:ur(l in relation to tl'reir prior cxl)('r'i<'rr<r" (1rp.20-l). Tirnnen says
tSat tlris store(l krrorvlcdgc crcatcs'cx1lc< l:tliorts rtlrottt the rvorltl' (p. 2l) at
a nulnl)er ol-le\,els. In n researcll pr()icct itrrolvittu srrlrjccLs viewing a short
filrn atrcl rctclling the er,ctrts ol'thc [ilrtr,'l'rrrrrrt'tt sltows that, fiorn closc
exalrlination of the retcllins, Iiamc krtorvlt'tlU<' 'crtl) bc secn in tlte strrface
linguistic forrn in the featrlres of':r nlrrnrliv(" lttl(l thirt'close an:rlysis ol'
lingtristic cvicleltcc can reveal the cx[)('(t:tliolts ttr liames whicll crcate
thern' (1993, p. 53).
Tl-re iclca of thc ttsc of storccl rtrrrltilllc liarncs, rvllich zrrc uscd
int.cractivcly fcrr the cotnplcx interprctaliort o1' knowletlge in a nrrrrtber
o[' areas incltrcling r.vritten tcxt, ttn<lcrpirrs tlre :rpproaclr to frarning of
N{acl-acltlan anrl Rericl (1994), lvho s:ry that idcnti{ication of a litcrary
gc:nrc:
r,vill clepend on what fiarnes arc dominatinq onc's reception of tlre text.
Evcn minirnal rvrilten forms sttch grafliti, slogaus or epitaphs cannot
as
be cornprchenclcd trnless they are frarned in sornc l\tay . . . readers ahvays
rreecl to 'plitcc' it in rclation to corlrpirrable text, in re lation to
strrrounclirtg infbrrnation . . . To re:rd gencrically is to posit fiames ftrr
irrterprcting thc l:rnutrage used. (pp. 85-6)
Irr proposinFi yct a further ilccotrnt of a frarne constrlrct, Rirrsalort (1992)
pll<'cs a 'co-occurring set olattribtrt-es' at the core, ancl dcfines an af tribtltc
rrs lirllorvs:
l,\rr :rttribu1e is] a concept t|at clescribcs an aspect of at lclst sotrtc
(.:rt('ll()ly rnembcrs. For exarnple, color clcscribcs au asPcrct of Djrd.s, ancl
Iot rtlitttr <lcscribcs an :rspcct o| tta.r:a,tions.. . . A concept is only an att.ribtrte
1,lr<'rr r.icwecl as clescribilg somc aspcct of a catceory's llelnbers. (P.
:t:t( ))
'llrrrs, rrttt'iltrttcs crtnrltine to trtakc a tiarne ancl thcy (i.c. attrillutes) arc
s1r<.t.ilir.<l in tet-nls of valucs rvhiclr'arc sttbordinate concept-s of an
irlll.il)1t('' (p. 3l) 1vhiclt inlrerit infirrrnation fi'orn other attrilltrtcs, so that
lltr'\, 't.orrt.r'n :rclditional inftrrrrration not in thcir rcspective :rttribtltcs,
tlrt,r'r'lry rrurkirrg tltcttt trtorc spccific concePts' (p.31).Thus, a fr:rrne for a
1r1 r'orrtrritts (lrc: ltltr-ilrtrttls firtl, angi.ne, tran.srnissio'n ancl uh.ecls. Valtres fbr
tlr<'lirt'l allt.ilrrrlt'r'ottl<l lrt' grt.vlin.r, dicsclor ga\olnl. Valtrcs for thc ctlgitrt'
Irlllilrrtlt. < ottl<l lr .fitrrr, .rtx or rr'.gft1 cylirr<lcrs, lttt<l valttcs firr tlrt'
Ilrrrsrrrissitlr ltllrilrrrl<.r'orrlrl lx' slattr!rml <>r uttltttttttlir'. llltt's:tlOtt stl{.J{.J(lsts
rlr:rt lltr':rttrilrrrtcs rlitlrirr lt ll:tttt<'ttt:t\"lrr':tssociltlt'<l rvitlr llllt'ir-l orvrr
Ir;rrrrr',,1 nlolr' spct ilir ;rlltilrrrlt's'. 1'lrrrs,
l1 r,l1 t( i ( lll \\'rit l. ,,lt tr'.tl csl:tlt' lrl.ttttllrlt',. lltt lt.ttttr' lt't ltottst'lt:ts :ttt
.rllttllltl(. lr,t lrrr,rlt,rrr. rrltrr lr itr lttt tt i., .r lt.rlrlr \\ltr,',r .rlllllrlll('\ itlr lttrlI
cloNSl'l.L\IN1',S ( )N ( :( )(;Nt I t\rt.: (;t.tNtil.ts 63
cont)(niencc, utilities, zoningan<l .v't ro'i11,.'l lrr.sc scconclary attributes often
havc frames as tvcll. (1992, p. i|:t)
Barsalcrtr also puts fbnvarclthc irlca <>l' u.t.triltu,tt.systematicity, suggesting that
{iames contnin certain core at-trilrrrt<'s tlurt c()-occur frequently whenever
tlte frarne is applied. As an exarnplt' ol lrttrillute systematicity, the frame
for buy will trsually include the crlrc uttrilrutes of bu1el selkr, menlmndise
ancl pa,ym,ent At the same time, hc crrrplursizcs that attribute systenraticity is
not nccessarily rigicl and that variati()n is possible as frames occur in
diIl-crent corltcxts.
Barsirlotr also puts for-ward t.hc constmct of structural inaariants to
describe relatively fixecl conceptual relationships that occur between the
attriblrtes ()f one fiarne. An example is the operate.J relation between the
attributes of dtiuer ancl enginc. Thus, engine in the car frar;re 'reflects
people's conceptual understanding tl'rat the driver controls the engine's
specd' (p.35).
Frames not only provide a rneans of representing specific exemplars
'but also of represcnting specific inforrnation across exernplars' so that
'the prototype is simply the sct of the most frequent values across
:rttribrrtcs ... the prototypiczrl bircl is smallin size, brounin colour and has a
straiqht beak' (p. 47).
Frarncs irre used in a variety of r,vays to cleterrtrine catecory me mbership,
wlriclr reqtrirt's constnrinls:
o physical attributes, e.s. colour for a physical entity;
o possession of certain attribute values, c.g. human, female and adtrlt
collnt. as ervidence for species; sex ancl age as evidence for being a
lVOntan;
o possession oI'values beyond :rfixed rcf'erence point can count as
evidencc for category mernbership, e.e. legal voters are 28 years or
olcler.
f)roposals l-<tr fratn,es as cognitive constnlcts for organ:izing and storing
krrolvleclgc ;rrc, irr many ways, sirnilar to approachcs to the constmcts of
sclrcrnirta lrnrl sccnarios.
ty n
,\ r t t n. n. a rm d, i'ml t lic a ti on s Jbr tli s c o urs c c a t e gorizati o
( )r'isirurtirrs ll-orn arti{icial intellige nce and developed by linguisrs, most of
lltr':rppr'o:rclrcs propose frarnes as chunks of configured information that
:rlc llrs<'rl orr t'xpcricncc ratlrer than Ibrmally learned knowleclgc. They
;rlt'storr'<l in tlrc lonr{-lclrrr nl('ln()lJ arrtl c:rn bc readily appliecl to, or
:trllrlrl<'<l l(),:ll)l)t1)l)r'itrtc silrr:rtiorrs. Sorrr<':tlrpro:rc:ltcs to frames (e.g.
Nlirrsky, l1)75; Vrrrr l)iik. l1)l3o) srrlilicst llrirl rt tlrc rrlrlrcr lcvcl, llrc stnlctrtrc
ol tr llrrrrc is lixr'<1, rvlrr.r(.:r\.rt tlrr.lorvr.r lcvlls llrcv rrr:ry lr<.r<':tlizctl in:r
tttttttltt't ()l \\'.rvs. i\ssor i.tllrl trrtlr llrr'- rr tlrl troliorr ol lltr. lti<'t:rltlticltl
ot1,,:ttttz.tliott ol kttotrlcrll'r' trlrt, lr ur lr.rrrrr' lltr.ort is rl<'sr rilrt.rl irr
64 A()\DENIIC \,\IRI I'l\(; r\Nl) ( il Nl{l'
Winop;racl's (1975) 'hierarchics ol ut'tttt;tlislltott'(1r.48ir) with mortr
general knowleclge at a liighcr lcvcl :rrrtl rrror c rlt'llrilctl, specific lowcr-level
knowledgc, allolving {br inLerrcllrtiorrslrip rrrrrl r otttlritt:rtiorr. In aclclition,
several of the approaches suggcst llutl li:trrrcs ()l)('tlttLr irs prototypes, alld
that the application of fiarne knorvlt'rlut'to silrurliorrs involves.iuclgements
of prototypicality, r,vith frames allor,virrg lor i,:rrirtlion itt thc assignrnetlt o1'
lowerlevel features or attributcs to:r fi':rrrrr', rlr'pt'rrtlirttI ort the situation in
which it is applied. Simplcr tiatrrc:s, sttt lt rts lltosc o[' llook ancl clcsk,
combine to fornr larger fiames, sttclt :rs lil>llty.
Several ol the irpproacl-res to liarnc tlrt't>r'v rlistirrguish betwecn the
operation of frarne-based and non{l-arnc-lltst'rl kr tor,vlctlqe in 2tttelnPti llll
to explain hor,v frarnes are ernploycd itt cxlcrl<lctl tliscottrsc. Thus, Van
Dijk (1977, 1980) proposes that liarncs lrrnc:tiotr in conirtnction rvitl'r
nlacrostrlrctlres (ad hoc sttmmarics of notr-f'rlrlll()-l)asc(l knowledge), both
of which may be orsanizecl at the hip;hest levcl lty schernata, r'vhich may
themseh'es be gestalt-basecl (1980, pp. 233-4). Ilorvever, none ()f thc
approaches to fiame theory reviewecl hcre is irltesrated into a more
detailed proposal lbr a larger l'ramework that accottnts for interrelation-
ships between difl.erent typcs of knoruledge.
3.4 Theories relating to procedural knowledge
In the section that tbllows, theories that attempt to accollnt lor tlle
operation of procedural kn<twleclgc - ltnozul,ed,ge that orga,nizes kttozulcd,{tt -
are rcviewed. Cornmon to each is thc iclea that. rnetaphor plays n pil,otal
role in connectilts together arrcl organizing a varicty of typcs of knowlcdgc
from different clornains, in orcler to create discoursc that is a reprcscll-
tation of colnplex thought arrd that is both cohcrenl aucl cohesive. Tlrc
tlreories tlrat :rre revicrved arc Fattcounicr's (l)85) nrcntal .space theory;
Jcrhnson's (1987) irnctsc schcmata; artcl Lakoff-s (1987) iclcr.tlizcd, corlttiliz,t
'm,odrl.s.
Fauconnier: mental space theory
Fauconnier's mental space tlrcory (198-5) seeks to devcloP ir colirliti\rc
account lbr the cohere nt strttctttring of cliscottrse , an approach rvhiclt SOcs
beyond a grarnmalical,/syntactical derscription of language, ancl providcs
possible explanatiotrs fbr aspects of rneaning, in p:rrtictrlar, aspccts ol'
reference in langtrage lvhiclt arc dillicult t() ncc()uIll firr irr otltctr-ways.
Fanconnie r ( 1981-r) sLroi rrtt:ttLitl sprl( ()s lls tylx':i ()l illl('l'('()llttt't'lt'<l
c()ltaillcr-s o['i<l<'trs, s:rying tlrlrt llrcy lll("( ()]rslllrr'ls rlist itrr I lirrttt lirrurristit'
strll('tul'('s, lirrt lrrrill rrlr irr;trry <liscorrlsc lrrr,,rrlitt1, lo 1,1li1lclirrcs plovirlt'tl
1r1, 1i111311 s1'1 r'xllrcssiorrs' (1r. l{i). Altlr,rrrlilr l:tttt.tttrtlt rlt'sr tilrcs tttt'ttlltl
sl):l(('s;ts;rtittt:ttilt''r 1rs1rlrolol'1r:tl toltsltttrI ltr'ltlolrr'\{\ llt:tt lll(.r':tt<
Irr,rrrilcstlrl lluorrlilr tlrcrr crrr orlitrli, irr Lrtrl'11.11,, tr"lttri' llr.rt lrrrllrristir
CONSTRALVI'S ()N ( t( )( INI't tVI,t (;l,tNt{tis 65
expressions will typically establislr l('w sl):r( ('s, t'lcrnents rvitl-rin thern ancl
relationships holding betr,veen thc c:k'rrrcrrts' (p. l7).
A key elernent in Fanconnier's tlrr''r'y is rlrc dcvice <>f space build,ers, a
grouP of cliscourse markers, whiclr rrrrry llt: lirr{-Ttristic dcvices flerived {iom
a nttmber of syntagmatic/paradiurnatic liursuiurc categories, <levices rvlriclt
play a boundary-rnarking role in rlisc.ursc, provicling essential knowledgc
lor succcssful processing of textual rrrclrning by :r lanutrage user. A seconrl
key element in correctly interprcl-irru discourse infornration rvithin ;r
mental space conceptual unit is F:urconnier's proposal for types o.f
equiualence relating to the interprctatir>n of linguistic lnaterial within a
mental space constmct. Central to the creation o['a rnental spacc' is the
role of metaphor in settins up many of tl're connections thirt are madc
between pieces of information.
Fauconnier refers to linguistic expressions r,vhich set up new sl)aces or
refer back to earlier spaces, as 'spacc builders'. space builclers nray bc
prepositional phrases (in Len'.s Nticture, inJolm's ,mind, a,t tln factory, Jrorn, hcr.
point of uian), aclverbs (real\, possib$, theorr:tically), connecrives (if_,
cither_, or:_*), trnclerlyine sulrjcct/verb combination s (Max belinte.s_,
Mary hopes_). Furthermore, a space btrilcler, in setting up a ncw sp:rcc,
will always connecr- it r,r'ith anorher space, its parcnr space, by the typc ol'
syntactic ernbedcling or reference containecl r,r.ithin the space ltrrilclcr
itself.
The types of connections that operate betwcen mcntal sp:rces urc
possible becausc of the use of rnetaphor, rvhich Fatrconnicr ternrs
lragma,tic functions (Ntrnbere, 1978). Prasrn:rtic lirnctit>ns c:rn 'establisrr
links between objects of a clillerent natrlre for psychological, crrlttrr:rl or
Iocally pragmatic reasons'. Fatrconnicr (p. 5) calls this typc of conncction
tlrc 'ID principlc':
The ID principle srates that in a connectcd situation, a clescription of
the trigge r nlav sllssest the krrsct. An examplc of this is: 'plato is on thc
top shelf'. This sentence can bc trken to n)can that the books by plato
lrrc on thc top shelf. (Fa.uconnier, 1985, p. 4,5)
lrr Fnrconnicr's account of cartegoriz:rtion, nonn phrases, rather than
sirrrlrly irlcntilyine people, thinqs or concept.s are scen as perforrninu roles,
rrl wlurt Firrrconnir:r calls role fu'nctions. Thus, 'dcfinite <lcscriptions are
plinr:rrily rolc firr.rctions ancl secoridarily thc value taken by such roles
(irk'rrtilyirrg). Tlrc domain of the role rnay inchlcle tinres, places,
silrr:rli,rrs, (()nlcxts ancl rntrclr rnore'(1985,p.40).Sorne exarnples of'
llrt' rol<' lirrrclions ol'norrrr lrlrr':rst's lrrc:
o l'lrr' lrlcsirlr.rrl t lr:rrrgr.s ('\,('l \/ s(.\,('n \r('llt-\.
o \irrrr r';rr is:rlrv:rys rlillr.rr.rrt
o \'()ilt ;tl);lrtilt('ilt liIt'Pr I'r'ilrrr1, lrrr,1'r.1 :rrtrl lri1,1.ir.r ( l1)l.lI, P_ lt1))
66 AC]ADEMI(-] WRI'I'IN( ;,\NI ) I ;I. NIII
'The presidcnt','vorir car', and'yolrl :rl):rrllrr('rrl', llrt'r'crlirrc, do not have
one fixecl rcf-erenl in reality. 'I'ltrts I':tttr ottttit't, ilr tlcscribing noun
phrases, says thiit tlrey czrtt have'a Iixt'<l i<lcrrtit\', 1,,,, tlrt:ir other propertics
can change' (1985, p.4l). In cxpl:rirrirrg lltis, lirttttotttticr says that'roles
roll v:tlttc) can chanee, while
are also element-s, bi.tt srtch that irlcrrtitl, (i.r'.
one particular property (c.g. prcsitlt'rll, (rrr, illtrrrl rlr(:tlt) is fixecl; lbr such
elernents, identitl,is avariable pr()pc:l't\/' (p.'ll).'l'lrc linguistic elenrents of
zr mental space may identify a t-olc (its irr llrc llrrct't:xilmples above) or its
role virluc.
Fauconnier su{rgests tltat :rrnbistrity ol irrtt'r'pt'ctittion of language may
not necessarily be the result ()1' a c()lllntsl l)ctwcten role and value
interpretations, but rather miry arisc lirrttt <otttt-:tst.s between 'particlllar
(onc valtre) interpretations aDd gcncral (lrll valtrc) interpretaticltrs' (P.
5l). Wlrat he calls f,rst ord,e:r equiualcncc rc:rtlirrs is wlrcre the mental space
withirr r'vhich langnase exists contains all ttl' tlt<-' relevant parameters
neccssary lbr the inte rpretation of the lingtristic rnatcrial containcd within
the space. As an example he off-ers the sentcllcc: 'In 1929, the president
was a baby'. In discussine the possible interpretations of this sentcnce, he
proposes tlrat an exarnple <>f ftst-ordel in,terpn'tation is that in i929, thc
person r'vho rvas the presiclcnt was a baby. He Proposes that first.-order
interprctalion can be employecl to exPress a ttniverszrl idea. In suclt a case,
the proposition r'vill not bc attached to a tightly specifying spaceJnilcler.
An exarnplc of this more ttnitersalist, less mental space-bound statemcnt,
wotrld be : 'Tl-re presiclcnt governs the collntry'. The 'non-first-order
irrtcrpretation of the cxarnple sentence, and the more salier)t one,
rvorrld be that. the man who is currently the presidentwas a baby in 1929.
Iilrrc<lnnier points ollt that this type ol' interprctation (non-first orcler)
l:rkcs placc usins rnore than what he calls LIte lexicr.tl properties of the
n()lurs or l'erbs involvcd. Non-first-orcler interpretation is essentially
irrtcrconnectionist in that it does not simply rely on the rolcs ancl valtres
ol' tlre elemcnl.s r'vithin the mental space , btlt on their interlinkage zu'ith, or
wli:rotce lo, elements otrtsicle the space. It is also fbr this reason that non-
lirst orcler is oficn thc rnore salient metlrocl of intcrpretation.
Sr r, mtn,oty r.nul i'mp liut t i.otr.s .litr d:istnursc cn le{oriza I io t t
Ii:rtrcorrnicr's ap1>ro:rclr lrc:rrs sonrc sirnilarit.ics to thc rnacro-strtrctrtre/
h'trrrrt' r'orrstnr< ts o['Vrrtr I)ijk (11)u0) arr<l tlrc constnlcts of'sccnario/nott-
s< <,r1rlio-lxrst'rl irrlornr:rtiorr irr <lis<'ottt'st' ol srrrrlirrrl itrrrl (iltt'rotl (l98 l ).
l,lsst.trtilrlly, rvlr:rl llrt'olisls lrlr':rirrtirrg to <lt'sclilx^itl('lll('<liIli'rt'lrt typcs of
li.rrotvlr.rlg<' llrlrt lu(' rt'prlscrrtcrl witlrirr rlis< ottts<' lttttl tlrt' tlillt'rt:rrt
r'ogrrilivr. riyrit(.lus tlltt lr t'rrrplol'r'rl itt sltttt ltrtirrg sttllt rlilli'r'<'rrl krrow'
lcrlg<'lt,pcs itrl,, ,,rltt'trttl rlisr,rtttst'. \\/lt:rl llrr'rr' ,t;,;tt,,:ir ltt's st t'tlt lo ltltt't'
itr r orrrnr,rrr is tlr,' rrlr'.r tlr,rl ror i;rllt slr:rtcrl l.tt,,tvl,',1!1, (ollctt tcllttirtg lrr
tlrl tr'.tl trotlrll t., rlutt'tl ll\lltft, \r ltt'ttt.t ot lt.ttttl l\lr( \lllli llll('\ llrt t':tst'ttl
tlllt('\',tl ,ttt,l tt',,' tlt ,lt',,,,tttr, llotllrt t, lltl t,tll, l, lll lllrlcrlttl;tliott
( ]ONSTITAINTS ON CIOGNITI\'E GF]NR}T,S 67
snclr knor'vlcrlgt' irr cxtcndecl discor"rrse itself is cornplex ancl crnploys a
ratrgc of firr-tlrt'r' < ogl)itive stnlctrlrins systems, systerns that rnay involve
nrorc abstract or- lirrrrral schcmatic conslnlcts.
Johnson: image schernata
Tlris scction cxirrnirrcs t.lre corrstruct of the kina,esthetic image sche,ma
proposed byJohrrson (1987) as a lirnclarnc-ntal clevice by which humans
stnlctlrre knowledge. First, the thcory of knowleclgc on which Johnson
bases lris irnaqe schcma constrlrct is sumrnarized. Secondly, thc image
sclrenra itself ancl its gestalt natllre is discussed. Thirclly,
.fohnson's iclcas
concerning the role of rnetaphor in dre operation of this constmct as a
categorizing device are examinccl, along lvith eviclence wlrich Johnson
claims points to the existcnce ancl operation of irnase-sch.rnata. Finally,
tlre imase schema construct is discussed in relation to its possible
structurinq role in written cliscotrrse.
Basetl on tlre ideas of Plltnanl (1981),Johr)son puts for-warcl a thcorv ol'
krrowleclge trpon which lre bases his proposal for the construct ol'irnasc-
schcmata:
o Knowlcdge is sharecl by lr.mans, and tlrcre is no absoltrte '(iod's cyc'
knorvlcclse.
r Knowlcdge is .re diatecl by u'rclerstancling. Therc is a sharecl
conrmtrnity of trnderstanclinq and, to bc sharccl, unclcrstandins
Iras to Lre cxpressecl tlrrouglr lang*aee ancl s'rne systcr. of
<lcst riptiorr.
o shared understancli's is not just a malter of c.'cepts and
propositions, btrt also involves image schcmata rvhich consrittrte
fbrrrr irr orrr expt.riencr'.
r Unclerstanclinss clcvelop from bodily experiences arrcl interacr-ions
with otrr environment.
o wlrat psycholoeists call 'basic-le'el' experience ancl concept.al
orgarriz:rtion is thc levcl at rvhich wc react with otrr environrncnt.
It is thc levcl characterizecl by gestalt perception of overall shape, by
otrr c:rpercities {br motor nlovelncnt in interaction with the object,
irrr<l lr1' our ability to I'orm riclr ment.al images of an object.
r ()rrr ('o'ccpt.:rl systern is pluegecl into our most relevant expcri-
('ll('('s rt t.wo lcvels:
(;r) tlrr'lrirsic lc'cl - the level of interaction rvith trre environment
(lr) tlrt' irrrirsc sclrcnratic levcl - rvlrich gives a general form to otrr
rrrr<lclsl:rrr<lirre. This is extcncled irnaginatively by category
lolrrr:rliorr :rrrrl lry lnctaphorical ancl metonyrnic projection.
r 'l'' irrrcr'Pr<'r ,rrr t'xpt'rir.r)c(., w('rrcc<l c:rtc{rorics tl-rat are sLlper-
ortlirr:rlr':trrrl srrlrorrlirr;rlc lo lr:rsit-lt'vcl (.iltc{r()rics. (surnnrarized
Irorrr folrrrsorr, l1)1J7, 1rp ?{Xi--1)).
ol
 \\rRl'l'lN(l ;\Nl) (:l Nlil'
6rl A(IADEN,llO
(()u(('rtt rvitlr'trutlr conditions',
.fohnson conterlds t-hat sclt)irntics, in its
-often
ignorcs tl()tl-Propositirlnal strll( llll ('s, stt< lt lts inlatres, SChtlmatic
patt-erns and ntctirph<>rical pr<llcctiolrs. IIt' t lrrilrls tlrat thcse strtlct.Llres'
altlrotrgh fietluetrttly ignorctl, llr('(('llllirl irr r'ottvcyint1 nleaninq that
relirtes to :tl)str:rcti()ns. J()lrns()n rcli't.s to lltt' l)r'()lx)sals ()f ICurt (1781 /
1998) lirr lxntstzrulnttal schnnrttrt. Kltttt sttgut'stcrl tlrat therc are ernPirical
arrd abstract types ol knolvlc<lsc, as rvcll :ts :t tlrird tyPe of knou4eclse'
rvhiclr he callccl lrzrr,sc?n(lilttal sr:lrcnutlrr,:t tyl)c ol'knowledge r'vlrich cirn
lncdi:rtct l>ettveen tltc othcr two tyPcs. [)r-lu,virlLI ()n Kant's iclcas,.fohnson
rlcscribcs im,a.gc sclr.emnla as 'non-pr()l)()sit.i()llttl strtlcttlres of inragination'
( l9ft7, p. l9). This is a proposal for a type ol's(:hcrna that is difTercnt liorn
that proposecl by Rtrrnclhart (197ir) (i.c.schcrnata f<rr knorvleclgc
srructilrcs) and tllut of Schank and Allclsorr (1977) (i.c. schemata klr
scriptccl activiti cs) .
Accorrline to.fohnson's proposal (1987, p. 29), the constrtlct- of imagc
stlu,ntnla conlirrtns to the fcrllorvin{ conccpts:
o A scficrrra cgpsists 6l-1 srnall nurnbcr of parts an<l rclations, by virttre
of rvhiclr it citn strttcttrrc in<lcfirtitelV rnany pcrccptiorls, irnaqes antl
c\,c ll ts.
o The pattcrns [Of irrrage sclrcrnata] cmcrge as rlrcaninglirl lirr tts,
chicfiy at tfic lcycl 9f' ()tlr l)o(lily lnovctnents throttgh space' otlr
rniuripulation ol. oltjccts uncl our perceptrlal intcractiotls.
o Thcy opcratc lrt a ievcl of orgunization thnt firlls betlveelr allstract
1_rr.rp<lsitionzrl stnrctures on tllc
onc sicle, an<l p:rrticular concrctcl
ittragcs ()n lhc othcr.
gcstalt st.rttctrrre as 'an
l,lrrrs61 secs image schcnratir as pJcsterlts, de{ining ll
,,rgrrrrisc<1, trni{ic<l r'vlrolc lvitltir) ()trr expericnce ancl tln(lerstan(ling that
rrr:trrili'stsarepcataltlcP:rtterrn()rstrtlctllre'(p.'14),an(lclailninUnot'onl,v
Ilrirt il1:u-Ic schcrnata I'it tlrc rc<luircrncrlts of gestalt strtrcttlrcs ircctlrcling ttr
llrt.rrlrovc clcfinitir>n ltut also tlrat'all image schctnata arc chirractcrizalllc
:rs ir-rc<ltrciblc gcstalts' (p. aa). Examples of image scllematll are: the
(]ONTAINER SCITCIII;r, tIrC I,INK SCITCNTA, tITC CENTRE_PI]RIPHE'RY
s<.lrt'rrlr, thc PATII scltcttra, thc UP-DOWN schernzr, thc FRONT-BACK
sclrt'rrra lrn<l tltc l.lNllAR ORDER schema.
'['he first lotrr ol- these :rrc
orrtlittt'tl ltt'tt'.
.folrns91 (pp. 2l-2) t'<trtlt'rrtls t.lr:rt at atr carly a.t{c
|tllnans clcyeloP tltc
( l( )N'l'r\lNl,.ll sr.lr<'rrr:r H('stllt lr-tlrrr cxpcricttcirtg tlrcir lrtltlics:ls ctllrtltiltct's
;rrrrl :rs tlrirrgs irr ront:rirrt'rs (('.ll.lrcirrg irr:l l()()lll or':r lrt'rl).'l'lt('slrll(ltllr:ll
t.lcrrrctrls ol llrc rotrl:rirrt.r s<lt<'trlt:tlt': ittlctiot, ltotttt<l:rt1" t'xtt'ti<lt'.'l'ltt'
r l:rssilir:rt6r y irlr.lr 1l llrr' ( l( )N IAIN['.!i. sr lrltrr.r i: tlr.rl 1r't'tt'lltitttl is t'itlrt'r
rrrri,lr' ,'t ottlsi(l(' ,tl lltt't ottl:tillct.
,\, r,rtrlttt1, l. f olrrrsorr (1r1r. Il7 l1l). tlr. I lNh '., lr, r r r,r r lcr clolrs ltr rt t t
tlrr' lrlrt"rr.rl lrrrl ,,l llr, ttltllrlltr,tl lrclrr.r'tt t ' lrrl'l rrrrl rt , rrrollrr'r. l)lll iltli
tlr, rr ,llt,'l,r1rtr!r'tll, ,lrrlrltr-tt .tlt ,llt lt lrlrt r' rlir i,, l,l Lr ,,r lrolrl orrto
(]ONSTRA.IN'I'S 0N ( I()(;NI'I'IVII GENRES 69
their parents to cleterrnine plrysit:rl locrrtion. The use of the link to
determine locirtion can be botlr spirtiirl an(l temporal. The strlrctural
elernents are two iterns with a link corrrt'(:tins them. The classificatory idea
of the link scherna is: given tlvo linkr:<l clcrtrcnts X and I X is linked to
ancl clepenclent on Y, ancl conrcrscly Y is linked to and dependent on X.
The CENTRE PERIPHERY sclrcrn:r, accorcling toJohnson (pp. I2,t-5),
develops frorn our boclies as the pcrccptual centres of the world through
which lve experience sensations, objects and relationships. The structllral
parts of this schcma arc an cnt-ity, a centre and a periphery. The
classificatory iclca is that thc ccntrc is most important and the periphery is
less irnportant. This scherna almost ah'vays operates with othcr schemata,
such as NFIAR-FAR (for establishins a scale or degrees of importance).
The PATI I schema (pp. I l3-17) clevclops from the boclily experience of
any kincl of movernent. The st.ructural parts of this scherna are the source
(the starting point), the path (the course or clirection) and the goal (the
cnclpoir-rt). The classificatory iclea of this schema is accounting for
ilnything that literally moves or figuratively progresses.
.fohnson claims that schern:rta are thc prirnary meAns by which we
corlstnlcl, or constitute orcler', and that they are flexible enolrqh Ibr us to
apply to atny ntrrrtbcr of instantiations in varying contexts. IIe also claims
tlrat schernata ftrr tenlporal and spatial orientation 'are scl pervasive and so
('()nstitlltive of our orclinary expericncc that they arc taken fbr grante<l
(and thus ovcrlooked) in standard accounts of meaning ancl understand-
ing' (1987, p"3l).
Onc of thc central idcas of .fohnson's theory is the metaphorical
pr<ljection of a scherna frorn the physical to the non-physical. Hc claims
tlr:rt. thc convcnti()nal view of rnctaphor in objectivist metaphysics involves
tlrc sinrilaritics conveye<l by mctaptror as '[existingl objectively in the
rvorl<l and fircingl cxpressiblc in literal propositions'(p.68), and he
obsenes that Davidson (1978) and Searle (1979), while holcling diflerent
vic:rvs on the non-propositional aspect of metapl-rorical meaning, 'both
slrirrc the recogrlition of a non-propositional operation of metaphorical
;rrrrjcction' (p. 73). In clevelopins this idea, he argues that metaphors play
lr 't'orrstittrtive' role in structuring hurnan cxpcrience, illustrating this by
t'xrrnrirrins tlre operation of the BAIANCE scherna where the concept of
nr('lrrl)lr()ric:rl lralance is saicl to emerge out of an understanding of thc
l)r'('('()n('cl)trral gcst:rlt stnlcture that begins lvith balancing as a bodily
rrctivitr,. An rrrr<lcrstancling of balance in r,isual perception involves
rrcl:rplrorir':rllv Jrrojccting the iclea of weigl-rts and forces from a physical
cxp<'r'icrrr'<' to :r visrral cxpcrit'rrcc. Thtrs,.fohnson arglres, by rnetaphorical
projccliorr tlrc IIALnN(ll'l s< lr<'rrr:r lrr'< orrr('s thc <)rganizins concept for the
rcl:rtiorrs lll:tt ()l)('r':ll(' irr :r rrrrrrrlrcr ol ollr<'r'rlorrrairrs. Ilxarnplcs to wl"rich
Itl tclr'ts :u(': :iYSl('tnir lr:tl.tnr{, l)\\'rlrolofil;11 llltl:tttt<', tlrt' llitlitrtcc tl[-
r.rliorr:rl .lrl',lrnr('nl, lr'1i:rl .rrr,l 111.r,r1 l',rl,rtr, r'. ,ttr<l trr:rllrt'rrt:tli< ltl lt:tirur<t'.
f
olrnsrrt lnr'\('nl\,t rrrrrrrlrr r ,l ,rt'rlur'rl\ irr sttlr;rotl ol lltt'r ottsltttr'l ol
7(l /\(/\l)l i\ll(;\t'tit lt\(; \\t) (il Ntit,
image-schcrrtata lttt<l rrrcl;rplror ir lrl pro;r't liorr. 'flrcsc inclu<1c larr-
tltcil
guage phcnorncna rcl:rlirrg lo tlrr' ()l)( rrliorr ol rrrctaphor as well :rs
ernpirical psvcl-roloeicul strrrlics. In nlrtrrr:rl llrrrtrr:rgc:,.|olrrrson ar{rucs, thel
systematic natllre o{' rttctaplror', cxtt'rrsiorrs ol < orrvt:ntional rnet:tph()r al-t(l
polyserny inclicatc thc operatiorr ol irnlrtt'-st lrcrrr:rtu. As an exarr)plc ()f'
systcrnatic metaphor, rcl'crrins to Lakoll :rrr<l.f olrrrson (1980, pp.92-6), he
citcs metaphor relatccl to arguillcnt, Plrr-tir:rrllrrly the c()ntcnt of arr
argurrlent, r,vhich usuallv relntcs to lxril<lirrgs ()r constrlrction. E,xanrples
are: support, c()nstnrct, firrrn, slroft: rrp, stanrl or l-all, buttrcss with soli<l
argurnents.
Another aspcct of natttral larrsuage whichJohns()n argucs inclicatcs the
existcllce of irnagc-sclre mata :rncl tlrcir rne taphorical operaLion is
polysemy. IIe clelincs polyserny as 'tlrc nrtrltiple, relatecl nlelrrlings [i)r
te rrns' (t 987, p. 107), clairning that it cxists becatrse of rur(lcrlyins
sclle nlata which stnlctllre a network ol'rclatecl nreaninqs l>y rnctaphorical
cxtension. As an exltrnpler, he cliscr-rsscs tllc Of,lT schetna whicll, lrc argrrcs,
can be appliecl prototypically to thc spatial ckrrnain, but is irlso nlctitpllor-
icirlly, pro.jectecl into a wicle varicty of cogniti','e areas strch as: sclcc:tiorl
(lcave out), r,r'ithclrarval (gct otrt fofl , lrack out, tvcalicl otrt [ofl ), proclucinu
(put out), despatcl'ring (get otrt, scrrcl out), clistributins (h.rrrcl t'rrr. sivc.
out), ernphasizilu (britrg out).
Perhaps rnorc sisnificant.ly,.Jolurson citcs several sttrrlies rvlticlr lravc
cletnonstratcd that the hunrarr rnin<l perfirrrns operations involving inragc-
sclrcrnata that errc anzrloeues oi's1>al"i:rl ()pcratiolls. For ex:rrtrplc, a scrics ()l'
t'xpct'itttctrLs lty Brooks (I968) irrvolr,ecl subjects being slrorvrr ltlrysic:rl
figrrrcs lvhic:h r'vcrc then rernovcd. Jhc sulrjccts \{ere then clrrcstionccl orr
llrcir-nrcrnory of tlrcrn, their rctsP{)lrscs inclicating tltat thc scannirrq
(.)[)cr:r,ti()ns pcrforrnecl r,verc analoqtres of spatial opcrations. Anclcr-sorr
(19u0) rcports th:rt subjccts clistinctrishccl bctwccn sirlple, cestaltirascrl
irnages :rnd more cletailcrl or rich irnages (rvlriclr Irc calls 'nrent:il
pictures'). Fttrtlrerntore, experirncnts ctoncluctecl b,v Marrtror ancl Zabeck
(1976) dctnonstratecl that congenitally blincl subjccts perfirrrnecl nrcntal
operations in u'ays sinrilar to sightcd subjcc:ts as a result of kinaest.lrctir'
expericnces.
Surnrn rny a,n d, i mp li frtr
c u. t, i on.s tlis c o ttr's c c a l t:gor iz n tiott
Itnase schctnata, as conceptualizerd bv.f ohnson, :rrc' sinrltlc in'c<ltrcilrlt'
gestalt-basecl patterns. lisserntially rvlurt.folrrrs()n illqu('r,i is llr:rl tlrcst'
patterns, rvhiclr :rrc lcurttc<l crrrlv irr lifi';rs l>lrsi< lt'r,t'l lirrorvlt'<lg<', rrlr), llrtt'r'
filrrrr tlrc ltasis oI llr()l'('e('l)('l:rl ol srr;rt'rorrlirr;rlt'r:rlcqorizlrliorr. IIc
Pr()[)()s('s llutl irrltg<'scltt'ttt:rl:r olrl:rnizc lirr,rrrllrlr,,r'irr .r rtirlc r':rrir'ly ol
tlottltitts :tttrl, rrsirru llrt li,'\1,,'\N(;1,. sr lrcrrr.r .r., .ur r \.urlrl( lr, .rr1,lrcs lor
ittsl:tttli;tliotts ol it irr tlrc risrr.rl, ,,\\t{ nnr .'rr,l 1',r,1r,,1,,1,1,,r1 11o1t.11\, :l\
rt'r'll,ts itt t,rli,ttt.tl,tt1,tttu, nl, nrrrr.rl .rrr,l l, r,.,1 .rr!,rinr rrt .rrrrl rrr.rllrcrrr.rlrr s
I lrr: i., srrrrrl.rr lo \'.rrr l)r1l .. ( lr)li{l 1, 'i i) ,,rrlr, r l'r,,1',,..r1 rlr.rt .r .,, lr,.rrr.r
(loNSTR\lN'l'S ( )N ( (lr;Nt I IVl,. (;t,.Ntilts 7t
is perhaps thc nrostgeneral in tlrr'Plototr';ri< ltl ()l'glulizati()n oI'ktrowleclge'
and that 'schernata may lravc llrt.ir r,: iuirr irr Pcrccpttral orgarrizatirtn,
along such categorics as "lrorizotrtlrl", "r'r.r'tir':tl", "strrfacc", "bottorrr",
and "top"'.
A nttrnber of studies havc corrsirlcrt'rl llrt' c()nstrrrct. <tf irnagc-sclrcrn:tta
as a categorizins priDciplc firr lirrgrristic categorics. These incluclc
.f apanese cAuse rnarkcrs (Matsrrrrrolo, l1)97); German preposiriorrs
(Serra-Borneto, 1997) and spariill pr-t:posirions (Reitel, 1995). Johnson
lrirnsell tnakcs no spccific clairns lirr irnagc-schernata as (lisLr()rrrsci-
organizinu constmcls. Holvever, I-akolf (I987) srursests that propositional
inforrnation rnay be stmcturc(l by irnage-schelnata, and ir stu(ly bv Salics
(1998) acttlally exarnines rvholc texts as inst:rntiations of irnase-sclrcrnlrt:r.
If, in thc idcntification of discottrsc categorics such as cogrritive senrcs,
t.lte constmct o{'irnage-schcrna[r \\'ere [o lte appliecl to thc higltcr-lcvcl
(ategorization o1' clistoursc, ccrtain issues rvotrlcl hal'c t.o be a<l<lrcsscrl.
l"irst it wotlld be neccssary to itlcntifl the connection bctrvccrr rliscoursc
lype ancl thc image-sclterna whiclr would clrganize cliscorrrsc ()f a ccrtltill
typc, such as narrative. Seconclly, attent.ion would rrccd to be llairl to lron'
:ttt irnage schema typically tnaps onto larger sections of'rliscoursc. Thircllv,
tlrc infltrence of image scllcrnirt:r ()n tlte se lection of lor,vcr-lcve l
(lttcgorizing structures (such as selnantic relations, s\rlttax ancl lcxis)
lvotrld also nced 1o trc cxplorecl.
Lahoff: idealized cognitiae models
'l'lris section lvill briefly cxarnine kcy irspccts oI rhc] approach r()
<:rtr:sorization proposecl lly Lakoff (1987), an approacl'r rvhiclr (lr:rws on
rttlttry of'the tl-reories Previously rcviclverl in tlris chapter. Irr partictrlar,
:rll<'rrtion is drar'vn to two aspects oI'Lakoflts proposals conce rning htrrnan
cltt'sorization: his propos.rl lbr dil'fcrent typcs of prototypes (callcrl
itlmlizcd, cognit'iu? models) and, rclatccl ro tlris, his .sln,tit,lization rf .t'onn
Irl,lxtl ltt.si.s.
l,:rkolf supports the r..iew that categories arc c()grritivc cunct: pts, an(l tllat
llrc rrsc ()l' prototypcs provicles thc basis fcrr rnaking a categ()rizing
irrrlst'rrrcrrt. IIc arsucs that thc type oI'prototype used fbr a particul:rr
(;rr('g()ry is rclutcrl to thc subject rnatter being c:rtegorizccl. Diff'ercnt tyJ)cs
()l (irl('u()l1l r,vill crnploy <lifl'crent types o[ prototypc, rvhich hc tcrnrs
itlutli;Ltl. t opttil.ittt' nrxl,cls (hcrcafter ICM). Thus, 'otrr basic clainr r,vill be that
l)rr)l()lyl)('r'lli'< ts rt'strlt fiotrt tlrc trittrrrc of cognitit'e moclcls, lvhich cal) l)c
vrt'rvlrl :rs tlr<'oli<'s of'sorrrt' srrlrj<'ct nlultcr' (Lakoli, 1987, p. 45). In his
propos:rl, l.:rlioll irr<or'por':rt<'s;rsl)(.( l:i ol'li'arrrt.s('lll:llltics (Fillnrorc, 1985),
ttrrt:r;rlror :rrrrl nl('l()nvln\' (1.:rlioll :rrrrl .folrrrsorr, l{)t30), rrrcntal sp:rccs
(l".rrrroruricr, 11131-r):trrrlr,11'rritrrl l'r:uunriu (1.;rrrg:rckct', l{)U7).
( icttlr:rl lo l..rL,ll's I( il\l .rlrl)r..r( lr r: tlrc irlr':t ol ( ()n( ('l)llltrl t'rrrllorli-
ltt( ttl 'llrl irlr',r lrsl llr.,t tl', I't,1,, rltr'\ ol rlrt.rirr (:ll('!l()ti1s ltlr' lt
I(rllr,(!lll(ll(t ol lltl tt,tlrttr ,'l lttttttttt lrrrlrrl't,.tl r.t1r.tritir's.tttrl trl lltt.
 ACAI)IiN,IIC] \A|RITIN(; ANI ) ( ;I' NI{I.
experienccs of lirnctioning in a plrysicrrl rttt<l sot i:tl ('rrvironlnent' (p. l2).
Lakoff proposes that basiclevel antl itttrtrtt^-scltt'rttrtlit: concepts (folurson,
l9B7) are clirectly untlcrstood in tcrtrts ol plrvsitll cxPerience, and that
tlrcy {orrn the basis firr nrore cornplcx lrrrrn:rrr t lrtcgoliz-ation: 'Civen basic-
levcl and image-sclrematic concepts, it is possilrlc t<l builcl trp complex
cogltitive moclels. . . . hnage schenrata provi<lt' tllc st.rtlctlrres used in tl-rose
rnotlcls' (p. 282).
As a rcsult of his theory of conccpt.rtrtl ctrrlro<litnent, Lakoff proposes
tlrat thc kincls of image schemata that stntctrtrc perople's experience of
syr:rcc (e.g. CONTAINER, SOIIRCE-PATII-()OAI., I-INK, PART-WI lOt.E,
tlP-DO\\AJ) are also uscd to stmcture cortcePts in abstract domains. He
tcrrrrs tlris the spatialization of form, hlpotlrcsis, ancl provides thc {bllowing
surnmary of rhis h1'Jrothesis:
. Categories (in gcncral) irre ttnclcrslood in terms of' CONTAINER
sche mas.
o Ilierarchic.rl strlrctttre is understood in terms of' PART-WHOLII
schernas aLrcl UP-DOWN schemas.
o Relational structure is unclerstoo<l in terrns of LINK schemas.
o Raclial strllctllre in catesories is unclerstood in terms ol' IIENTER-
PERIPHERY schentas.
o Foregrouncl-backp;ror-rncl stmcttlre is utrclerstoocl in lerlns of
FRONT-BACK schemas.
r [,inear qLlantity scales are ttndcrstood irl terrns of UP-DOWN
sr:hcrnas ancl LINEAR ORDER schemas. (p. 283)
l,rrholl t'rrrphasizes thc role of rnetapl-ror in e nrprloying an irnage-schema
rvlrit lr r<'latcs to a physical clornain as a ntcans of strttctttrin5; an abstract
rlorn:rirr: 'irrrage schcrnas (lvhich st.rtlcttlre sPace) arc nlappecl into the
r or rt'sPorr{ling abstract configurations (r'vhich structure concepts)' (p.
?u:t). [,'ivc types of idealizecl cognitive models 2rrc proposecl: imrtge-
l i t,
t l r'
r' r tt t t r
lnolnsition al, met(4) fu)ric, rnetonymic ancl .slmbolit:.
o ltnngc-schema,tic: organization rvithin a rnental space is clone by a
schcrna, based on patterninss clerivecl fiom gesralt Perceptions, such
:ts tlre im:rse-scltern:rta proPosecl tly.fohnson (1987) I'or h.igher k:uel
t:ot,cgorization e.g. PART-WIIOLII, CONTAINER, t.lNK, CF,NTER-
PIIRIPHERY ancl SOUR( lti-PATFI-GOAf- (p. 284).
I'ntposilionul (a nrcrrtal sltacc r'vhiclt is not organizcd by ilnasinauvc
rlc'viccs): 'A sirrrplc pl-oposiliott c()nsists of irtt tltttttloey o['clcttrctrts
(tlrc "ur-grrrrrcrtts") lturl :t lrasic 1-rrctliclttt'tltlrl lrolds of'tltcst'
llr-llnnr('nl:i'(p.2ll5):ttt<l st'ttt:ttttit t't'lltliotts rrt:rv lt,rl<l l)('l\'v('('ll lll('
cl<.rrrt'rrls irr llris 11'1rc ol sr'lrcrrr:r.
i\lt'trtltltttrir. ':t ttrcl:tlrltor
ir rrr;t1r;ritt13 ittt'r,lvls :l \ot++( t' tlottt:lilt lttttl :t
l:rr1i|t rl0rtt,titt: llt('\()lttrt'tlllttt:titt is;tsstttttr',1 lo lrt sllttr lttlr'<l lly lt
lrtolrorililtt,tl ot itrt.tp',r' sr ltctttltlir tlt,t,l,'l' (1r'.r){}{l
,\lr'lIttIttttt ,r tllIlrrll\llllr lll,ll)ltlllf ir r lll . \!llltttt .l ',rtrtll,
( X)NSTR\INTS ON (]O(;NITI\T (]ENIII.]S ta
tlonrain rvlri< lr is strllcture(l by an [CM. (]iven two elements A and B
in thc I(1N4, A rnay stand for B. If B is a category, anrl A is a nternber
ot srrlrt:rtcrlorv of B. tlrt' rt'srrlt is lr rnetonyrni< c1rle![ory slnrctrrrt'. irr
r'vhich A is a rnctonyrnic prot()tvpc of'R' (p.288).
o SlntboLic: wlrcrr an ICM is usecl to stmctrlrc or organize lingtristic
elerncrrts, suclt as grarnmatical cateuorics, Lirkoff calls tltis a symbolic
ICM (p. 28e).
Su,'nz m rny a,n rl, implit: n ion,s
L
for dis c ou.rs e ca,tcgor izat io n
The concept o{' ide:rlizccl cognitive rnoclcls (ICM) proposcd by Lakolf is
anotlle r exarnple o{'an alternpt to explain how categorization involving
prot()typc occllrs in relation to clifl-ercnt tvpes of knowlcdqe. l,akoffassigns
a significanr, knowledge-orgirnizinu role to sirnplc gcstalts - clescribed as
irnasc schemata byJohnson (1987) - in a certain type of category. Hc
proposes that through lnetaphorical projection, irnage-schclnA strulctrlres
(rvhiclr relate in the flrst plnce to knowledge in thc physical realm) arc
ablc to strLrcLnre other, rnolc altstract types of knowleclge at a supcr-
orclinate level - his 'sp:rtializ-ation of firrrn hypothesis'. This iclea lvas first
proposed byVan Dijk (1980, p.233) and again in a nrore clevelopccl lbrrn
by Johnson (1987), both of' whorn sugFiesr that it is simple gesurlt
knor'vlcclgc lhat rnay operate lrs thc hiirhest-ler,el, structrlring elertrcnt irr
nlany categories, r'rot.iust in ()ne type of category. In his ICM proposal,
[,akoff lbcuscs on spccilic kn<xvledsc types :rncl proposcs types of
categorization that rnay rclate to emch knowledge type. Hc does not,
lrowever, provicle an int.eqrirted approach r,vhich could be relatccl directly
to written discourse involvirrs rnore than one knor,vleclge type (e.u. content
krrorvleclge and linguistic knowledue).
3.5 Discussion: implications of cateqorization theories for discourse
creation
So ['irrin this chaptcr, a rangc of'theories and constnrcts rel:rting to thc
<lrtcgoriz:rtion and organization of knowleclse have been rer.ier,ved. In this
scctiorr, tlrese :rre rliscussecl undcr the foliowing lrcadings:
o lr .:o{rnitive lt:rsis fcrr tl're categorization ancl organization of kr-ror,r-
Icrl{_fc;
. tll(: role ol protot.ypcs in nraking catcgorizit-rg juclgcrnents;
r :rpllroaclrcs t() types ancl levels of catcgory;
r issrr<'s ol' c:rlntplcx categorization within discourse.
A ntertilizrt, hu,'is .fbr the categorizat'ion and organization of knozuledge
l'ltc rcst'rttclr ol litlllt'll (l{):t:l) rrrrrl llrt'i<k'us ol-Wittscnstcin (19113/19{i3)
t;riscrl ittrlrr)lllull (lu('slions:rl,,rrtl tlrc n:rvs itr wlriclr tlrc lrttrtuttt tttirtd
()!l':rrri/('s:trtrl r:tlr'1,ot iztr l,.tt,,trllrl1'r' lrr rrl:rlion lo lltr.otg:rrriz:rliotr ol'
, r)ll( ('l)lll:ll
Irrorvllrllr', ll:rrtlr.ll ( ltflil') ;rr,,|,,..,,1 tlr,rl l.rr,,n'lr.rl;,r.is oll<'rr ()tl'iuti/("(l l)\'
74 A()\t)Ii\,lI(] wRl'l'lN(; ;\NI) ( :l' Nlil'
rnctirns ()l-schclnal.a u'hich trsc cxistilrg (()n(('l)ls lls it l)asis for pr<lcessirte
nclv inlitrrnirtiorr. This iclca lras bccn rlt'r't'lo1r<'tl lry lt ntlmbcr of thcorists
rv'lr9 [:1'e p1t fon':rr(l it rllngc 9l'kttgrvlt'tlg(-()rganizilr{J constrttcts,
r,ariouslv terlnc(l: schelnat.:r, fiarncs, scl'iJ)ts ()r sccllarios. In rcletion ttr
c:ltc{I()rizatioll, \\Iittgcllsti:in (1953) Pttt li)l1v1lr(l a larnily rescllll)lancc \dew
ol' clttcgorizatiorr, rvhich ttll()\rs for ccrttr:rl ()r Pr()totypical rncnrl.rers of a
(.:rtcgorv as well :rs less typical or pcriphcr:tl trtctrtlters ol'n cateFiory. This is
sul)p()rtc(l lty the clllpirical stuclics of Rosch (1973, 1975) antl Rtlsch irrtd
N'lcn,is (1975), wliich point to a prototypc cflcct that ()Pcrates when
< rrt<:r-{orizirrg .ittcleetne rtts are lna(lc in a nttmbcr of ficl<ls. This iclea is
sununlrrize(l by' Fillrnorc ( 1976) lr.ho, in putting fcrnvirrcl his thcory of frame
srnattlir:s, pr()l)r)ses thirt prototypcs play :r role in thc organizati()n of
knorvlc<l{-Ic:
Irrl or<lcr to pcrccir,e s{)lnctlling or to attain a conccPt, \vhat is ?rt lcilst
s()nlctill)cs ncccssitry is t<l hllvc itt tnetrtory a rcPcrt()ry of pr()totypcs, tllc
Ir( t ()l perccption ()r c()l-tccpti()n bcing that ol recosniz-ingi il] lvhat ways
lrrr oltjcCt Call bc sccll lls trn it)st:ttlcc Of One or alrother ol' thelst:
l)r'()t()typcs. (p. 24)
llrr.sr' :rpltrt)achcs to krrorvleclgc organizirtion an<l cirtcg()rizirtiolt raisc
s;rcr ili< isstrcs in rclntiort t() tllc conne ction l)etwc'cll l:rtruuage anrl
r r.lr.r r.rrls. Il' c:utegtlrization an<l org2rni/-ation of knor,r'leclgc is bttscrl otr
.rlr,,rrlv lr<'lrl cortccpts or pr()t()tvpcs - wllich, as Bzrrtlett dellronstr:lted,
rrr.rr lr. r rrllrrlltllv infltrcncecl or (leterlninc(l - the rcPrcsentation of'
l. rrrrrr'llrllt tlrrorrgh tvor(l and rclcrcnt rclati()nships c:lnlt()t bc trcated :rs
lrr, rl l{.rtlrcr, ir rvill be scctr :rs bcing dctern}inc(l lly ctrltrrral and
t,,nrr'\rrr.rl l:rclors tlrat varl'acc()r(ling t() tlre sitttirtiotr of lanFitl:rgc tlse.
llrlrclort', it is proposc<l here tlrirt categories of knoll'lcclge are
r "l'rrll\( 1r)n:ilnr( ls, rvlli('ll arc birsecl tltt a llttlllall vietrt of tlrc rvorl<l;
tlrr'1 .rr', tlrcrclirt-r', t'sst'rrli:rlly a httttt:ttr crcati()n l>ascd tln lrtrrnan
I'r'rr ( lrliorr ;rrrrl lrrrrrr:ur lr':rsottitr{f abotrt cliflcrent tyP(ls of kn<lrvletlgc.
'I'hr nilc ol' pnttotypes in nahing category judgentents
,'\ssot ilrtirrrl olrjccts or lrltt'ttotrtella with ('ill('{()ri('s, itl tttltlty arcas oI
krrol,lt'rIgr', rtl)l)crrrs to ittvoh'c rlssigllitlg lt cltt()g()ry ilt t'cl:ttiott to it
l)t()t()t\,1)('.'l'lris itrr'()lvcs lnorc l)r()t()t\'l)i(:tl, (('rtll':tl
('1tl('H()l) ttlt'tttllct-s,:ttt<l
l('ss l)t()t()lypictrl, pr.r'i1llr('r-ll (trl('U()t1l nl('nrl)('ls. (l:tl('Q()tizillq.jtrrlut'rltt'ttts
llrrrs irrvolvr.'jrr<lqrrrctrls ol tlcttct'ol ;rrrrlolr'pictrlitr,' (liost lr, l1)7,9, p. 1O),
n,ltit lr r:rrr lrt. rr.l;rllrl to lltc l:trrrilt' tt'st'rrtlrl:tttrc i<lr':ts ,tl \\rilttctrslt'irr
( l!)5lt). 'l lri: :r1r1rr'.rrs lo lrt :ttt trrrrlcrltrrrl', lrrirrr ilitr- irr :rll ol tllr'
r.tl(.1'ot tzirr1, , on.,ltu( lr tvlrir lr rcl.rlc lo lr:rtnr' ,rt "r ltt ttt,t lltt'ot\'. $ltctr'
lllr', lrtttr,t;,1, t, ttrr,,lr,,l itt
(]ONS]'RAIN'I'S 0 N ( :O( ; N I ]'I!I ] ( ;I.]N I{T],S t5
o thc assigrttttcnt of valtres to tlrc r,:rr-i:rlrlcs ol'a schema (Rurnelhart
and Ortony, 1977, p" 10ir), anrl
. the application of the lvholc st'lrt'rrlr to exarnples of a category
(Bartk'tr, l{)32).
uclgcrrrents of'prototypicaiity also a.ppcar to be the caregorizing principle
.f
in tlre othcr scherna-like categorizinq constnrcts which r,vere reviewed,
strclr as scripts (Schank and Abelson, Ig77); scenarios (Sanfcrrd and
Garrocl, 1981); Iiarnes, (Fillmorc, 1977; Van D!jk, 1977; Rarsalorr, lgg2);
ancl idealized cognitive rnodels (Lakoff, 1987). Moreover, caregorization
basecl arotrn(l a prototype (suclr as a central exarnple schema, scenario or
script) is proposecl as the c:rtegorizing constrllct relating to both ernpirical
knorvlcclee, srrch as scripts (Schank ancl Abelson, 1977) ancl abstract
knowleclue, such as cosnitivc sralnmar catesorics (Langacker, lg87).
Approaclrcs to gpes and leuels of category
'l'he idca of lcvcls of category appears in much of the literature revicwecl
Ircre (e specially that which concerns rnore complex categorization
involving curtegorics that inch.rde rnore than a sinsle type of item or
concept). In most of the approaclles, category levels relate to the clegree of'
spccilicity of tlre knorvlcclge repre sentecl. cateeorics which classily
knowleclge in a nrorc seneral \'vay arc referred to as highJevel catcuories,
tlrose dcaling rvith rnore specific knowledee as lowlevel catesories.
Brolvn's (19!i8, 1965) threeJevel category consrmct (superordinate,
lr:rsic-level ancl sul>ordinate) provides the b.rsis lbr a variety of approaches
lo thc investiqation of the c;rtesorization of knorvledge, such as the
lcscarch of Rosch (1973, 197.5) ancl Rosch :rncl Mervis (1975), r,vhich
r'('liltecl t() the catcsorization of sinele objccts or colours. It is also
crrrpkrycd in tlrcories accollntins fbr corrrplex categories which relate to
< .lttnccted or related <lata, such as objects, events, scenes or situations. For
t'xirnrplc, in schcma theory, hisher-level schemata are said to invcllve
gcrrcral typcs of knowleclge, ancl lor,r'er-lcvel schemata rnorc specific types
ol'krrrrr'vlc<lsc (Rtrrnclhart zrncl Ortony, 1977 pp. l0g-10). Oller (199b)
l)11)l)()s(:s tlrrcc lcvcls of schemaftt - abstract, ftrrrnal ancl content - in
rl<'s<'t:rrrlirrs orrlcr of incre:rsed spccificit1,. In script theory, scripts arc
.rrvis:rgcrl as ln()rc spccific than plans, rvlrich are in turn more specific
rlr:rrr gr>:rls (Schurrk :rncl Al>clsort, 1977). Sitnilarly, in tl-reir :rpproaches to
Ir;rrrrcs tlrt' rrltilici:rl irrtcllis('n('(' thcorists, Minsky (1975) ilncl Winogracl
(11)77), :rrgrr<' li>r' :r lrit.r':rr'< lrir':rl olg:rrriz:rtion of frarnes, frorn general to
sPcr ilir . Il:rls;rlr>rr (11)1):l) lr:rs :rr,,rrt.rl tlrlrt 'llilrrrrcsl lirr r,r4rat were once
lrr irrritirr' ( ()n( ('l)ls lrrorlrr, r' r orrrlrlcr ( ()lt( ('l)ls llr:rl ltr<' rrsg<l t<l btril{ rlore
slrcrilir (()n(('l)l ' (1, ll) llrrrr. ,,,rrr;rlr'\ (;tt(.,{()tiz:rtiorr is gcrrcntlly
tr(.rt{ rl.rr irrr,rlrlrrl'.r llr,.r.rr, !rr ,'l r, l.rtr rl Jrr,,rrlr.rlgr.lr,1rt.s. Irr r'orrsi<k,r.irrg
lrrt,lrl,r,l (.rl(l,orr/.tlr,tr. \.rrr Ilrll (lrlll(l 1r '.tiill).rrrrl l,rlyrssrr (l!)l-{?)
76 ACADEN,II(] \\TRI'I.IN( ; .\NII ( ;I. NI{I
arglre that gestalts may provicle a lr:tsis li,l rtlrlrct l<'r'cl or sltpcr()r.linate
categorization.
Issues uilhin di.srrttrtrt'
of complex catugorization
In schema ancl frame theory, t.ltct't'lttt tt tttttttlrct'ol'approaches t.hat
attempt to address the issue oI <lifli'n'rrt krrorvlctlgt: tyPes with tlifltrt:nt
organizational strllctrlres, ancl thc rvlys irr rvlriclr tlrcy internresh with one
another in orclcr to represent c()tlll)l('x krrolvlt'<lgc throttgh langtta{e
(Schank ancl Abelson, I977; Sanlirrtl :ttr<l ():ttt()<l' l98l; Carrell, 1988;
Oller, 1995). The systerns ol categoriztrtiorr n'l:rtitr11 to cliscottrse need to
take accollnt of:
o the categorization intolvecl in clussiIyirrg tllc c()rlceptual c()ntcnt of
the cliscourse;
o the classificatory catesories invoh,c<l irt tltcr pr-oceclttral knolvleclge
for organizin5l the conceptual contcllt irr ways appropriate t() thc
cliscourse commttnily alrclience;
o the categories lbr the syntirctic an<l grzrrnrnatical systerns of
language that encocles the discourse content.
To account lbr the first tr,v<-r of dresc systems within discortrsc organization,
Carrell (1988) proposcs constructs of fortlal and coDtent schcrnatn, ancl
attempts to accoultt firr thc relative influencc of each tlpe of schcrna. IJcr
cmpirical studies revcaled that. culturally farniliar c()ntent schem:lta apPear
to bc more important than forrnal scherrnata itt terms of assisting sul,rjects
in r-rnclerstandinp; the rneaning of texts. Ilowever, hcr expcritnents alscr
sl-rowecl that rhelorically organizecl tcxts (ernployinU fbrrnal schcrrtata)
were still better understood than those rvhose rhetorical organizatioll llacl
been clismptecl and clicl not fbllow a lilrmal scl)elna paltern, resar(lless of
whether the content was farniliar or unfamiliar.
Also in respect of the content kncxvledge that is rePrcsented by
discortrse, allother issue which :rrises is the clistinction between:
r knor,vledgJe lvhich is bcing speci{icallv referrcd to in t}re discottrse
and;
o knowledge which is in the backgrotrnd, or to rvhiclr 1ef-crcrrcc
impliecl and not clirectly statecl.
A number of theorctical approachcs cleal r'vith tltis cxplicit/intplicit lircrrs
clistinction. The first revicwc<l rv:rs Sirnlirr<l rtrttl (i:tltrrrl's (11)8 l) cxllli<it
ancl irlplicit ftrr:rrs rcli'r<'rrct'. Rrrntt'lltitt-l rttttl ()tlortl' (1977) t<'li't'lo llris rts
episorlir' (r:x1>lir it) krrowlt'rlg<' lrrrl gcrr<'r'ir' (irrrpli, ir) lirtotvlcrlgr', :ttttl Vrrrt
l)iik (11)77) rt,li'r's lo <'xplicit Lrrorvlcrlgc lrcirrl',.rlrlt'lo lrl stttttttt:ttizcrl lrt'
lritlrcr lr.r'r'l rrurclo:iltlt( llncs ltttrl irrrlrlir it r,l lt,t, l.l'l.llllrl l.ltrttt'lt'tlqc lts
orli:rrrizr.rl lrv llrrrrls ,\ lrrrllrct ;rl)l)ro.r( lt tt,t' l'.rtt,.trtrllt : (l()l{lr) l\'Pt's ol
r',1rrir'.r1,'trr r'
CONSTR{IN'I'S ()N ( ]()(;NI'I IVI,. (;I.]NI{IiS
Implications for discourse categoriza t i r t
u
As has bcen seen in the varietv ol lrpplrxr< lrt's to t.lrc isstre o1'catcgorization
that have irnplications fbr creatins <lis< oru s<', rlrc organization of lanuu:rge
or.rtput is not. a homogencous :r( lrvit\ to lvlrich a single typc of
categorization can be applied. Arr1, r't'Pr cscntation of knorvlcclge in
coherent discottrse involvcs intclrrrcslrirr!l systerns ol' categorization. Itr
the approzrches ret'iervecl, the intcr-rrrt'slrirr{r systelns of catcqorization
enrploy<'d will invohc:
o the conceptual content ol' tlrc <liscourse, both ernpirical anrl
abstract, inclucling knowlc<lgc which is explicitly an<1 irnplicitly
referred to in the cliscotrrse;
the type of langrraee usc, strch as spoken or writtcn languaue, :rncl
how this influences the type of languaee rvhich is used;
abstract organizational or proccclural knowledue, partictrlarlv in thc
case of extendecl, rnonologic discourse;
o the categorizing systenls of the language itsclf.
the The previous chaptcr extensively reviewecl two approaches to gcnre anrl
cliscourse classification which classifierl texts in terms of conve ntionirlizecl
approachcs to the staging of content in terrns ol cither a schenurtic
stnlctrlrc or a system of rnoves and steps. These strllctrlres lbr the staging
of' content were, in turn, linkcd to lcxico-grar-nrnatical fcatures of the
tliscourse. This is an approach which rcscarch appears to inclicutc is nol-
sustainable (see Bibe r, 1989; Pirltriclse, 1gg3a, l ggT). The rcview
t:onclr-rcled that both approaclrcs to genre failed to acknowlcclgc a
cognitive orqanizational element - such as thc cognitive genrc constnlct
1;roposed in Chapter I - irs plaving a nrecliating, orqanizational rolc
lre twcen the conventionalized staging of content ancl thc lcxico-granrnrar.
Taking into account thc cognitive approaches to the categorization und
llrinciples related to the organization of knorvledge rer.ier,vccl in this
<'lraptcr, chaptcr 4 fbllowing presents a cognitive gcrrrc rrr,rlcl an<l
<liscrrsses the role of cognitivc genre knorvlcdee in thc teaclrin{r ,f'
rrcir<lcrnic writing, and Chapter 5 proposes t.hc use ol cosnitive scnres lrs a
lrltsic: ttrtit of'organization for syllabuses that teach acaclernic r,vriting trr
is intcr<lisciplinary classcs prcparing lor university stt-ldy.
Chapter 4: Operationalizing cognitive genres ln
academic writing

4.0 Introduction

Chapter 2 reviewed two approaches to social genre used to classify and

deconstruct extendecl texts (mainly written) for pedagogic purposes. The
review of these genre constructs focused on (a) the types of genre
knowledge proposed for tl-re categorization of texts, and (b) claims
relating to systematic associations between higherJevel genre knowleclge
and the features of language employed in exemplar texts. As a result of
this review, it was concluded tlrat discortrse categorization, in terms of
constrlrcts strch as genres, needs to be able to account for three overall
areas of knowledge. These three areas are:
o the socially recognized elements of a genre, which rnay includc
aspecls of ct-tmmrrnicative prrrpose and tltc related consciorrs
organization of cliscourse;
. the cognitive structlrres or procedural knowledge by means of r,vhich
extraJinguistic knowleclge is organized and represented in clis-
coLrrse;
o the actual linguistic systerns employed to represent socially motiv-
ated, cognitively organized genre knowledge.

In relation to the second proposecl category of genre knorvleclge

(cognitive structures), Chapter 3 examined and discussed theories ancl
rcscarch relating to the nature of human categorization. This review
inclucled approaches to the types of, and interrelationships between,
classificatory strllctrlres employecl in the categorization of complex
kn<lwleclge, such as discourse-classifying knowledge. Central to thar review
was thc emergence of the following principles:

. catcgorization is carried ollt on a cognitive basis;

o catcgorizing juclgements are often made on the basis of, and in
r<:ltrtiorr to, prototypes or typical exarnples of a category;
o cutcgorizirtion of cornplex knowledge involves more than one
t:irlcgorizirrg systenl and is organized on a hierarchical basis with
nr()11' g('n(:rirl hishe rlcvcl categorics lvhicl-r, in turn, organize more
rIctiriIt'tI lowcr-lc:vcl t :rl cgor-ir.s;
o t ttlt'gotizrtliott ol'tliscotttsc irrvolvcs scv<'rirl (iltcg()rizing systcrns that
irrlclrrrcslr.
It0 ,\(1,\l)|N{l(l \\'ltl l lN(; \Nl) I .l \lil
Tlris chaptcr is corrccrnc(l \\'itll tlre lcr'<'l ,l tlr. rrrrrlcllyinu strttcturillg of
writtclt <liscorrrsc irr tcrnrs ol'cogrrilivc r.rrlrlr llr:rrr social gcrlrcs. (Thc
issuc ol's()cial gc:llrr krron'lc<lgc alr(l ll('r(l( nrir rrrilirru is aclclressed later, itr
()ha1;tcrs (r anrl 7.) It is proposcrl tlrlt tlrc st nr( tur'('s that oper:rtc irr this
:rrc:r irrt'ol',,'c pr()cc(ltu'al kn<xvlcclgc, krr,,rrl.rlqc r'vlrich, arrl()rl{r ll:ttivc'
spcukcrs of'a langrragc, is not. (gcncr:rllv lrrllr') r'rrq:rst'rl ata consciotts levcl
r,vlrcrr crrcodirrg cxtra-linguistic c()lltcnl ilrt() ('\t('n(l('<l r,rrittett rliscottrsc itr
lun organizccl anrl prirrciplcrl rva\'. T'lrc irlt';r oI lcss c:onscious clcnrents
irnrrh,crl irr tlre crelrtion of'<liscourst) ir((()rrls u'itlr tlrc'proposal of"Cha{ir
(11)l),1) l'or lnriplrnr.tlorsctni-ar:tiut t:ott.stiurtstrr'.rr (1r.21)) ancl d.istou,r.stt lr4ics
(p. l?0). This is also sinril:tr to rvltitt Surrlirlrl rrrrrl ()itrrod (1981) Pro[)osc
irr tlrcir c()nstrrrc:ts ol- lorcgtou,rtr/rd arrrl lnrtlipttttttttl inlortnatiort (p. 135).
Both approuclrcs srrggesl. tlrat lrackgrourr<l ol scrrri-uctil'c itrfbrttrirtir)n lltlt)'
involve both contcrrt urrrl 1;roccrltrrirl irr[irr-rrurtiorr. It is proposctl tltat a
systcrrrirtic irppro:rch to tlrc idcntificatiorr ol'srrt lr scrtri-cottsciorrsh' npplietl
proccclural knorvlcrlgc is ol- r'alrre to thosc cngl{rc(l in thc tcirclling oll
n'riting, such as to youll{r lcitrrrcrs anrl sccorr<l larrglurge le:rrncrs. In l>oth
cilscs, 1rn unrlcrstanrling o{-organizationlrl l)lrt.l.cnls rclatinq to proceclttr:tl
knorvlcrl{rc can assist in tlreir rlcvcloprnent ol' :r <liscourse colllpctcttcc irr
tlrc targct langrurqc.
TIrc chaptcr is rlivirled into thrcc sccti()ns. Thc first sccti()n proviclcs
s{)lnc gclcr-irl obscn'irtiorrs alrout tlrc neccl frrr r'vriting pcclaeo5lv to
:rckrrorvlc<l{rc tlrc opcrat.ion ol cognitive {Jellrcs lvithin extcn(lc(l \vritten
rliscoursc. Tlrcsc ollscn:rtions inclurlc :r discttssion of tlre tlir,crsitv o{'
lppronches anrl tcrrninoloqics uscrl in relation to this issrtc, srtg{cstirt{
tlnt rrr:rny of' t.liesc al)pr()acl)es sharc consirlcrable rrrcits ol c()lrllrl()ll
qrrrrrrr<1. In tlrc sccon<l scction, t.hcrc is u rcviclv tlf :r ntttrtbcr o[
llrxorronrics o['cognitivc gcllrcs that havc l>een propose<l lor extctrclccl,
rvlitlc:rr <liscourse. Irr thc thircl scction, a ntorlel lirr tlcscribing coutritive
u('ln'(:ri tlrat occur u'itlrin tlrc corrtcxt <11'cxtcnclccl acatletnic tliscotu-sc is
pnrposccl. An ovcn'icrv o{'cllrssilicatory ler,cls ol'the cogtritivc gcttrc tnorlel
is prrx'irlccl, alons \vitlr an ()utlinc ol' its rclationships to social gettrc
krrorvlcrlgc an<l l:rngu:rgc svstcnrs. Follorving tllis, tw() studicts thirt havc lc<l
Io llrc: <lc:r'r:loprrrcrrt:rnrl re[irrcrrrerrt of thc cogrritive genrc trtotlcl ltrc
x'1rorl<'rl.
,l.l Sonrc obscrwations on tlrc coqrritive strttcturitrq of cliscoursc
rr lrln r lrrr r\',lr l!l rrts tlr.rl 'il
',1r,'rrlrl l', , ttit'lt.r t,, rl tr,,rlrl .trr,l
ilol .r ilI Lr;,lrt,r, rl tr ttr r' lrr lltr
(X X]NITN''E ( }I.] N III.]S I N /\( IA I )Ii] MI( ] \,YRITIN( ] 8l
irle:rs of Ptrtnarn (1981), Johnsorr (11)l+7) cibserves that 'all knowlcclec
rcqtrires stnlcrtrlrc irn<1 categorizltiorr. Spccifically human knowlcdee
requires catcgorics of undcrstanclirrg tlrnt hurnans can nr:rkc scnsc of in
tcrms of tlrcir cxvn medintecl cxpcricrrcc irnd can r-rse lbr hurnan prlrposes'
(p. 206). It is strggested, thereforc, that discoursc cr('atiolt is a process of
rcprcsent:rtion. It involvcs the represent-irti<tn of cognitive categories in
te rtrts of the lineuistic possibilitir-.s of a langtrage (which r,vill, of necessity,
emplol' the orqanizational an(l catcgorizinu systents of that lanurrauer),
ustralll'to achicvc a social purposc in sociallyprescribccl ways (scc Ilylancl,
2003, p. 166).
Lanuttagc uscrs employ transactional competence in successlillly inter-
actins in cvcrvday situations in the real $'orlcl. Hor,vever, the production of
cxtclrded rvritte n cliscourse for an auclience involves a real, hypothetical or
irnagined third party. It also gcnerally involves, if it is to successftrlly
conlnrttnicate the rvritcr's intenclecl rneirnings (ir-r the :rbsence of
paralinguistic cucs ancl interacticlnal f'ec<lback), organizational pattcrrls,
lvhich rn:ry includc a cornplex series of nlacro- ancl rnicrolevel choices" In
Ohaptcr 3, reviervs ol approaches to the cognitive strtrcturing of extencletl
<liscotrrse, such as tlrosc proposecl by Sanfcrrcl ancl (]arrod (19t31) anrl
()llcr (1995), sugscst that these choices nray rclate to the content ol'tlrt.
tliscortrsc, the catcgoriz,ation involvecl in the linguistic systcm, ancl possibly
Proccrltrral knorvlcclgc lvhich rnediates betr,vecn the other trvo syste rns. 'l'lrcr
llro<lttction ol'extcntlccl r'vritten discourse, such as that ollen required in
:rca<lcrnic c()ntexts, nlust therefore involve sonrething other than clay-tcl-
<lay tr;rnserctional cornpet-cncc.
In approachinu thc isstre of iclentilyinu cognitive organizational
( ()llstmcts in rclation to tllc r,vriting of extendecl tc'xt, thc cllrrcnt
lilerirttrrc in the fielrls of crluc:rtion :rncl applicrl linguistics presents it
rrrrrltiplicity of approachcs rvith a rvicle ranse of ternrinology clespite the
lir(t tll:rt tlrcrc:rppears to bc consi<lcrable conlnlon grorrncl in thc actual
( ( )n('cpts pnlpose tl. Kroll (2003), irr intro(lucins an oven iew work rclating
t() tllc: {iekl of'sccond l:rtrguagc writin!{ and the rangc of issucs and
r':rri:rblcs rclcvant to this field, expresscs tlle r.ier,r'that tlicrc is no sinslcr
llrcory o1'r,vritins 'cirp:rble ol'e xplaining the role of and intcraction among
kcv vuriublcs' (p. 6). Ncvcrtheless, the variations in approach along with a
lrr< k ol ll c()lnrll()n terminology appenr to havc inhibited progress in the
rlcu'l<>prrrt'rrt ol'pcdagogy for thc tcachinp; of writing, in particular a
pt'<l:rrrorl r'r'lrir'lr ucknor,vledgcs and lttrilds on conllrlon knor,vleclge ancl
rr nr lclsl:rr r<lirrgs.
r\rt cx:ttttplc ol'rlivcrsitv of clcscription ancl terrninology in rclation to a
sirrril:rr'( ()nsll u( t <'lrr lrc sccn irr tlrc are:r of'accounting fcrr the clifl'erences
lrclttcctt tlrc lirrgrristi( ('()lrl)('l('u< i<'s llurl lrlc rt:rltrinrrl to trarrsat:t orally
,ur,l llr,rst llr:rl lrrc rt'rlrrirt'rl t,' rrritc cxllu<lt'<l \vr-ill('n lcxl. Irr rlt'scriltitre
tlris. li.rl.lrtirr ( l1)l-i(i.1r. l'i7) rrr.rl r'..t ilt-lirrt liott lrt'l*,t'<'tt ftritttttr'1,.sltlttlt yt'tttr,.s
trltt,lr',rrr{:l)orrrllol\;rrr.rl.rlrrrtr.,r',.'l,lr,,rlr,,,rttttttttil,.tliott'sttrlt:ts
82 ACIAI)I,]N4IC WIU IIN( I ,.\Nti (;l Nlil
greetings, nrilitary con)mands:llld l'c'(lu('sls Irir irrlolrrr:ttion, arrcl thc trtorc
conrplex secondary gcnres ctf \r'ritirrg lvlrit lr rlcrirl ltrrttt specch gcnres. Thc
sanrc issne is adclressed by Martirr irr rlisr'rrssirrg llro c()llstrucl. oI mod.a irr
systernic-functional lingtristics: 'l-cxls (:ur tlr('n lrt: <liviclecl into tlrose
organised primarily with rcspccl to rrt tivilr, :i('(lu('nccs (iconic texts) arrrl
those organisecl along di{I'crcnt lirrt's (rrorr-ir'otrir' tcxts)' (Martirt, 1992, p.
517). MarLin arsiues that ccrtairr 11'pt's ol rr<>tt-icottic tcxts are gerl'ru'
structurcd: '(]crrrc-strttctured texLs :tlt' <livirlr'<l illt.o those lvhiclr rc'r'iew
field-structurecl tcxts (e.e. rnovie rcvicrvs), :ttt<l so :trc partiallv dctcrmiltecl
by their activity sequenccs, arrd tlrcorcticlrl tt'xls r'r'lriclt are not orqattisctl
arouncl a scquencc ol cverlts in any rcslx(1, c.1-r. c(litori2rls' (p. 518).
In approachins the satle issttc, Knplarr (l1)87) says that 'spokcrr
lanutrage is rnore likeli, to proviclc infbr-rnal-iorr relevant to itnrtrediatcr
nccd', whercas 'writtern lar-rguage is rrtorc likcly to providc claboratecl
inlbrrnation, that very elaboratiolr bcinu likcly to reclttirc seqtrencinu.
IIc
rilnrctLrre, :rnd stzrnce not char-:rctcristic o1'spoken lansttasc' (p. 15).
s()cs on to drar,l'a clistinction bctwccn uritirtgnncl conposi'ng
()nce sound-syrnbol corrcsponclence is establislrccl, it is likely tllat all
irr<livi<lrral can acquire tl-re ability to writc, but there is sorrtc sc'riotts
rlrrcrstion whether an incliviclual cnn acquire the ability to writ.c text -l()
( ()lnl)()sc... . Ut] seerns th:rt conrposine is more likcly to bc lcarned tllatt
;rtrlrritt'rl. (p 16)
llris issrrt' (tlr:rt is, the clistinctiorr bctlvccn r'vriting ancl cornprosing) is alscr
,lrr, rrsscrl lry llcrciter ancl Scirrclarrralia (l!)87).'Ihey prcricrlt tlr'o tnoclcls
u lrrr lr rlistirrgrrislr bctlvcen r'vriting r'vhich invol'r'cs sinrple k'noulcd,ge-trllirtg
.rrrr l rrrr tr t corrrplcx hnoukdge-brtrtsJin'ming rvrit.ing. Their rnoclel lbr ktrorv-
l.r llir' trrrrsl'r rnirrq writing identifies a ilrcLorica,l-pnblem n.ced,, r'vltich clralvs
r rrr rllr,rl tlrct rtlt'r' l<t'as rLiscou.rse k'nozulcrLgcit ordcr to create nrorc con)plex
t\'l)( s ol rvr itlt'rr tcxt. In rnaking; these rlistinctions, the approach ol'
lk'rcitcr lrnrl St lrr<llrrrralia lras rnuclr in conrm()ll r'vitlr those of both Kaplarr
(l1),37) ;rrrrl lVl;rrlin (1992).
,,\rrotlrcl ilcl rvlro also adclresses the issuc of cliscottrse-or-garrizirrt
rvr
lirrorvlctlr<', t's1.rct:iall;' lbr rvriting, is Millcr (1984). Shc crripll:rsizcs t.lrt'
lrit'r:rlclri<;rl nlltllrc o{ any rcprcsenLation o[' rtrcarting throttglr larrgtt;tgt'
:rn<l pr'opost's llr:rt ir lricnrrclrv ol scvr:ral lcvcls ol'trterattittq is irrvolvc<I, u'illr
rlilli'rtrrt lirlrrrs <>[ corrrrrrturic::ttiorr crrrplrirsizirrg <lillcr-crrt. lcvcls. Slrc
srrgqt'sls llr:rl <'xlt'rr<lt'rl, tttottoloeit rlis<ottt's<' tttltv itttrrlvt' :t qt('itl('l
lricr:rrclrir':rl < orrrlrlcxill, llurrr <lilrl<rgrrt' itt tlt<' tr'lrtcscnl:tliott ol tttr':tttittrl:
INlorrolr)l'u('l irn(l rli;tloqttr' lxrsc rlillcr( rrl l)ri,lrlcttis, lot
pr,,lr,rlrl1 oplr,rtl rritlr rlilllrirrri ltilt.rr, lri,.rl ,trrrr lrtr( \
Irr',,rrr',r' llrr' .tttrlicrrr c lctt,ls lo lrr' 'rrr.rll ttt,l ,,'r"lt,rttrl!
( ]O( ]NITIVE (;ENRF],S I N A( ]AI)1.]},IIC] \\RITIN( : 83
selves morc c:rsily. Strch interaction requires elalroraticln of' tlrc rtrlc
strllcture at tllo lorver levcls ol tlrc lrier:rrchy, to guirlc trrrn-t.rkillg,
implicature, arrrl rrranagernent of' multiple intcntions. In rnonolo{ue,
pcrsonzrl intcntiorrs rnust bc accornnro<latecl to public exigcrrcics -
because the attdictrce is largcr, the opportturity [br cornplcx statcnrcnt is
grcater, ancl constr:rints are less casily rrranaged; more elaborate nllc
structrlres at thc upper encl of thc hierarclry, at thc level of r,vholc
discor,trse, are therefbre neccssarJr Iirr both fornrulatiorr and intcrprct-
ation. (Millcr, 1984, p. 162)
As discussed previously (in Chapters 2 ancl 3), one of'thc cnlcial issues in
many of the theories proposecl for classifying rliscotrrsc (strclr as in tenns
of genres or tcxt typcs) is the natnre of the rclationslrips betr'veen extra-
linguistic knowlerlgc and linp;uistic krror,vlcclgc. Sonrc have [<lrnrl it
convcnicnt to foctrs solely on linguistic knor,vlerlge :rrotrncl a social getrrc
constrllct, thus avoiding rllally issLrcs associatecl 'lvith .joint rnorlels tht.rt
combine lingtristic, cognitive and social kn<>rvlcclgc rvithin a franrervork lirr
rhetorical organization. IIowcver, since proccdtrral, organization:rl krrorv-
leclge involves hurnan categorization, there can be rro r':rlicl reasons lirr-
atternpting to separate linguistic ancl non-linguistic catcsorizirrs knolr
lcdge in relat.ion to rhctorical stmcturing.
In relation to the lit.erature itccountins for clifl-erent appr()aclrcs to
cognitive genre, ir nurnbcr ol' central questi()ns arise in respect of tlrcr
conlpetence reqtrirecl to procluce extended r,vrittcn tcxt, t.hc typcs of
knor'r4cclge that this requires, :ur(l the exercise of thirt knor,vledge :
o If the process of orsanizinp; extencled rvrittcn discotrrse is, as Kaplan
strggcsts, learned, rather Ll'an ru;quirerl, rvhat type o1'knowledse rree(ls
to be learnecl to provitlc a basis lor this typc o1'proccdural, cliscotrrsc-
organ izir rg corrrlrcterrce?
r If this cliscourse-organizinu knowleclge is [o l>e learnt:d, it {irstlv lr:rs
to be identifiecl, analyscrl and dcscriberl to pr<tvide a ltasis ftrr
instnrct.ion and learning.
o What:rre the stnges and typcs ol'classilicatory systcrns n'hiclr
cr()nstitutc proccdural, cliscourse<trganizine knouieclge?
'lo plol>osc answcl-s to thesc qucstions, the next sectioll oI this clrapterr.vill
rcvit'rv a rrrrnrlrcr ol'appro:rches to i(lentilyine cognitive gt'nres. First, in
ottl<'t lo provi<lc a fr-anrervorkwith irn crnpirical basis on rvhich tcl consi<lcr
tlr t;rxorrorrrit's ol' ltcdagogic approaclres to counitive gcrtres, Biber's
r or prrs-lxrscrl r.t'st'urclr on text typcs (1988, lgUg) is reviewerl. Thc
r ogrritir'<' gcnrts tlurt irrc rcvicrvcrl irrvolvc laxonornies that havc bcen
rlcvcloPr'<l in olrl<'r'to tt'lrtlr r.vrilirre t() y()un{-t [irst-l:rrrgtragct learncrs or tcl
olrllr l,,r\1, strrrlcnls wlro :rr,' lr':rr rrirrg l,lrrulislr lrrr<l rrr:rirrll' lirr:rrsirrt{ orr
rvt illcrr rlisr orrrst'.
(,orl)u\ slttrlics tcrr',rl llr.rl ,,rrr ( .or r,rlI ll('nt( r.tlt'1,q;1r ol rlrill('n t( xls
84 A(IADEMI(l \ATRIT'IN(l /\NI) ( ll NRl,'
can enrploy more than one texl f{rc (courritir'('g('rrr'('). l}iber, in some o{'his
carlier corplrs rescarch, puts fbnvltr(l l lylrologi' ol tcxt $'pcs (cognitive
gcltres) witlt respect to a fir'c<lirnensi()nill nrotlt'l o( lcxir:al and syntactic
variation (Biber, 1988, 1989). The dirrrt'r rsiot ts :t t t':
o involvcd verslls infortnation Pr(xlll('li()rl;
o narrative verstls noll-llarrativc (()ll(('llls;
r explicit verslts situation-dellentlcltt l'('fi'11'll(:c;
. ovcrt expression <lf persuasitln;
. abstmct verslrs rton-abstract stylc. (llilrt'r', l1)89, p. 10)
Withir-r these five dimensions, Biber cxarnillcli co-()ccurrence clistributions
o[- groups of linguistic featttres in 48 I spokcn :rncl written texts of
c()ntemporary British English t.aken from the l,onclon Oslo Bergen and
the [,onclon Luncl Corpora. Biber's typolclgy of texts is iclentified solely in
tcrms of linguistic ancl stylistic features. l{e ctnplrasizes that they arc not
sociirlly rccognized genres, rvhich he sees as being 'dcfined ancl
rlistinguishecl on the basis of svstematic, nonlinsuistic criteria' (1989, p.
39). In avoicling social genre dcscriptions, Bibcr iclentifies his eight text
types in terms of their rlretorical clr communicative purpose:
o intirnatc, interpersonal interact.ion;
o iulbrrnationltl inleraction;
o scit'rrtific exposiliott:
r lcarnecl exposition;
o irnlrginative ttat ratirt':
r gcrrcral narrative cxposition;
r silrr:rted reportage;
r irrvolvecl persuasion. (1989, pp. 20-2)
Itilr<'r ( l1)89) proposes that acaclemic prose texts employ for'rr of the eight
l('xl lyl)('s:
(rype 3), lvhich is extrerncly infclrmational, elaboratecl
.\t ir,ttt.ifit: cxl,tosition
irr r.cf'crcnce , and technical ancl abstract in style and content;
Luu'n.ul, rxpo.sition (t1pe 4), which is sirnilar to scienti{rc exposition except
tlr:rt it is rnarkedly lcss abstrlrct and technical in style; .. '
(|rttnttl notrnth.te rtxpos/l,iott (Lypc 6), rvhich is a very general text tyPc
wlrir'lr c:orrrbirrcs rrarrirtivt' f orrns with expository, informational clalltlr-
:rtiorr ...
is llrlx'llt'<l itrtrthwl lto.vra.si,trtt,; lltcsc ltrt: lcxls th:rt arc prirnarily
'f 'v1r<' 13:
:rrgrrrrrcrrtlrlivc lrrrrl pt.r'srlrsivc irr ptrrp,rst'lttttl stvl<'. (llilrt'r', l1)t31),11.3U)
llilrr.t's ( ()t lt lrlovitlt's lt ttst'litl lr.rr klirortnrl ltg:tittst wlrit lr
l)us lr:rscrl rt'st'lrrt
lo rlisr rrss p,'rllrploliir r'l;rssilir;rlions ol t'xtcttrl,'rl \rttll( lt lcrls lvltir'll :ttt'
(o)'nilivr.irr,rricrrl,rliorr.rl.rssilrr:tlionsllt:tllr.tti I'r'rtt;rtolrost'tlto:tssislitt
(](X]NTI'IVE (;I.]NItI.,S IN A(]AI]EMI(; WRITIN(] 85
tlrc teaclring o[- rvriting to both ,v()uns lcarners and morc aclvancecl-levcl
learners recciving instruction in aca<lcmic $'ritin!{.
4.2 Cogritive genres and young learners
To avoid, initi;rlly at le:Nt, the cornplcxity involvecr in the synthcsis ()f
rhetorical patterns tha[ appear in authentic texts, eclucators have oftcn
fittrr-rd it usefirl to ickrnti$r cosnitiye senres (spc[ as narratior], clescription
and exposition) discretely fbr pedagogic purposcs. These havc been used
in the tcachine of reaclinq ancl \,vritins to young learners (crowhurst, lgg0;
Meycr, 1977; Richgels et a|.,1987; ancl Spiro a'cl Taylor, lgBT). Sruclies of
is<rlatecl, single (cognitive) ucnres or tnete,-senres (Grabe, 2002; G.rabc :rnd
Kaplan, 1996) in eclucational contexts have shown that stuclents process
ancl procluce cosnitive {renres in cliff-erent ways.
Tlvo issucs arise in respecr of coqnitive genre-based approaches to the
tcachins o1'reacling and writing. Thc first is thc clifficulty oI identilyinu
wholc reaclins texts (social genres) which conlbrrn to one single type Ol'u
c:oqnitivc senrc catesory (Spiro and Taylor, 1987, p. 7g). TIre seconrl issrrc
is that in studies of writing, researchers have fbuncl that yotrnu lcarrrcr.s
tcncl to rnix cognitive senres (sucl.r as exposition, narration arr<l clescr-ip-
tion) in their responses wlren they are requirccl to write tcxts ernployinu
rnc such genre. Thus, for cxarnple, crowhurst (lgg0, pp. 206-10) Ibtrnd
llrat youngcr writcrs tencled to rnix narration with persuasion r,vhcr-r
Icquirccl to write a perstrasivt'resl)onse to a task. She concluclecl that
pcrsuasion \'vas a nlore clifficult genre pat.tern, ar-rcl tha[ eclucators often
glvc little instruction in thc constnlction of pcrsuasivc compositions.
Altcrnatively, it cotrld bc strugestccl that pure persuasion is a relatively
|rr|c r'vritten rhctorical pattcrn, and one which is not often e ncounterecl by
y()rrrrs lcarners in their rcacling, whereas Biber's Type 6 text rype (genu-al
ttrrrtrt,l,iue expositio'n) has probal>ly been encountered by youne learners
ttr<trc Iieqttcntly, for exirtnple in school textbooks. Thus, their ftrmiliarity
lvitlr tlris text type in their reading rrray, in ttrrn, influencc their responscs
lo Pcrsrrasivc writing tasks. Crowhurst's ( 1990) iclentification of exposirion
sirrrPly:ls ir genrc which involves persuasion may be an oversirnplification
irr lcl:rliorr t() wllat persuasivc r,vriting inrrcllves in an acaclernic settinrt,
cslrt'r'iirlly rvlrcn cor]sidered in the light of Biber's three tcxt-type catcgories
,,l .xPository writirrg. In an attempt to adclress tlris issuc r,vhen teacl-ring
tvlilirtu, Mirltitr (1984) clistinquishcs benvcen ltortatory r,r'ritins (lvriting
rllrit lr '1r<'r'srurrlcs r.o') arxl a,na\ticol expo.ritio,n (lvhich 'pcrstracles that')
(11)ll l, pp. I(;-17). Murtirr sng{r('srs tlrat hortatory persrrasion trsu:rlly
ittvolvt's llt<'ttst'of rttott'pt'tsorr:rl llrrrgrr:rut. llurrr <locs anlrlytic:al cxp()s-
illott, tvlriclt is tttot<'itttlrcrs,,u.rl .rnrl rn:rl,r's gt(':tl('t rrs<'ol rtotrrirltlizlttiott.
l lrc rlt'sirl ol crltrr:rtot\ r,l \,,rrrrl,, lr..r1t(,ts l1 firrrl :trrllrr.lli( l(.xls ll):ll
rottlotilr l1r .r sirrl'lq' ,!|l,rr!rr\r 1'r rlr i,rril,otV is ;rlso tr.llt'r'lr.rl irr tlrt.
8{i A(lr\l)l'lNll(l \\'RI I'lN( i ,\Nl) ( rl Nlil
colnntent ()f thc systcrnic lirnctiorrll e('nr(' tlrt orists l(napp ilnd Watkills
(1994) lvho sav'scicncc ltooks tlurt slrilt lr,rrrr rxpl:utittion to nnrrative to
instnrction, rvith thc {.Jralnrnar rrrovirrrq llrr lir':rr<ls :ttttl lonv:rrtls bctlveett
pcrson:rl and irrrltersonal r'oicc, rn:rk<' lrclrr'\' l;tttututl-lc <lcrttanrls ()rI thc
rer:rclcr'(p.23). lIorvcvcr, tlris ltltcrrorrl('llorr rrrllv sirtrplv lle thc ttorrnal
synl.lrcsis of'clif lcrcrrt types ol'courritivc g< rrrc irr lltr'('r'(:ali()n of a cotnplctc:
text tllat realiz.cs ir soci:rl {rcnrc.
It is not the intcrrtion lrcre to <lisr'orrrrl llr<'r'llrrc'ol isolating cttgttitivc
gcrlrcs firr pctlagoeic pttrposcs, rltrilt'llr('('()lltr1lry. It is irttportilnt,
Ir<trvever, to bc an'arc that aullrcrrtic, rvlrolt' lcxts (etxctllrpltrrs of social
ucnres) trsuallv irrvolvc lr cornbirr:rtiorr ol tot-Jttitivc genres. Ncverthelcss,
lilr peclagogic purposes, isolnting s1-rcr:ilic cosrritivc llenres catr lte helpfirl
anrl can provickr u trsclirl b:rsis lirr tcuclrirrg so krng:rs rcscnrch tlta.t
idcntifies tlrc actrral c<,snitilc' {rcrrrc l)r'ototyl-rcs t}rat arc thc btrilding
blocks of rvlrole tcxts \\'itllill a ccrtain cttlt.rtrc is taken int() accotlllt.
Exarnplcs of sorrrc ol' thc taxotronrics of'pedaeogic (rn:rirrly cogltitive)
genrcs proposc<l as a b:rsis Ii)r te aching rvriting to tlrc young lll'
ccluc:rtiorrzrlists irt Attstr-alia inclu<le tltosc ol' Mackcn, Kalantzis, Krcss,
Mart.in, Oopc anrl Rothery (l!)8!l); Martin (1989); l)erer'vianka (1990);
Knapp ancl Watkins (11)94); Butt, Fahey, Fccz, Spinks ancl Vtllop (2000)
ancl Martin (2000). l)crcr'vianka (1990) proP()ses a taxol]()nry o{-senrc
catcgories lirr tlre tcuclrirrg of'lvlitirrg in clerrrerttaqt schools" This incltrdes:
rct:oLr.rtt, irtslrttr:tian, nattu,tiurt, infinnatirnt rQnrt, expktrta,tiott int<l Qrgumlnl"
(ienerally thcsc appcar to bc c(xrnitive {rcnrc calegorics alt.ltottpJh in lrcr
cxpllrnations and cx:rtnplcs Dcrelvinnklt appcars to nttcllrPt to present
tlrcrn as il theylverc sirnple socinl sctrres (sce Paltri<lgc, 1996, p.23f3)" Shc
i<lcrrtil'rcs cach ol ltcr scrrrcs throtrslr clcscriptiorrs ol' rlill'erent typcs ol
rhctoricirl I)rlrl)()sc:
Rccotrnt.: 'A rccorrrrI is thc ttnftrltlirtg ()f a sc(ltlctlcc ()f cvc]lrt.s ovcr
tirrrc. Its pr.rrpost] isl to tell wh:rt hapllenecl' (pp. 14-l11)-
Instnlctiort: 'Instnrct.iorrsl ... are cottccrned witlr Jrroceclttres, lvhiclt
tell us lrorv sotnctltitrs is acconrJrlisherl throtrgh
1'lo'lc
:::ll:llff ,:i|.;.:.l:ff ,jl::?i:,,['j;11,,?:' l'i:; ;s
Narnrt.ivc: 'Thc basic prlrJ)()sc of :r narrative is to clltertain, i.c. t<>
gain anrl lroltl t-lrc reader's itrterest itl a stoty. I}rrt
Narr-:rt.ivcs rttav ltlso scek to tcac:ll ()r irrlirrrrt, to ctttlro<lv
tlrc rvrit.cr's rt'ilcctiorrs ott cxlt<'rit'ttt t', lttt<l * llcrlt:tps tttosl
il)ll)()l'tllllt - lo ttotttislt :ttttl <'xlt'trtl llt<' tr';ttlt'l''s irtt:tgill
:tlirltt.'l'lt<'lir< us ol lll(.tr.\t is otr .r \('rlu( n( t'ol ltcliorrs' (1r.
l{)).
lrtrrr1l1;11 ol .ttl lrrl,rrrrr.llr{'rr l{r'lrotl is lo
Irrlirlttt:rliorr l{('l)()tls:'llrt'
tttl .t
rlorttttrlttl, r,ll'.ttti\( ,tttrl "1,'t, Lr,trr,rl tttl.tltt.tli,ttl
lolui (;rrrl)
( Jo(;NI]'IVI] C;ENRI.]S IN ACAL]EMI(] WRI]IN(} u7
Expl:rnatiorr: "l'o givc all account of hon' sornething works or reasons
firl sorrrc phenorncnon' (p. 60).
Arsurnent: '-l'o titke a position on sonre issue ancl .justify it' (p. 75).
As well as a rlctailc<l rlescription of rlretorical prtrpose for cach genre,
Dcrer'vizrnka gives corrsi<lerablc attention to thc staging and stmcturing of
ideas. For exanrltlc, lirr Recotrnt genrc, shc speci{ics a text organization of
orienla,tiott uncl rucnts. Orientation is explainccl as provicling backgrotrnd
itrforrnation irr rclation to who, lvlrat :rncl rvherc lirr the subscquent events
o1'a rccotrnt. Tlrc events section explains what acttrally happens; this is
trstrally orsanizecl chronologically. Derer,r..ianka :rlso specifics tire lingtristic
f'eatures rvhiclr, she clainrs, usually occur in thc Recount senre.
Dcrer,vianka's t:rxonorny of 1;cdagogic gerrre types is one of rnany
irpproache s tlrat see tcaching tlre r,vritin5J skill to youns learners as
ilrvolving cogl1i1i1's gcnre constnrcts. Generally such cognitive genres arcl
propose<l as discottrse categorics that are pre clicated on types of rhctorical
()r collilnunic:rtivc purp()se, ;rncl rvhere thc taxonorrry is rnore elaboratecl,
c:rch has iLs or,vn cat.cuory-inte rnal stnrcturc fbr the orgiu-rization of idcas.
'l'lre approach of l)crclvianka (1990) appears t() go solnc \\'ay to briduing
tlrc uirp betrvccrt thc conscions, soc:ial conventions of cliscourse and thc:
scmi-consciotrsly applied laneuage pattcrns throtrgh whicir thcse are
lr::rlizcd. I Iolvcvcr, pedagoeic applications of cognitive gerrre cateeories
rrced to fln<l sorne rvay of :tccornmoclating the relatiorrship betlvecrr
rrrrl.lrcntic rliscourse and the pe<lagogicr Eenrc trnder considcration gilen
tlr<-' fact that exten<lcd, rvholc tcxts :rre trsually a synthcsis of scl,cral
cogrritive gcr)rcs.
4.3 Cognitive genres and academic writing in university contexts
r\ rrrrnrbcr of sttxlics havc investisatecl the writing requirernrcnts of
rrrrivcrsity assisnnrent tasks ancl thc expectations of trniversity stafr in
:l
r1'slx'ct of responses to such t:rsks" Rcsearch in this area has ucnerally becn
II
r:rllicrl orrt in thrcc l,v:rvs:
. srua/cys of' unclergraduates ancl the typcs of assigrrrncnt tasks and
u'r'itirrs rvlrich thcy have cxpcriencecl (Kroll, 1979);
. r;ur'\'(',vs ol'rrrrivcrsity teaching staff (involvinu asking the typcs of msks
rvlri< lr tlrcy ussign and tlrcir cxpectations of stuclcnt responscs t()
llrosc rssiurrnrcnts) (Braine, 1989; Rush, 1994; Pearson (lasanitve and
I Irrlrlr:rr<1, l1)t)2);
. sur\('\'s ()l ll( tuill rrrrivcrsity:rssitlnntent tasks (invoh.ing, for exarrrple,
qrtllrt't irrtl ;r sltrttlrlt' ol str< lt 1;tsks fi-orn lr nln{.lc <tl <lcplrrtrrrents ancl
l:rr rrltics ;tttrl :ttt:tlr,sinl tlrr' :rr lrlrl rtrlrrilt,rtrt'rrls ol'lltt' :rssigtrnrcnts)
(lir.rrlrr', l(ll'i1), ( litttsr',,' .rtrrl lilrrl, l1)fl1); l\{oorr' :utrl l\lor'!orr, l{X)1),
:)ol)r,)
88 A(]ADF,MI(] WRI'I'IN(; /\NI) ( ]I NIiI.
fJsing the thirc.l of thesc appro:rchc's, N'l,,tt irrr(l M()rtorl (1999, 2005)
examined the tvpes of rvriting t-asks lcrlrrirt <l ol ttltiversity stttclents at
undcrgraduate and postgra(ltlatc lct't'1. I ltr'\' r rtlt i<'tl ottt :r sunicy o{- l5lt
u'ritten assignrnent hsks {iorn:r r,virlt'r'trrir.tv ol l:rt rrltics:tnd stlbjcct areas
at two Alrstraliern universitics. Thc plrrl)()s('ol tlr<'iI sl.udywas to invcstigtrte
't.he autltcrtticity of the Task 2 ctltrtpott<'trl ()l llr(: IELTS [International
English l,anguage Tcsting Systerrr I rvlitirrg lt's1 (acaclcrnic mocltrle)'
Specificalll', tlrc study's ainr rvzrs to (irr<l orrl tltc cxtetlt to rvhiclr this
component ol the'r,vritiug tcst corresl.rorrrls lo llrt'r'vritin(I rcclttiremr:nts of
univcrsitystr.rcl,v' (Moore ancl Mortort, ll)1)1), 1r. ()4). Thc possible tasks tltat
rnay occrlr zrs Task 2 of tlrc IELTS rvritirrq tt'st (ltcadetnic nloth.rle) are :
. prcscnt the solution to a problcrrr;
. present. ancl justi{y an opiuion;
. compnre atrcl contr:rst eviclcnce, opirriotis arrd irnplicatiorls; or,
o cvalttate and challenge icleas, cvi<letrcc ()r ar] arqtllnent.
(IELTS Flanclbook,.July 2001, p. 12)
Wittrin their sarnple of r'vritirrs t:rsks, Moore ancl Morton iderltifictl
twelve categorics of unitcrsity writinc task: r'.s.ia1, reuinu, Litcralutc rt't'ir'tt',
experirrcnta,l report, ca,.sc st'ui1 rcltort, rcsecu'ch relnrl, rasearclL ltroposal, s'Lt mDt,(1.t)1,
(xercis?, short an.fiuer, uri.tten a,rgum,rttt/ca.sr, ancl other. Moore ancl Morton
analysed eacl-r of the univcrsity writine task tvpes in [crms ol:
. gcnre, by whiclt thel' nteant university assislllllcrlt task type - 'the
genrc of a task was taken to be tlre natttc given to dle rc(lttire(l
rvrittcn procluct trs outlined in tlrc tiisk nrbric' (Moorc atrcl Mortott,
1999, p. 72);
o infrn'motio'nsourc?s ficlrn which the inlirrrnation in lhe assignmcrlt was
<lr:nvn (the r'vritcr's prior krrorvlcduc, prirrrary reP()rts of rescarch arrrl
sc:conclary sonrces) (p. 75);
o rltektrical functiort, a 'concept lthat] can l>c rnocli{iccl to rrcan tlrlrt
wlrich a task (or unit of a task) is itrstructitrs sttl(lents to do' (p. 76),
irrcltrcling 'mta,luation, dcscriptio'n, :umnurizotiotl, rcmpolisott, rtxpktrt'
a,t,itn, recontrn,cndotion, hofitltirn, lrediction tr:ncl in,slruttion' (p.77);
o t.lrc olrject of tlre errqtriry, phenomcna,l ctr nutuphcttotrunal'. '-lhc
ltlrcrrorncrral c:rtegory rvzrs trse<1 firr tlrosc t:rsks rvhich clircctcll
strr<lcnts prinr:rrily to cotrsiclcr such "rcal rvorld" e ntities lls cve lrls'
:rcliorrs, proccsscs, sitttati<tns, practices ctc. The nlct:tphell()lrlcl)1ll
('trt('e()lJ, ill ('()nlt'ast, was aJrplicd to tasks corrccnrcrl rrtainlv r'vitlr tlrt'
lrlrslr-lcl crrlitit's o{ irlt'lts, tltcorit's, nl('lll()(ls, l:ttvs t'(<'.' (p. 711).
]\'loort' :rrrrl N'lot lort lirtnr<l tlr;rt. irr
l('nn('(l 11r'rrl s). ('s\:rVs (irl3t''/ ) l'r'lt'
slrrrl\ t{'l}r)rl\ ( lO(';') :ttttl t xt'rt ist's
rll.rtirllt r.ttl itt tlrcir ltcr;ttt trr t .l
( i( )( ;N I]'IVE (lEN lLl lS I N A( IAD llN,II( I \,\Rrl.lN( ) 89
of some kirr<1, r't'rltririns the usc ol' secondary sorlrces (in bbVo ol
assisnment tasks), prirnary sorlrccs (in l8% of :rssigrrrnent tasks) or a
corrrlrination ol'sccondary and prinran sourccs (h 2l% ol- assigrrrncnr
tasks).
In terrns o[ thc pcrcentagcs of tasks rvhich empkryed thc clill'ercnt
rhetorical ftrnctiotts, Moore antl Morton lound thc fbllorvinu liequencies
of occurrence in tlreir sample: evaluation (in 76Vo of nssignment tasks);
description 149%): strmmarization ancl comparison (both 35%); explan-
ation (28%); recon)mend:rtion (23%)). Lorvcr pcrccntases rverc fbtrnrl f<rr
lrortation (5%), precliction (5%) and insrnrction (3Vo). For thc objects of
enqtriry o[ the strr"vcyccl tzrsks, 6l Vo wtrc phenornenal, anrl 3-9% wcrc:
metaphenornenal. (Tasks r,vith a rnetirphenonre nal object of enquin, wcrcr
clistributed across a r'vicle rangc of sulrjcct areas, but occurrccl morc
fiequently in htimanities strbjects.)
Although Moore ancl Morton analyse the sarnple of'assisnrne nt ftrsks in
tcrms of (social) genres and cosnitive llenrcs (rhetoricirl functions), tlte:
stucly takes a unitary view of acaclernic r,vritins by analysing all thcr
assisnrnents fiorn the dill'erent disciplines as a sinslc sarnple. (This is
lrecause the IELTS writing test is prcdicatecl on a sirnilar urritary vic:rv ol'
acaclemic writinu.) In the study, social gerrres :rre sirnply iclentiflc<l irr
tcrrns of the names of assignnrent tasks of thc s:rrnple (c.g. essay, rcvicrr,
litcraturc rcview, experimental rcport) resalrlless ol' the tliscil;lirre in
wlrich the assignrncnt task occurred. For exirrnple, they dcfirre cssu\', tlre
tttost frequently occurrirrg getrre in tlre sample, as 'a task rvith a varictv o[-
li'atrrrcs and specifications. In its prototypical frrrrn, an essav is :r t:rsk
rr'tltririnu tltc lrrt'setttalion ol lur lrrglun('nl in r('sl)ollse to lr givetr
lrropcrsition or question' (p. 7a).f)cspite acknowleclgins thar this singlc
(social) senre cAn be realizecl in a number of'.lvays, tl)c study docs not
:tttcmpt to itlentify the diff-ercr-rt require rncnts and specifications of essays
irr <lil-fercnt disciplines. On thc other hancl, Askchavc:rncl Sr,valcs (2001, p.
207) pr<lp<lse that (social) genres can be identificrl on the basis ol.'sers of
< <>trttrtttnicative ptrrposcs' (p. 210), but caution that this irrvolvcs extensive
irrvcstisation of thc operation of' tcxts rvithirr conl?xls Irny crnphasisl tcr
cst:r lrl isl r rli lli, r<.rr t g(.1 I re cat(.rtcrri(.s.
.f olrrrs (1997) crrtphasizes thc clilficultv of iclentilyinu a (social) gt'nrc in
lrrr lt'iltlcrnic c()ntcxt throrrgh nomenclattrrc, sayinc that 'Islornc gcnrcs,
prrrrti< rrl:rrly in pcclagouical contcxts, are loosely, arrcl :rlmost casually
rr:rrrrt'rl' (11. 23). TIris variation in thc types of r,vritins rccluirenrent of'
r rr rivt'r'sily ltssit:tttttcnts (assignments using a conllnon norncnclaturc) als<r
('lll('rll('s lirrttt lt tttttrtber of stuclies of unir,ersity writing tasks (see Brainc,
l1)131), P. l0; (lrrrrst'co and Byrrl, 1989, p.312;.fohns ancl Srvalcs,2002, p.
f'l). r\ strrrly lry S:rrrrllrj (2(x).1), rvlriclr t:xarrrirrc<l tlrc scrrrc of Lhe restnrch
lutln t itr lt'o <lillt'tt'ttl <lis< iplirrcs. :tlso r orrlillrrs tltis. Slrt'sut's tlurt 'rcsc:rrc'h
l).tlr( t\,:rtr lt;rvc rrrrrltilrlr'l:ryclr',1 ,,,11111111rrir lrliyt'l)l1l)()s('s, tvlri<.lt rrrtrf,r'ltry
!x) A(IADFIiVII(l \,VRfllN(i /\NI) ( il.Nlil'
:
in different disciplinary colrrses, r('sullinu ir t('xts characterizecl by
clifferent discoursal f-eatures' (p. lr).
As Moore ancl Ntlorton thernsclvcs irrrlir'lrt<',
/1\r/r'!) rl)lxrars to be a blanket
ternr. As an example of a sociai genrc, t'ssrry is rlilli< rrlt to describe as a type
oI' discourse rvith a conventionally rct'ourriz('(l slnl(:tllre and f"eatures. ln
fact the types of rl-retorical prlrp()sc (r,vlriclr Moorc and Morton term
rhetorical .funcllorus) associated with a Jlrlti< rrlrrr.('ssly t2rsk, such as prompts
or instructions t.hat spccify rccltrirenrcrrts ol llrc task, are often central to
unclersternding the types oI'cliscourser rcrltrilt'<l ir tlrc assignment response.
This may, for exarnple, inr,olve Argulncllt.
At the levcl ol'cognitivc ge nre, Moore lrn(l M()rton employ the constrlrct
of rl-retorical functions to analyse thc rrrrivcrsity writing tasks, delining
rhetorical functions as'Ithat] r'vhich a task (or rrnit of a task) is instructing
students to clo' (Moore and Morton, 1999, p. 7ti). They clivide rhetorical
fnrtct.ions into two broad catesories: episk"mlr ancl deo'ntic, a distinction
basccl ort an approach to the rnodality of clatrses. They note that 'an
episternic clause . . . has the statns of :r proposition; it asserts whether
sornething is tme, partly truc, false etc.' u'hereas '[A] deontic clause . . . has
thc character of an action . . . whethcr sorrletlling is uoing to be clone' (p.
76). Within the cpisternic ancl deontic cate5Jories, other sets of rhetorical
lirnction catcgories arc erouped:
o epistemic: cclrnparison, clescription, explanation, evaluation, preclic-
tion, srrnrrrrarization ;
t deo'nt:it:. hortation, instmcti<tn, rccornrnendation.
It is difficult, horvever, to see irow tl'rc rl.rcttirical fr.rnction of, for example,
r:ortrlxrl'isoncan bc assigned solely to epistemic knowlcclge. Whilc sornc
rr<urlcrrric writing tasks might require lhe cornparison oI'grap]ric data
rrlrorrt rcal worlcl entities, others migJht, for example, involve a comparison
ol' llrc arslrments lbr and against a sollrtion to a problern. Similarly,
cvirlrt:ttion or even summarization could rclate to deontic argumerlt zrs
rrrrrc:lr as to epistcmic phcnornena. Furthermore, thcrc appears to be a
rlcsrcc of overlap in thc cateqories of rl-retorical ftrnctions that thcy
t'rrrploy. If the intcntiorr is that each different rhetoricirl I'unction
irrsturrtiates a <lill'crcnt discotrrsa.l stmcture, it is cli{'ficult to see holv this
cotrltl lrc cstablishc-'<l in tltc casc of yecommcndcttion, hortati,on anrcl euulua,tiort
(rvlrit lr <lo rtot appcar to lr:r'r'c arry necessary clistinguishing {'caturcs). Thus,
lltt'tltctorit'1rl (:r1('q()rics crnplr>ycd to analyse thc tasks clo not appcar t()
Ir:rvt'lr nrliorlrlt'tlrlt is srrl'lici<:ntly clcar. J'lrt'v ar-r'lr:rscrl looscly on llrc
lltctolicrtl lintcliorr ( ()u:itlu('l ol' Tr.irrrlrlr' ( l{}l-15, pp. (i1) I lll), lrrrt rrsirrr:
'l'rirrrlrlr"s <lcfirritiorrol llrctotitlrl lirrr<li,rn r;rllr.t llr.rrr lris rlrlcgoli<'s. A
llrcott' ol cogrrilir'<' gt'nrr' rvlrir'lr lr:rs llrt' r;r1r.rr itr to r l,r,,crlI tlrt r lrclori< lrl
tlr;tritctrrcrtls ll llrc rtrlrrirs ol ;rr:rrlcrrrrr \\lllrli l,rrl.: (lry trtctrrrs ol ;r
sttt.rllct rttttttlrct rrl l)rr)lol\'l)i(,rl ( lrl('1,,()ricr) tt,'rrl,l lr,rtr Irrlrr rtsclrrl. It
(l(X)NI'IIVE (;l.lNltl,lsi lN r\(,\l rl,lN,ll( i Wl{lllNC} 9l
woulcl also hclp t() overcotne thc lrrrrlrlcrrrs:rssocitrtcd with the terminologv
usecl in analysinu and classilyirrs tlrt' r'lr<'toricul functions involvcd in
:rssignrnent tlrsks (or assignrnent. tirsk lrrll i<.s).
As in the case of. social gctrrcs, Moolc arr<l Morton's categories of
rhetorical fttuction (cognitivc ucnrcs) rrr-r: :rlso dcscribed in tcrrns of thcir
Iiequency of occurrence over the rvlrolc sirrnplc of tl-re 155 assignrnent
tasks, auain trnclcrlining tlre unitary ir1t1_rr<lach that the study t.akcs to
acaclemic rvriting. The assisnrncllt tasks are not, lrowever, analysed in
terrtts of the frcqtte ncy r'vitl-r which rlrctoric:rl functions cluster or cornbine
within one type of task or genrc (c.u. research reports or reviews),
althotrgh Moore and Morton ircttrally obserye that 'assignnlents were
generally forrnd to prescribe morc tllan a singlc rhetorical function' (p.
87). A rrtore cle tailed picture of thc ranse of retluirernents associated with
writing tasks lvoulcl involvc identifyirre which rl.rctorical functions tcncl to
co-occur or clnstcr r,vithin the type s of assignme nt tasks (gerrrcs)
cxaminccl, strch as cssay tasks assignecl in clill'erent clisciplincs.
4.4 Towards a cognitive genre construct for academic writing
In proposing a taxonorny of text types (cogr-ritir,e genrcs) f<rr rrsc irr
<lesiuning curricula for tertiarv lcvel writing collrses {br I.lAl, stu(lcllr-s
(writinu courscs which trse a gcnre-basecl approach), Qtrirrn (lgg3)
ollsen es:
The problern r,vith this zrpproach - a scnre-basccl approach to teaching
r'vriting- is that in real lil'c, acadernic texts lsocial genresl are rnore
rliverse ancl complex than the existing limitecl (or {inite) range of
rnoclels wotrld suggcst. Thcre is more variety in thc ranse of possible
:rcaclcrnic text types than any prescriptive, gcnreJt:rsed appro:rch can
preclict. (p. 33)
'l'lris appears to confirrn the view ol'Biber (1988, 1989) (basccl on
corpus
strr<lies) and that of Pileg:rard and Franrlsen (1996), that authentic whole
tcxts (wlriclr are exarnples of what are rele rred to herc as social gcnres and
lry I'ilcua:rrrl ancl Franrlsen as text senres) can be a syntllcsis of diffcrcnt
t('xl tyl)cs (counitivc genres). On the basis of a needs analysis for his
tvlitirre ('()rlrsc, Quinn presents:r taxonomy of text. types'based on farnily
rcscrrrlrl:rrrtcs or sinrilarities ancl cliflerenccs rvithin cach farnily' (1993, p.
l15). Ik^o[Ii'r's (hc lollowing'Iarnily resemblance' groups of text typcs as a
lr;rsis lirl irrsrnrctiorr in llnglislr ftrrAcadcrnic Ptrrposes (EAP) courses (pp.
:il 5)
92 ACADFIN{I(I \\rRrl'lN() /\Nl) (:l Nlil' ( ;OGNITN,'E C}ENRIi,S IN ACADT'N{I(] \\R.ITIN(I 93

Table 4.1: Surrrrnirry 9f Qtrinn's [iIX()lr()lll]' ol l<'xl tyllcs fbr EAP cottrscs text types that lrt' l)r()poses. Althoueh therc appears to be some similarity
bctween thesc :rrrrl Qtrinn's peclagogic raxonomy of text types (see Table
)rts 4.2 fbllowing), thc tlvo tirxonomies actually cliffer considerably in their
T'echtricirl/Sr:icntific l)cscril)inq ir {r';rPlr or rr l)cscribine a proposal or conceptualiz:rtion an(l plrrpose. Biber's taxonomy is corpus-based ancl
classification (scientific tirble of tttttltlrt't's llroposition (icleas,
reports) (nurncricirl r.r.Po|ts) I('Ports, or lrctitrtt
Table 4.2:
reports in the Past ancl cornparison o[ Biber's ancl Quinn's text types for acaclemic
Iirlrtrc c.q. clcst rilrirlg lr prose
political or brtsitress
strirte(|v) Biber"s Text lypes (Acaclernic Prose) Quinn's Text I'1pes
llxpl:rtrations Type 3: I-earned. kienti/i,c lixpositiort lixplana,lion
'focus on highly abstract. ancl technical Descriptions of a process, catrse and
Description of zr l)escriptiorl of Dcscript.ion of l)escriptions of
inforrnatiorr .. . they are, therefore, effect (when? rvhere? why?), historical
pr'ces,s (horv) cu.se ircl eff'ect 5ist.ricirl cirttse Svp.tSetical
conccnred lvith entit.ies being actecl on and hlpothetical cause and efl'ect
(rvh,v) zurcl c{ftrct' ciutse :rtrcl eflect
(rvhen/rvherc) (historicirl spectr- (the patients) [r:rther] thirn atry :rcrir.'e (Qrrinn, 1993, p. 34).
latiotrs or h,vPo- agent.s" Thev firrther depencl on the
thetical exPlan- Freqtrent rrse of conjtrDcts to specify
atiolrs) the logical relations arnong propos-
itiols' (Biber', 1989, p. 29).
I)iscrrssions Iype 4 Leulned, lixposition IleporL
(iornpurc an(l colttrast Ootnp:rre alrtl cotrt.rast Cornp:rre 2ll1(l c:olltrast 'Type 4 text-s t.cncl to be less technical Describing a scientific or technic:rl
olrjects e.{r. colts.tlne, p..r1ri,.:rls (possible Slpotlescs irbottt lristor- in contcllt . . . slrorv a preference for a classification, a graph, table of nurn-
reporrs h,tr.,re ,..tio's) .r prop- ical c.trsation i'lcl efTect more actir,c style' (Biber, 1989, p. 29) bers, proposal or proposition (iclezrs,
ositiotrs (h1'pothcses iurcl e .g. tlleorctical :rstrotl- reports, or action reports in the past
o1' ornv cliscttssiotts abortt
icleas) c.g. rliscttssions and futurc e.g. clescribing political or
thc bcst site for thc 3rrl possible origins of the business strategy) (Qrrinn, 1993, p.
nur\v:ly in Syclnc,v solar s,-vstetl 34\.
ILcc()u ll ls 'I'ype 6: Oencra,L Na,na,Iiue lixposi/izn
Ru:otttt.Is
rvith Abstrnct t.oPics with l)on- l'orrnal aclldclnic "l'hev irre pri rn:rri ly infr.rrrn ational ancl personal ancl acadernic recounts with
l)e rsonal toPics
httmart narticiD:rtrts htttnan pirrticipiults rcc()rtnls cxpositorl brrl ollcrr usc narralion lo htrrnan participants, fbnlal acaclemic
colrvey inforrnation ... the narrative recounts (Qrrinn, 1993, p. 35)
(Qtrinn, 1993, pp. 3+5) l)()rtiolts iD these texts are not
irnaginar-v or fbr entert.zrinrnent; they
'blcntls, hyllricls or rnixtttrers o1'
Qrrinn's view is that. aulhcntic tcxls are arc rirther :rn iltl.cgrirl part of thc
,-r-,rr',,.,.,r,,1; [counitive] {Icl)rcs' (p.33). In orclcr to develoP the lianrework t'xposilorl irrlor rnatiort lreirrg colr-
firr :rn English firr Aclrlernic Purposes ctrrrictrlttm, Quinn (1993) exanr- vt:yccl' (Biber, 1989, p. 3l)
anrl isolatecl u'hat lte saw as the 'cleme ntary 'f'v;rc fl: Inudtml. I'er.nmsion.
incrl a rangr: of authcntic texts Discu.ssiott
qeltres [cirg.itive gcnrcs] rvlric; go t() rr.kc uP thcse tn.rc cornplcx, 'tlr(' Lcxts in 'l'vpc il arc prirnarilv compare and contrast objects, pro-
tlislin{-frrishcrl ltv tlrcir pe rsu:rsivc and
lruthcntic tcxt types fsocial ucnresl' (p.34)'IIe said that his nlain critcri:l pos:rls, propositiot-rs, hypotheses and
rl'gutn('r)tilli\'<: crnphascs ... this effect (Qtrinn,
tbr irlentilying ilie, lirLrr rnain rrcnrcs tvcrt"pu,rpr-tseancl stagtnpi (p. 35), antl
l-ristoriczrl causzrtion arrd
olicnIlrIiorr is tylticirlly cornbinccl tvith 1993, p. 35)
tlrat'the main critcriit l'<rr lsscssitlg lanrily diffcrences fwithin erach gcttrt'l :rrr irrrr>lvt'<1, oltcrr interactive, style,
\{e rc tcxttl:ll clroiccs Itt:l<lt: t'ottccrtring rrlo<lalitv, tttorlrtlatiott, tcttst" rvlrit lr ;ri<ls tlrt' pt.r'srrasive frrrce of the
(]rrilrlr
the rrrc-rlrCrrrr. ore:utizlttiott, l'oi< c, ltgcl)('v ltrrrl lt'xis' (p" iil-r). It'xt lx rlcvt'lo1rirrg lr s('nsc olsolirllrritv
sllUe('sts llrlrt lris lrrrrlros:tl lirt Ut'tltt is;t ltt'tttislir rottrt'pl, llttl ottt' tvitlr llx lislt'rrr.r'ol rr.:rrl<'r'. Irt ollrcr.
*,lri<lr t^rrlrlrlcs lr.lr<lrt.rs :urrl corrrsr' 1rl:untt rs lo itlcrrlilt llrr' (rogrritir'r') r:rscs Iltorrlglr, Ilrr.sc lcxls r'lrrr lrr.ovr.rI11,
'rylrir lr lr.;rr 1r'rs :1(' 1tOsl lilillr' lo r'n( olllll( l (;r. l5) pct stt.rsirc rvlrilr. lr:rlirrg :l rr;u l\r.{l
li(,11(.s irr lr.xls ittlot trr,rliorr.rl lor rrs' (llilx r, lr))irl.
,\s rrrr.rrtr,,rr,.,l 1)r(.\i()lt\l\', llilrr.r ( l1)ll1), 1i irll iltr lltr l'.l"ts ol t tttlrttr ll'.( I
;r
l' l{rlll ttl lltc lililrl
:

ri',r',u{ lr. ;rr,,1torr'" llt.tl ,tr,trlltttir l)lo\( l( \1" I' I rl'

94 ACADEN,IIC] WRI'I'IN(; ]\NI} ( ]I,NI{I.' ( ]O(]NITIV!] GENRES IN A(}.DEN{ IC] \4IRITIN(] 95

descriptive. Quinn's taxonomy is b:tst'tl ott :t ttcc(ls analysis an(l is a social gcnrc;
prescriptive, hal'ing been designed lirr' 1-lt'r l:rtogir':rl l)tlrposes. o cognitivc ecnre(s);
a linguistic systems.
Qrrinn identifies fixrr text types (ref'cll'<[ lo ltt't'c as cognitive ucnres):
Explanation, Itcporx, Rtcou,nt and 1)lsrr.rr.riorr. 'l'lrr^ firtrr are Prcclicatecl on
types oI rhetorical purpose, and irre not llrt's:tltl('ils context-sPccific, social
Genres
genres, sr-lch as a newspaper eclitorial or tt lrook rt:vicl. Like Pilesaarcl and S*,i"1 G.re
Frandse n ( 1996) , Quin n stlggests that th cst' t('xt typcs are likely to occ ur irr I

combination rathcr than sinely in thc reralizirlion of a wl.role text (social Level I
gcnre). In terrns of their overall conrrnurriczrlivc or rhetorical purp()ses, I
Convenliontrlized sections ol'2r social
Quinn's text types (basecl on needs analyscs) resemble the four types (or
: *"nT
prototypes) of ircaclernic Prose texts clescribccl by Biber in relation to a
corpus-based stucly.
Level 2 !
tt Cocnirive gL'nr(s rcl.rtir)p t,, sp(( ili( Rcp0n Rccount l-)rpianation

r__l
I tlPcsrrl'rhelt)ricalPurco5c

Summary
A variety of approaches to the analysis of'rvritten text in terms ol'what is
referred to here as cognitive genre have been reviclvecl. These approaches
:rll airn to describe the structuring of extettcled written texts Ibr tlre
purpose of tcachingr'vriting. In relation to this review thc key Iinclirrss arc:
o whole authentic texts, exarnplcs of social senres, rnay be realized by
clifferent cop;nitivc genres or a synthcsis of clilTe rent cognitive genrcs;
r cognitive genrc, rather than social genre, often appears to be tlrc
preferrecl unit of discourse that is used as a basis lbr instrtrct.ion ir-r
writing lbr yorrrrg or novice rr'ritcrs;
o whatever cognitive gc'nre constrlrct is trscd as a basis lor instntction,
tlrcrc is a neecl to reflect the reality of how cop;nitivc gellres irrtcract
irr relation to social genres in authentic cliscourse.
Irr tlrt'scction tl-rat follorvs, the cogrritive genrc c()nstruct is proposecl as an
or glrnizinrt stnrctLrre in exlerrcled r'vritte n t-cxts of acaclemic pr()se.
l(lrctolical pllrpose is taken as a basis [or iclentifying four clill'erent
cogrritivc genres. Drarving on Biber's corpus-basecl finclings, ancl Quinn's
rrt't'<ls-lrasccl analysis, the four classifiers - Report, Explanatittn, Rcctlttltt,
l)isr:rrssion - are employecl as the rypes of rhetorical purpose trntlcrlying
tlrc co5;nitive genres which are proposccl.
4.5 A modcl l'or coqrritivc qcnres in academic discourse
Il is srrtgcslcrl lrcrt' llr;rl llr<' rliscorrtst' (()llll)('l('n((' l() ( t(':tl(' tt rvltolr'.
cxlt'rrrlcrl rl't iltctr tcxl (sttr lt :ts lttt :t<;ttlt'tttir ;rr lir lc
lollorvirrli) tn:tl tlt:r\\ (,lr llrtcr':ttt'lts ol littrtl'|,', 1;',,, r',tr ll ol tt'lriclr t'tttlrlors
lltrrlr'l\1r,.. .t.,t lr.tst'. l,r r,tl( )'lttz.tliott.
I
Level 3 l,inguistic rcalizntion oi'thc tc\l c.g. structurcs signal ling causc-cfli:cl and
ntaans
Figure 4.1: The relationship betu'een social {rcnrcs arrrl cosrritir'(' e(.rr'('ri
At the first level of classi{ication, fukehave ancl Swales (2001, p. 207)
suggest that social genres rnay be identiliecl by investigating thc opL'rarion
()f sets of communicativc pllrpose within social contexts. According to
loose Swales (1990, p.8), such (social) {renres exist lvithin a cliscourse
commttnity, that is, 'within socio-rhetorical networks that forrn in order to
work towards sets of cornrnon soals'. I lor,veve r, the rnodel that follorvs rloe s
not relate to socially recognizecl gcnres (strcl'r as acaclemic articles rtr book
reviews), or recognized text segrncnts (such as irbst.racts of, or introduc-
ti()ns to, rcsearch articles), bttt to cognitive genre stnlcturcs of the sccond
<lassificatory level which, singly or in combinatiorr, rnay bc usecl ro
or{ranize the realization in langtrage of strch texts. (Chaptcr 6 acldresses
llrc issue <lf social genre knowlcd{rc, ancl Chapt.er 7 rliscusses l'ror,v social
lrrrrl cosnitive qenrc knowleclgc can be rei:rtecl in tlre colltext of a writing
r'ot r rsc. )
lrr rcl:rtion to the categorization of extendcrl, rvritten discoursc at tltc
It'r'<'l ol' r'oqnit.ivc genre, involving procedural or organizational kn<lrv-
Icrlgr', it is prrrposccl th:rt:
. (('r'l:tilt tyl)('s ()l |lr<'l()ri<:rl l)lltl)()s('irirrriilg t() r'('l)rcsctrt a typC of
st't' l;iurrrr' 'l- I irtlirtttt;rliort itrsllrnli:rtr' :r srrr;rll nrrrullt'r' ol prrrlotylrical rliscorrrsc:
l):lll('ttts (r'ogrritivr' 1,,, rrrr':) tlltir lt ;ttt', irr clli'r'1, ll lvl)(' ol'lriUlrll,
r otrrlllcr r :tl( Bot\.
 9(; j^t)t,l\4t(| \,\il{|,ilN(;;\Ntt ill,lNRl,l
A(
C]OC}NITIVE GENIII,]S IN A(]AI)1.:IVII() WRITING 97

. ?rs c()nrl)l(:x ('ut('!{()r'i('s, ( (}gniti\,(.Hr.nt{.i nliry lxr <lcscribed in

terms of
diff'crcnt .\yst(:lrr.\ ,l' irrrr.r'urt,slrirrg ;rr,r,.rirrlirl (organizing) know-
ledge, wlriclr xrlirtc lrir,r':rr.lri.rrlly (rrigrrr,r'.rr.vcl geieral and more
specific lowcr-lcvt:l str.rr<.1 rrn,s) ;
o this procecltrral kn<lwlc<lg<. is lirrrrlirrrrr.rrlitl lo ir cognitive genre, and
this has a consiclerabl<'irrflrrr.rrcc orr lirrgrrislic chJice.
'lhe model proposed, and tlrc strrrly tlr;rr is rr.por,rt:tl thereafter,
focus on
I.ur cognitive genres that oc:<rr' irr l,lrrglislr irt:aclemic prose: Repmt,
Ilxplanation, Discussion and lil:utrt,rt!. 'l'lrr. r.lrctorical purpoie of each is
based on the four pedagogic rcxr ryl)(,s .r'errinn ligggl and the four
corpus-based texr r).pes rhat Bibcr (ll)81), p. il{)) identifies as relating ro
academic prose. Flowever, their trsc irr tlrr.rrrr<lcl involves a reinterpret-
ation of Biber's and Quinn's text typc (:()ltsllll('ls to include extralinguistic
as well as lingr.ristic inforrnation. Thus, r.otr|rilivc gcrrres are psychologically
driven, disconrse-organizing patterns, arrtr r:arr l>c clescribed at a nlrmber
of levels. They are not usually wholc tcxts lltrt are used, usually in
combination, to create texts in socially clrivcrr ways. on the other hand,
social genres, which are realized by whole texts, :rrc socially prescribecl and
accepted constructs.
Drawing on the idea frorn catcgolizirtiorr tlrcxlry that units of complex
knowledge are hierarchically orgirrrizr:rl (lrigher-level general to more
specific lower-level structures), thc cogrritivc rnoclel employs the following,
top-down, cosnitive systems ol classilicirtiolt:
o gestalts called image schemata (lohnson, 1987);
o discourse patterns (lloey, 1983, 1994, 2001);
o cognitive processes (Crombic, 1987);
. interpropositional relations (Orornbie, 1985).
Table 4.3 following summarizes the initially proposed model for the four
cognitive genres relating rhetorical prlrpose to the systems of classifica-
tion. (This model was later refined by incorporating information from a
corpus study clescribecl in the next section.)
At the upper levels of the moclel, the rhetorical purpose of a particular
cognitive genre will engage a higher-order, image schema gestalt (see
Johnson, 1987). The function of this overarching pattern is to stnlctllre
the content knowledge that is represented within the particular segment
of text (a segment of text that realizes a cognitive genre). The notion that

Table 4.3: Proposed cognitive genre model

The intemal structure of cognitiue genres
This section provides an overwiew of the proposed moclel for cognitive Cognitivc Rhctorical Irnagc Discorrrsc Cognitivc In tcrproposi tional
ucltrc Purposc Schcmat-a Dattcrns Proccsscs Rclations
gcnres that occur in acaclemic prose. The constituent structlrres of the
Rcport Prcscntation of WHOLE- Gcncral- Associativc Arnplification;
rnodel are presented, explained ancl summarized in Table 4.3 following. in[ornration PART; Particrrlar Bonding
It is argued here tl'rar social genre influences linguistic choice indirecily that is UP-DOWN ( Prcvicrv-
csscn(iallv non- Dctails)
iur<l that its influence is mediated by cognitive genre patterns. Thus, in an
sccrrcn tial
t'xtcnded, academic prose text, the immecliate type of rhetorical purpose Explanation Prcscnt-ation of SOURCE, Gcncral- Logic<> Mcans-Purposc;
single section or segment of the text (such as reporting, explaining, inlormation PATH, GOAL; Particrrlar dcdrrctivc; Mcans-Rcsrrlt
'['a
rccotrnting or discussing) engages a hierarchical, cognitive genre struc- l,ith a focus on LINI( (Prcvict Tcmpcro-
ntcans bv Dctails) contigual
trrrc I<>r that section or segment of text. rvhich
Birsccl on the idea that categories are formed in relation to sonrcthirrg is
achicvcd
intt:ntionality and purpose, ancl clrawing on the two existing taxonomies
l)isr:r rssion Focrrs on thc CONTAINER;
.['tr:xt typcs (Biber 198g; Quinn lgg3 - see the previous lfaUte +.2;, ttre organization of LINI{
Gcncral-
Particrrlar
Logico-
clcclrrctivt:
Simplc Con(rast;
flon trast.ivc
'l' rhe torical pllrpose of the four proposed cognitive senres are:
ly1>r:s clarta in n:lation (Gcncralization- Altcrnationl
to 1;ossiblc Exarnplcs); Bonding;
tltc prcscntation of data or information that is essentiallv norr- ()lrtc()lIcs. Matching Rcason-Rcsrrlt;
sc(lrrcntial (tcrrne<l Report) ; orrclrrsiorrs or Rclations; Grortnds-
< lroicr:s. Problcm- Conclrrsion:
tlrr: Jrrcscntirti.rr ol' in[orrnation with thc orientation on rnea's Solution Conccssion-
(t<'r'rrrc<l lixplirrrirr iorr ); Contra-
o ir lir<rrs orr rlrc olgirrrizirtiorr.o[' rlltir irr r.r,llrli<>n r() (llossilrlc:) cxpcctatiorl
ottlcorrtr,s/r'otrclrrsiorrs,/r.lroir.<.s (t<.r.rrr<.rl l)isr.rrssit+rr!
l{t'r'ot trr Itrr:st'nlitliotr <ll s( )l r R( I,t, I)rrrltlt:nr- Tcnrpcrr> Chronological
l)lt's('llllllirrtl ol tlitllt ot ittloltturliorr llr;rl is ('ss(.llliillly scrlrr<rrrtiirl or.
t

' cl r r or rologilttl ( lr.r.rrx.rl ltt.r'orrrr I ).

rlirlir lllrl is l)A'l'l l. (;( )i\l Soltttiorr < orrtigrr:rl Scqrrcncc
r.ssr.rrti;rl11,
llr r rrrrologilirl.
 llN( i '\Nlr { 'l Nlil
(XX ]NITIVF] (}ENRI.]S IN ACADEI\{I(] \,fRITIN( ] 99
9rJ ACADEN{I(I \Alltl

nrost. {rcil('r'lll, r,t'r't;rll l(.vt'l <lf category (and 1987) and /nlnlmtlxtsitional relations (e.g. Reason-Result, chronological
gestalts opcrzrte at this
lr' Vrttt l)ilk (1980, p- 233) and Scquence). Bctlrrrst.: llrese organizing catesories involve related propos-
ilir.,o.,rr,,;''rqa.ization has Sccrr
in tcrms o1'a tlrt''r' lrt'l,rrk.l{
'rrr,,st'rl (11)U7, p. 283) in his itions, they havc u clirect effect on lingtristic organization ancl linguistic
l.ose expresied
selection (See ApPcndix I for a srlrnmary of Crombie's interpropositional
'l
'spatialization of fcrrtrt' hypotlrcsis. ltrrs, gt'slrrlls (irrt:tgc schernata) in the
lvcr:rll grganiz:rtion of re lations).
coulitive gelrc r-norlel reiate t9 tlrt'11()st ll('rr( r:rl,
icleas, brrt not to tlre actttal arrattg('lIl(.lll rll rvt.iltt'tt <lisccltrrse.

\\rhile thc ctlgrtitive gcllrc ttto<lt'l l)l ()l)()ri('s tlrat gestalts (irnalge 4.6 Study l: A corpus investigation of the use of cognitive genres in
scScnrat:r) rcf'er- ic, t5e <rverall o.r.t:'tizltliotr ol <.ottccpts
or idcas, they
lcircl to tlte cngirqelnellt of Ir()lr-qcllr('-fiPt't ili< tliscottrse plrtterns for academic texts
.verall organizaiio' 'f t5e uct.irl w'ilr('tt lt'xt (t:.g. Ge'eral-Partictrlar,
A corptrs stucly was carried out to identify and analyse, wlrere possibre, at
Problcm-sohltion), r,vhich have tyllit::rl l)rltt('r'rrs ol' co-occttrretrcc
(see
irr tllc fttnclional arrirnge- lcast one insfanr-e of cach o{' the four cognitive genres from a sample of
llocy, 1983). f)iscourse patterrls urc t'cIlt't'lt'<l
ircadernic texts in order to providc an ernpirical basis lbr the proposecl
rrlellt of p:rragraphs :tncl setttetrces'
patterns rnoclel :rncl a baseline against which to measure the written responses of a
G.encral rlrctorical purpose, 5;estalt stl'tr(tttfc ltncl clisconrse
of lowe r-ordcr' nlorc seconcl sttrdy.
havc irnplications Ior tirc ielection trn<l cottrlrillllti()ll
relerred to by cogrri- A sanrple of 20 acaclcrnic jotrrnal articles or book chapters, selected
spccific cognitir,e oruanizirrg catcg;orics, 's()lrl(|tillrcs
fiom a population of 99, was analysecl for occurrences of each of the four
tivc lirrguisis :rs 2is.ours e riirilio,s' (scc K.,tt, Sutr<lers ancl Ollerlanclcr'
been proposcd, cognitive gcnres (scc Appendix 2 for the method of selection of thc
2001). i rr.,rrrb", of taxononrics Of thcse rclati'ns have
irrclrrclirrg irtterlnr lxtsitiorta,l rcla.tiortr (crornbic, 1985), iltetoricrtl slnu:tttrtt Population and thc sample of texts). From l6 articlcs (of the Z0 articlcs ol'
(Knotr, 1996; Knott tlre sarnple), nrultiple instances of all four cognitive genres were Fotrnrl,
t.tu,ory1yiar-,, ,,rl,l Th,,,npson, 1988) , r:olnrctttt'rcl.alions
theoty rel'crrecl to as rrnd liom lbur zrrticles, rnultiple instances of at least three of the finr
Irnrl Slur<lcrs, 1998),,,r',.1 nrp..,li of tnetaclisctlttrsc
genrc model clrar'r's on crxrnitive scnres r,vcrc fotrnd. A corpus lvas then clevelopecl by analysinu, in
Lr(ttsitirnt rn,ru.ker..s Ilylanrl (?005). The cognitive
(1985) to accotlnt lor lowerlcverl' <lctail, one instance of'each of the coenitive genrcs that appeared in e:rch
Cftrrnl>ie's irrterpropositional rclations
rrrore spcci{rc cli.scotrrsc relations.
(lronrbie's approach is crnployed in tlrc rlrt"icle or book cl'rapter of the sample. The corpus consistecl of 70 analysecl

rrro<lcl bccntrse it is bascd on r;inary relaticlnships betwecn

propositions' As l)rrrt texts. Tablc 4.4, followinu, inclicatcs the actual numbers of eac| 6f the
both sctnatrtic and Pragrnatic r'<xrnitivc {renres that wcre analysed.
Ir rcsrrlt, it has the capacity to accoLrnt fcrr
relations. In this way it allot'vs that tht:
:rsl)ccts of lorvcr-lcvel cliscourse
ol'a relation nray dellelrcl on its cotrtcxt'
,rr"aning o[ a partictrlar signallcr
'on,l' i, gencrally consicle rccl to ber aclclitive (aclcling
F,r,. ihe, worcl
"*oiirplc,
cxtra infbrntation), as in the sentcnce: 'l'ablc 4.4: Cognitivc Fierrre corpus

ocnnrm nt an adttanccd lntel arttl t:an al.so t:otntnurtictr'tc in ltasit

Slv sltenl<s ,rlogrrit.ive (]enres Total analvsecl
.lo.pa,ncse. rI)i s<'trssi<ln l9
FIor,vever, in thc [ollolvins cirses, ':rncl' is clearly pcrlorrning clilfcrcrrt {t
l{1 )( )l't l8
relational roles: l{.1 '( ()tInI t7
()orrseqtrcrrcc) )xlrllr r ur
t,tr lior r t6
Do Llutr agrlin a,nd, I tt,ill t:rlll llrc police! (C<rnclition
IIis slnntlling cxcrrtfud the lini.t of tis crt'dit ca,r'd lrc zuas dLa'rgul'
a,'nd a' lxtrrrltt'
y'rc. (Rcirson Result) r\ll .l rlr. r('xr s('l{nl('nrs wcrc rater analysed (by the writer) in ordcr to
rl.rt'rnrirrt' lr.nr rlrt' tlrrtc rlillcrcnt types of organizational knowledee Ibr
Tltrrs tlrc lriglrt'r-k:r,cl t':r{cQ0t'ics ol' thc rnoclel of ihctoricltl Pttt Pt 'tt' r',rr lr ,l rlrt' l,rrr r.grririvt'g<'nlt.s \\'crc reprcsentcd. Tablc 4.b following
scle<'liott ll()ttr 'r
{<,sl:rll rlr-r,..trrr..lrr<l <lis<()rr|s('l):rtt('rlls lcitrl t<l tltc
rlrorls rlrc rcviscrl r,,grririvr. gcrrlc rrr<lrlt'l lrasc:d on tlrc finclinils from the
.lrlrilrr st.l ol'lotr,t't 6ttl<'t togttilir'<'<:tt<'U11rit'slt'ttlt<'<l tlislottlst'l)l()(('s\(\' llrt .ur.rltsis ol tlrr. r ()t l)ur.i sllt(l\,.
rrrr lr :rs rrttt:ttlttttt. trtttlrlttttt' ;ttvl tltttlirtlt'tttlnttrrl tttt)t\l)('tt(lt'tt(r' ((lrorrrlrr'
100 AC;\DEMI(] \AIRI'I'IN(: /\NI) ( :I;NI{I. ( X)(;NITryE (}ENII-ES IN ACADTIMI(] \\TRITIN(i t0r

Table 4.5: The counitive genrc tttorlt'l itrr ut lror':tlirrg t-lre corpr.rs findincs 4.7 study 2: Usc ol'the features of the cognitive genres by three groups of
writers
{lrctorical Urcto rical
)trtpost's
I l irgc irHrrlr\! r tcrproposi t iortirl To investigatc tlr(: rrsc of'the four cognitive genres rry threc g;roups of
llpt s ir-lrcrnel a {r'latiorrs
r rrlr ttlitliotts iBorrcling [(iouplirrgl writers, a sccotttl st tr<ly involr''ing the collection zrnd analysis of resptlnse s 16
rrr lrr<lr' 'r:ttr<tr,t:tl) : ortlv
'clatiors n,itlr 109i, ot
four writins tasks was carricd otrt. This stucly hacl three airns:
!orrrlirrg
( irrrulirgl ) rroxr indrttlc<l
o Aint I was l-o rletermine the cxtent to wlrich tlre orsanizational
Rr'port Prcscntatiol) ()f \\'H()r.li, (l< rrt rrrl-l'.rr tir rLlrrr Ii rrrpcrrr i\rnplifit ation (apprrrx.
features prescnt in the sarnples ol lvriting confcrrm to thosc
irrfbflnation tlrirl i Pr\lLf , (l)r'vics.l)< t:rils) r ortigrral 18(n,)l
csscntially rron- TJP.Do\\'N (11.t()1,) lleasorr-l{<'srrlt attcl identifiecl i' rhe prop.secl prototype r'oclels of the fotrr c.snirir.e
(lrorrrrtls (irnclttsion
scclrLt rrtial ;\ssociatir,c genres t.hat are the focus clf enqrriry;
cornbitrt'tl (tpprox.
(21;(il,)
l,ogicrr li%,): o Aim 2 was to clcterrnine whethe r, and to lvhat extcnt, tltc
rl<rlrrr lir,c Sinrplc Oorrtrast rrtcl orsanizational feattrres identified in the rnoclels clifrer in the casc
(l Oorrrpirrativc Sirnilaritl'
r'{X )
<unrbinttl (approx.
of texts writtcn by rnore experiencccl ancl less expcriencccl native-
15%): speaker writers of English;
(lonccssi<ln (lorrtra-
t xpct tatiorr
o Airn 3 was to deterrnine rvhetlrer, and t. what extent, the
(;rpprox. l0%,); orp;anizational f'catures trserl by incxperienccd rvritcrs differ in the
(bntlitiort- case of nativc and non-native speakcrs of English.
(brrsr'<lttctt< c
/rn,rror 109,I
('rlPcrrts The four writing tasks of the study each hacl a prirnary rhctorical
ixpl:rrration 'rcscr)tatiot) ()f ;()uR.cL,, t ,Icans-l'rrrllosc atrrl Prrrp()sc
nfbrrrirtion witlr a ,A1'H, 'orr tigrral ,It'trr s-l{csrrII relate<l to one of tlre fclur cosniti\/c genres. The fotrr tasks involvccl:
'6014t); orrrbirrcrl (approx.
octts otr rrrcarrs l>t' ;or\1.,
rlrich sorrrt'tlrirtg ,INI( \ssor iirlivt
Logitrr
'\J.)it):
iurpli lir aliorr (irJrpror
o reportinp; data from a nlrmerical table (Report);
i it< lrit vt'tl rrr<l
k drrctir,c
o explaining a flow-chart diagrarn conveyine inforrnation abgut tlrc
'20% <'n<:h ) irnccssion- means by which somethins is achievecl (Explanation);
l()r]lfa-cxJ)('( llli()ll
irnorox. 12.5%)
o clisctrssing both sides ol an issue (Discussion);
)isn rssion ircrrs on thc loNl'AIN!.lt lrnqrral-Pirrtit rrlirr . ( r1lP('fo- )rorrrrds-Cor dttsiott
o recounting a sequence of cvent.s (Recount).
rrgarrizatiorr of '(]t rtt r alislrtiott- ontigrurl nrtl lLcason-Rtsttll
lata in rclati()r to lxarrrplcs), 1f)%)l rrrrrbirrcrl (2(i%); The responses to thc tasks are a'alyscd for their ove rall prototypicality (or
rossi blc l,latr lrirrg l{( lations \sso( iirtiyc dcarrs-l)ttrposc arttl
)!t( onrcs. 27%): carr s-R.cst t It closeness to thc cognitive uenre) in tcrms of thc organizaticlnal f'cattrres
'4

1>roposed for the relevarrt cognitivc senrc model.

ottcltrsiorrs or ,ogi< <r lrnbirr<'tl (approx.
Iroic:cs )crhr< tivc 12%,)l
26q,) itrrc t ssiott-
i)rrtra-cxJ)c( lati0u
'l111rrox. l{}%) llhe sample
{('col Il t )r('s( r)tati()r) ()f iotJl{CE, 'rribk'rrt-Soltttiott cll[]c f()- vtt'ars-l)rrrposc irt<l Altcr obtainine the necessary ethical consents, Ibur samples of conveni-
lata tlrat is ,A'I'H, )on tigrrill i,l clur s-l{r'sr tl t r:nce (comprising the groups listccl in Table 4.6 following) wcre usecl in
'sscrr tiallv loAr_ 007o ); :onrbirctl (approx-
issot iativc t\t%): t onclucting the stucly. The total numbers of rcsponses in each task sarnple
:lr rortologi<:rl
rtl Logicrr \rnplificatiorr wcre as follows:
)t tlrrctivc .approx. l77o);
207, t:a< lr ) ,llr ronologi( nl
i<:rlrtt n<c (lpptrrx.
o Tasks I and 4 samples hacl totals of'75 responses each;
l:-t.5lo): o Task .3 sample hacl a total of 72 responses;
lrorrrrls (iltt< lttsiott r '['ask 2 sanrple had :r total of 69 responses.
rrrrl l{t irsott-l{r'sttlt
orttlrint tl (itpptrrr.
11.:-t%) l'l:rclr t:rsk slrrnlll<'w1rs srr-irlili('rl, lvitlr c<1tr:tl ntrrnbcrs ol responses bcing
g:rllr<'rttl lrr<l lrlrlysr'<l liorrr tlrlt.r. rlilli'rcnl er()u[)s ol-writers. Thc threc
14r1)lll)s w('t1':
o tlrlircs;rclrhcr lr..rrlrcr., ,,1 l, rrlilirlr (;rll 14r:trlrr:rlcs);
o tt:tlivc slrr';rl.r't \lnrl(.nt . {ltr llrlirtli slrrrlr.rrls irr tlrc lirr:rl r,<'trr. ol
s('( onr l.rt \' r, lr,.l , rr ,,lrtrlr 111,, 11, tll.ir lirst r)t rt.r,,rrrl ,,,,,,, ;tl
rrrrrvtrsitt ).
102 AC,\llllN,lI(l \ IRI'i'lN(: ,\Nl) ( ;l Nl{l' ( l()()NII-IVE ( iEl\-lil.ts I N,\( :\I ) t,. t\{ t( I \\rRl'l'lNCl 103

. non-nat.ive-speaker stttclctrts, all irr tlrc irriti;rl slages of a {irsl-year This stratilication lv:ts to allorv Iirl lr torrrlxrlisr.rrr of thc I'catrlres of the
univcrsitv lvriti r-r g c() ttrse. writing ol'tlrc tlrrce groups - Airrrs 2 :urrl il o[ tlrc stttly.
BecaLtsc the r'vriting rcspoltses lvcr-t.r uirllrr:r'c<l liorn a nurnbcr of srrxrll
groups at cliffercnt times and irr <lilli:r'crrt ltlaces, a standard sct of
Table 4.6: Thc sarnple instnrctior-rs ftrr thc supervisor (scr: A1l;rcrrdix 3) was usecl on eacll
occasion so th:rt tlrc conditions rrrtclcr r'r'lriclr thc sarnple r'vas gathere<l wcrc
(lloults l'r rsks Numbcr of Respotrses as ttnilorrn as possiblc for eaclr sroup.
Nativc-spearker rttt it'crsil.\, sttt I'rrsk I l8
dcnts tirking a seconc[-v{:ar' l tsl< li 24
Analysis of the responses
Enelish corlrsc Iiaclt script r,v:rs iclcntifiecl only l>v a nurnber. A worcl-processed trarrscrip-
2. N:rtive-speaker unirrersity sttr I';rsk 4 t2 tion r'vas rnaclc of each ltirndtvritte n script in order that tl-re responclents'
(lents Lirkillg a Iirst-,vcar Ertglish hanclrvriting ancl other zrspects of the phvsical appearance of thc script,
colrrse suclt as crossiugs-ortt ancl corrcctions, rvould not clistract or influcncc thc
-l'ask
.). U niversi tl' ESOI-'r' tcachers il 0 luralysis. (ln the triutscription, lo attc'nrpt was rnaclc to change featurcts of
-I'ask 4 0 the acttral text, slrch as lack of parag;raphirrg or defective spclline,
gralnrnar or syntax.) The tcxt lbr czrch response was pastecl into a firur-
4. fJniversitv ESOL teirchcrs l'ask 2
colurnn table, anrl thc ar-ralysis rvas hirnd-rvrittcn on the transcrilte <l
5. Polvtecl-rnic ESOL tutors T;rsk I 2
responsc. (An exarnplc of an ar-ralyscrl script fiorn one of the four sanrplcs
6 Privale l:rnguagc school FISOL l"ask 3 r8
is provicled in Appendix 4.)
t.eirchels
The cosniti\re gellrc rnoclcl in Tablc.1.5 provide<l a Lraseline against
Teircher gror.rp trking ;r post.- I'ask 2 l0 r'vhich cach of the scripts 'l'r'as analysccl. Prototypicality scores, strclr :rs I
{ra(luirle :rP1rlit rl lirrgrristics f'ask 4 I Iliehly Prototypic:rl; 2 Mocler:rtely Prototypical; 3 I-ess Prototypical; 4 Not
cotrl'sc
Prototypical, lve rc assigned to each response in relation t.o tlrrcc
u. Universit,v ESO[, tcachers I':rsk I 13
or-ganizatiorral feattrres of the cognitivc genre nlodcl (irrraee schenta,
grouD
rlisconrse patterlt and irrterpropositional relations), ancl the three rvere
9. Native-speirkcr universitv sttt- Task I 7
rreurep;ated to give an overall prototypicality score lbr cach script.
clents taking :r sccotrcl-yeirr
(()ogrritive processcs, rvhich rclate to the gencral categories of intcr-
applicrl linsuistics cottrse
'l:rsk
propositional rel:rtions, wcre not awarded a separate sc()rc as it rvas Felt
l0 Native-spcaker secotrclarv 2 ll
tlu.rt this aspect of cliscotrrse orsaniz-ation was accoultted fbr in the
school sl.trctertts in their final l'ask 4 lir irrtcrpropositional rclation analysis.)
,vear
ll University Leachers of a fotur-
'Iask 4 il .fuclucnrents abotrt the prototypicality of the use of gestalt (irnage
sclrcrna) stnlctrlrcs and discourse p:rtterns lvere macle on the basis o['tl-rc
clirtion stuclies coul'se
'l-asks I ,2, 3, lurr()unt o1'tcxt. stnrcttrrecl by and the cornplcteness of those pattcrns. The
t2. Non-nativc-sPeirker rrniversity 4 137
:rrnlysis ol'thc intcrpropositional relations lvas performed by rnarkine in
sttrclcnts taking ir first"vciu
rvriting course (six clil'fcrcnt
lrrrrl corrnting all thc relatior-rs tlr:rt appearccl on the script. Tl-rc countccl
( )( ( rlrrcllcL's we re cornpared with thc percentage occurrences of the
ttrtori:rl gr()ul)s rlttt'itrq ottc
rvcck) irrlt'r'lrropositional rclations in the cosnitive genre rnodel (Table 4.5).
'I'lrc irrr:rlysis rvas pcrlirrrnccl lry tlrc rvriter as t.he rescarcher but, on
13. Nirtivt'sPcltk<'t trrtir'<'t siIv sltt 'l-irsk : I
rlt rrls t;rkiut ,t lit.l rr';tt tttti- r('(llr('st, s:rrnpl<'s ol'tlrcr intcrltr'oltosit-ionirl rclation analysis werc checked
r,'r'silr litrgttistir s ,,,tnst' p<'tsotltllv lr\' \4,'it,','t.',, (lrrrttrlrit' ((ir-6rrrltiq l9tt$, 1987), and re-analysis orr
lt N:rlirl s;x :rlicr trttirctsilv sltt- 'l .rsl. tlrt' llrsis ol lrt'r li'r'rllr:r< k rvlrs pcrlilrrr<'rl.
(l( nl\ Lrlinl'.r litst rr'.tt tttti
rlr sitr l'.rrr,,lislr lir,rttrttt,tt 'l'hr
.litttlittys:,,littt I
i irlll\r'
'\irrr I r'. lo rlrllt nnn(' llrc crlcnt to rvlrir'lr llrc orglrnizlrliorutl li'lttttnrs
l)t('\( nt rr! tlrr ',,rrrr1rl,., .l rrtltrrrl' rolllrrtnt l() lltosc irlcrrtilitrl irr tlr<'
 t04 ACADE\,{IC Wlil't'tN(: A\1tr ( it Nl{t, ( ]O(;NITIVE C;E,NRNS IN ACADEMIC WRTTING 105

proposccl protot)?e rno(lels of thc [irrrl t ogrritir'<' l]('rlrcs that are the foctrs
of enqtriry.
The prcdiction that, givcn thc rlr<.lolir':rl l)ull)()se of a particnlnr Table 4.8: Oorrrlxrrison of the overall protot)?icality ratings of teachers
coqnitive genre, writtcn rliscotrrsc tllrl sr'<'ks to lirltil that purpose will and native-spcakc'r' sttr<lcnts
crnploy the organizational feattrre s of'tlr:rl < ogrritivt' gcnre moclel, appears
)r'cral I I I lighll 2 N,lorl<'ratclr 3 l.t'ss .l Not
t<> bc confirrnecl. The Iinrlines inrlic:rtt'tlr<'olrt'r'rrtiorr ol'a prototypc ell'cct )rotot\l)i(:irlit\ Itrr rtolrrrir:al l)rotoroir:al PrototvpicaJ Ilrotot!Dical
)cs<:riptors Nrrrtrlx 'crcenlag( l_rrrnbt'r o Percent:rgt Nrrnrber ol Percerrlage
r Percenlage
oi sarnDle
Table 4.7: Total over:rll prot()typic:rlity r':rtirrgs [irr cach snrnple
'i?porl
't'n< ltt rs I lti'.0q,, t:, 52.07o 8 32.0%
(25)
)r'r'rall I flighll ? Mo<k'ratt'lr ll Lcss .l Not
)r()lot\l)i( rlit\ il ll(l('I ts J 20.0% l0 40.07o l0 40.0q(,
l)r()f()r\1)i( al l)rotol11 rical I'r ()l()l\'l)i(.rl l)rot()t\I)ic:rl 25)
)t's< riplors Nunrlrr ol [tercerrtaqr ccrrtirgr' Nrrrrrlr'r'o
Itcr 11 r(( ntag( Nurnber ol I'ercentlge 't'ac hcr
ol s:rrnrrle
ti 26.O(j'o l.l tit.0% \:1"0%, 1.0%
ol s:trttlrlc ol slrtrtrle ol slrtttrle ?:l)
'Vfnilt ;+ 3.5To 20 2li. i\t'/,' 2H 23 3O.i>c/o til(l('Dts t2 -r2.0%
r'3.0?'a 6 26.0% 2 9.04,1
sarrr;rlt' of 7ir) 23)
l+ -e:t<
t'1.0%, 27 ?,9.Ot), l1) 20.it()',; lrt r l2 50.\Yo I lli.it'% f,l 33.5o/o
sarnplc ol {i{)) 2.1)
l{) 26.19/r' 7.0% t7 3l {'3.0% itrrclcn ts 1 2(.1.07c, 4.5(h 9 37.57o 7 2(.1.Oo/o
stntp)<'o1 72) .2.1 \
27 '31i.0(/. l3 l7.:->(/o l:l t7.5V(, 2tl.07o 'caclrt rr 1li 24.0c/,,
64.07o r) 3 12.\Vc'
sarrrplc of 75) 25)
itu<lcrr ts il 41.07o 28.0%, 7 28.\o/a
1t5)
(Rosch 1975). That is, the responses can be classificcl on a continulun -
frorn being rnore typical (rlisplayinu close aclherence to the features of the
rnoclel) to lcss typical (clisplaying lcss freqtrent use of features of thcr The findings: Aim 3
rnodcl). This operation of a prototype effect in relation to thc use of Airn 3 lvas to cleterrninc whether, ancl to wlrat extent, the organizational
ccrgttitive genre proccdural knor,vledge in the organization of: writtcn lbaturcs usecl by inexpcrienced writers cliffer in the case of native and non-
rliscourse :rppearecl consistently throughotrt the firtrr dill'crcnt samplcs. nat.ivc spe:rkers of Englislr.
The prototypicality r:rtings lirr the ftrur sarnplcs (sholvinp; the prototypc The finclings from the analyscs of the three types of organizational
elfcct) :lre sulnrnllrizc<l in Table 4.7 fbllowing. knowleclge and their cornbined overall prototlpicality ratings indicate
Wrether or not thc closer adherence of a responsc to the hlpothesize<l tltirt, in :rll four sarnples, the nativc-speaker student groups producecl
prototype and its fcattrres (such as in the rcsponscs that rvere assignc<l Iosponses that were closer to the prototype (cognitive genre) model than
f)escriptor 1 - highly prototypical) providcs cvidence of greater expcr-i llrosc of the non-native-speaker student groups. In the case of Report, the
ence in writing was the focr.rs of the seconcl ancl thircl parts of the sttr<ly. rlcgrcc of adherence to the prototype rnoclel by the two groups was closer
llr:rn lirr the other three cognitive genres. A possible reason for the closer
rlt'grec of aclherence to the Report prototype by the non-native-speaker
The findings: Aim 2 lir'()uJ) could lte the fact that alrnost all mernbers of the group had taken
Airn 2 was to cleterrnine whetlter, :rncl to rvhat extent, the orraniz?tti()nlrl tlrc Ilil,TS tcst as a n)eans of entry to the university. Their preparation fbr
feat.rtrcs iclenti{ied in the rnt>tlel <li1ltr in the case of texts rvritten by rrrort llrt'lirst rvritins task of tlre test rnay have influenced their response to the
expericnccd an<l less expcricnccrcl native-spe:rker writers of Englisll. l{r'1rolt task. Thc overirll prototypicality ratings showing the diflerence
In all four sanrltlcs, llrc cxpcrienced r,vriter trr()ul) (nativc-spt.lkcr lx'l\'v('('il tltc rc:sPonscs 0f tlrc two groups are indicated in Table 4.9
lr':tcltcls) lrtotlrtr'r'tl n':,il)()ns('r,i llt:rl rvcn' (lrlst'r lo lll(' llt()l()lyl)r' (r ogtrilirr' lollorvirrg.
ut'rltr') Irto<lt'l tlt:ttt tltos<'ol llrt' lcss t'x1rt'r'icn< <'rl (rrlrlivr'-s1rr':rkcl slrrrlcrrts)
llr()ul).'l'lr<'<lilli'r<'n( ('l)('t\v('(^n llrc lt'sporrst's ol tlrc l\\'() lll()ul)s lo llrc lirru
l;rsks is sltow'rt irr'l:rlrlr' 'l.l'j lirllorving (irrrlir:rtirrpi llrc ovcr;rll lrrolotr,;rir';rlitr
r;rlitrlis,tsst1,111,1 lo lltt' tt'slrottst's).
 l0(; \( ,\llt,.Nll( i\\'litItN(; \NtI LI Nlil
( ]( X]NITIVE (;t.]N RI]S I N A( ]ADEM I(] \\rRIlIN(; t07
Tablc 4.9: (lolrrPlrrisotr ol Prolr)l\,1)i(:tlit\. l:rtirrgs ol tr:rl_ivc_speakcr (NS)
strr<lcrr t.s rrl rorr-r r:rl ivesPr':rl.r.r' cognitive gcttrt' ttto<lel in thc ove rall stnrctlrring of icleas, the or{rarliz-ati()p
:rr r (N NS) st u( l(.r r ls
of larger sccti()rrs ()l- tcxt, alrcl tl)e choicc of interpropositional relati()ns.
)r't r nll I lliglrlr :t l,(.ss ,1 Not
Furtltermore, tlrc'idea that the f-eattrres of each cognitivc {renrc c()nstitutc
l'rrrlolr uir
'rotot_v1tic:rlit1
)cst rilttors
;rl |'t ( )l( )t\I)i( al l)r( )k)l\'t)i( ll an actual prot()ryl)c appears to bc supported by the probability that
Nrrrrrlr. Itcrt cnllrgc Nrrrrrlx ll l t rrIlrqc Ntlrrh
ol ol r:rrllrlc ol
r

ol slrrrrpll (n
r' Itlceltage Nrrnrher I'erccl tagt: rnastery of thesc cosnitive patterns relatcs to expcriencc an(l levcls of
ol sanrltlt (,1 ol slrrrrltle
proficiency in writin{r. Evidence for this is pror,iclecl by thc fhct that
'.15 NS 20.0(n, l0 1(\ Oq, t1) 10.0('tr, difl'erent levels of'prototypicality in relation to the tasks nere inclicatccl in
15 NNS 30% to
the responses of tllc three sarnple groups. Gene rally, expcriencccl writcrs
1tJ.uq, l:,] i2.o(r"
producecl responscs that were closer to tl-re prototype than incxpericnced
]3 NS 3 t'a.o(/(, l2 i>2.07,, 6 26 0c1 t.0% writers, ancl inexpcrienced native-speakcr writers proclucccl nlore proro-
f uder) ts
NNS
typical res ponses than inexperiencecl n o n-nati\,,e-speaker r,r,ri tcrs.
13 1.0(),o tl 18.0(n, ll 18.0')/o
tu(ieD i\ Flowcver, it must be acknowledged that findinqs liorn thc seconrl stpcly
,j
t,l Ns :it.07, 1.:.'/1, ?{).07 are indicative rather than concltrsivc in that the sub-jccts who cornplctccl
each of the four tasks werc frorn sarnples of convenicnce ancl not
tr rrlen t

!I NNS
l1 t{)().07.
randomly selected frorn a larger population, ancl that thc analysis of the
I5 NS il 11.t)(/. :s.()% 7 '13.t)1? writinrr samples was largely perforrned by thc writer as the researchcr. A
tu(lcnts
further limitation of tl.re study r,vas that, for lcxristical reasorrs, cach
15 NNS ti.(\(,1,
tudeD ts
:.] fJ3.()',;, cognitive genre was investigatcd by collecting and exanrinintr responscs to
only one task.
Yet, if (as the Rndings of the sccond sttrdy appcar r() suggest) kn.lvlcrlgcr
of and ability to Llse cognitive {renres relate to the level of discotrrsc
4.8 Conclusion proficiency of writcrs, consideration then neecls to be given to hor,v tlris
type oI'knowleclge can be incorporatecl irrto ther syllalns, materials alr(l
'l lris < llirptt:r began by revier'ving pedauogy of lvritins instrttction, ancl thc stage of lcarning at rvfiicfi p6r,ice
the approaches of a nurl5er of tlre.rists
lr I llt<' sll'tl( ttlrecl natllre of exte nclecl r'vrittcn cliscoursc,
writers should be introducecl to this type of knor,vlcclgc.
stnrcttrres tlrat In relation ro rhe tcaching of lvritins to pre-university (ge'eral EAp)
;rl)lx'lu lo n'llrtc to cognitive theories of tlre organization of knor,vlcdgc.
llsirrg llrt'lrt'ttt'lttttnrk of Biber's corpLls invcstisations of extcnclecl rvrittel writers, chapter 5 considers cognitive qenres in rclaticln to languase
rlisr,rrrsr', rlrt' r'lrlrptcr then re'iewecl a rargc ol appr'aches to thc lcarning theory and cttrricttltrrn clesigrr, anrl excrnplifics a syllabtrs unit
r lrrssilir':rri,rr .I rlisr'ourse for peclagogic pLlrposes, designecl around a particular cognitive gcnre - tlrat of Report. l,atcr,
notir]Ef that thc, Oltapter 7 consiclers the incorporati()n of both cosnitivc gcnre and social
tlrx,rr,rrri.s l)u r li )rwllr(l re late to cognitivc rather than social genres.
Ilris rcvicrv:rlso lcr,<'rrlcrl tlrat cxisting peclagouic approaches to cliscoursq gcnrc knor,vledge in the context of a r,vriting course fi)r postgra(lu:rte
r l;rssilir:rli.rr rrst' ;r
rlisscrlation writers.
r:r'gc of terminologies, often overlappi'g irr
It'tttts ol tlrcir'olti<'t ls'vi<lt:
ol r:tt<1niry. The result of this is tl-rat tlerc iras bert,rr
rro corrsislcrrt ()t (.()llllt()rr approach to peclag()gv.
lrr tlr. rlri.rl Pir.r .I tlr. chapter, a rnodel rvas prop()sed to identily tlr.
Iogrrilivr'8('lll('s lll:tl ilrc cotrtmonlv employe'd in rvrittcr-r uc24crrri<.
rliscorrrsr'. lrr |t'llliorr t() tllc nr()dcl, tw<l stuclies \,vere reportctl
strnlv ol Prrlrlislrr'<l :rtirrlcrrric texts, and a srln/ey and an:rlysis ol'writirrt
-:l (.()r[)qri
l;lsks Iiottt llrrcc rlifli'rtttts:uttplcs ol'r,vritcrs. Tlrc lirrrlin{rs Iiirrrr llrt.r'or.prrs
slrrrly lrPpr''rr lo irrrlir.lrlt'llr;rt <.oerrilivc, or.elrrizlrtiorr:rl sll.ll(.Illr.(.s (rcl;rlcrl
l, t lrt l,r it lrl l)rll)()s(' :rrrrl rlr<' ltllllr'(^ .l'rrrt' ri.rr.rr,r.rrg<.}l<.iru l1,l)r.(.ri(,rl(,(l)
:ll)l)('itt lo lrt'r^rrrlrloVr'<l irr (()nsisl(.nl rv:r\,s in llrr.rrritirrB ol r<.rl;tilt l\/l)(.s ()l
:r(;r(l('ilrir 1r,,sc irr l,rr1,lirlr. Irr rlrr.sr.r(,rrl \rril\ rlrr..,.rtrr1rlr.s ol l(.sl)()ps(.\
lo r'.trlr ol lltl.liirrr t:rsLs irrrlir;rlr.rl;rtrllt.rn,, r1ril,,t.,ti rrt tvrllt llrr.;rrolrosr.rl
 Chapter 5: I{clating cognitive genres to the teaching
zrnd learning of writingt

5.0 Introduction

In Chapter 4, a model was proposed as a way of operationalizing the

cognitive genres that occur in acaclemic prose. The aim of this chapter is
to relate the proposecl cognitive genre model to language teaching and
learning, and in particular to the development of discourse competence in
academic writing. In the first part of the chaprer, the cognitive genre
constrlrct is discussed in relation to the dual processing theory of larrguagc
learning ancl language use, along with its capacity to extend the cognitivc
and metacognitive resources of novice r,vriters. Following tl'ris scction,
principles that ougl'rt to constrain the design of general English lor
Acadernic Purposes (hereafter EAP) writing courses, such as at pre-
university or foundation level, are cliscussed. Translating the cognitive
genre model into a general EAP writing course syllabus is then considered
and finally a syllabus unit basecl on one of the cognitive ger-rres (Report) is
presentecl as an exemplar for such a writing syllabus.

5.1 Cognitive genres and language learning theory

The focus of tl-re previous chapters has not been centrally concerned with
the operational processes involved in acquiring ancl using procedural
knowleclse to create academic discourse. However, the cognitive gerrres
proposed here may play a role in these processes and could, therefore, be
considered in relation to language acquisition models such as, for
cxamplc, the dual-processing model proposccl by Widdowson (1989),
wlro argues that:

f(irrnnruniczrtive cornpetence] is not a matter of knowing rules for the

<:orrrposit-ion of sentences and being able to ernploy such rules to
assc:rrrblc cxprcssions from scriltch as and when occasion requires. It is
ttttrr:lr rrrr>rc a rnatter of knowing a stock of partially pre-assembled
l)iltl('r'ns, firrrrrtrlaic liarrrcworks, ancl a kit of rt.les, so to speak, and
I Mrr, lr rrl tlris clrirpl<'t is rr'pt irttrrl ltortr llrr',y'rrlttrt.l,ul
hrg!,ish.,fitrArtr.dtnrri.r: l\trpo,st:s,
Voltttttt"l, Ilttt llt ttr'<', 'St'lllrlrrtr rllrigrr lirl gt'trcllrl l,lAl) <'orrrscs: lr <'ogrrilivt'
ltIl,t(,il( lr', pP, !il'l) 5(i, r i)l)(lrr, tvillt pr,t llirrinir li'orrr l,llsr.r,ir,r',
I l0 A(IADIIN{I(l \fl{l l lN(; \Nlr ( .l Nlil'
lteirrg altlc ro apltl-v the nrlcs lo rrr:rl,t'u'llrl<'r'cr a(ljustlrtcnts arc
lleccss:ul :tcc()r(ling t() c()lllcxtulrl rlcrrr"rrrrls. ( irttttttutticativet colltpc-
tcrrcc irr this r.ic'rv is csscntially 1r lrlrll('r ril :rrl:rPl:ttiotl, an(l rules are llot
gcrlcrativc, tltrt t'cgttl:rtivc an(l stll):i('tvit'tt1. (Wirltlor,vson, 1989, p. l35r)
\\ticldorvs<lr sugqcsts that rrrtrclr ol rvlurt :r rr;rtirt spt'ukcr knorvs of his,/hcr
lurrgtrage is in tlrc Iirrrn <tf :rcluptulrlt: lt'xi<:rl < lrrnrks. IIe notes tltat this carr
bcrelateclt()tllcpr()posalbyPurvlt'1':ttrtl Slrk't (l1)1t3,p. 192) tllatanativc
sp<,'aker o{'Flnqlish rlr:nvs on scvcral lrrrrr<lrr'<l llrottsitttcl ol'rvlt:rt thcy rcfer
to as'lcxicalisc<l scntetrcc stcllls'. For llrc st'<otttl nsPcct ol- the cltral-
proccssin1J rnorlel, Wiclclorvsorr sll{-{{rcsts tlr:rt tltc ntlcs of {rrarlllltllr arc
applie<l to {it lexical chlttrks into ccrtairt (()rrl('xts.
Skelran (1996) rcviervs a rilngc ol- cosrrili\'(: ltltproaches to lirngtt:ruc
lenrnilg, apJrroaches tlrat hc suggcsts also appclrr t() strPPort thc cluitl-
ltrocessilru tno<lel that Witldolvson (1989) l)r()P()scs. In clealing witl-r the
issuc of rvhether le:rrning takes placc cotrsci()tlsly or rttrconsciotrsiy, he
n()tcs that thcrc appears to l>c acctrmulzrt.irtg cvi<lcttcc (see a rcvielv in (larr
and Ourrcrr, 1994) that cxplicit le:rrnins of stnrctrrrctl rnaterial is gencrally
srrpcrior to implicit lcarnins, suggcsting tlrat alv:rrcttess of thc lc:trrtitrs
itself :rncl of wlrat. is to bc lcarnecl conf'crs advantages. ln rcvicwins tltc
issue of ho'w sccotrd-l:rngrtagc lerarners actually lcarn langrtage, Skchan
(1996) clralvs attcntion to stuclics that inclicatc that this ittvolvcs both thc:
incltrctiort ol' trnderlying abstract ntlcs ancl the lcantin5; ol' exernplars,
citing thc stttrlics ol' Matther'vs, Bttss, Stanley, Blancharcl-Fields, Cho anrl
Drtrhan (1989) an<l (larr iu)(l (lttrren (1994), which point to both
stnrcturcd le:rrnirrg att<l t:xctrtplarJrased learning oPcrating syllcrgisticallv.
In consirlcring the isstrc of horv ktrowleclgc ttf'lanstrasc is fltrcrltl1,-
:rppliccl in sitrtirtions of :rctrtal ttse, Skchatr (1996) savs that:
Instancc-]>ased] :rpproirchcs (l,ogan, 1988; Roltinsotr antl IIa, 1993)
rcgarcl flucncy as per{orrnancc r,vhich is basecl not ()lt rtrlcs rvl'rich art'
applied rnorc qrrickly n()r ()n rules wlriclr are lnore eflicicntly org:rnizcrl,
but orr c()ntcxtu:illy-co<lcd cxcrnplars rvhich firnction ns tttrits. Strclr
units (rvlrich rnay ltc significantll'lonser than a wor(l) are thc J:rorlrrct ol
prcviotrs rulc ap1;lications tlrat.:rrc n()w stored in cxctrtplar Iirrltl, :ltttl str
re<lrrilc llrr lcss processirrtt cal)acity bccarrse tltcl'arc rctricvctl attrl ttst'tl
3s rvholcs. On tlris vicrv, lcarning is tlle rcsrtlt ol'ittslitttce cr(ttlti()tl, illt(l
perlbrrrrrrrrce (ancl thc cnstrirre fltrcrrr:y) tlrc rcsrtlt oI ittstutttc trst'. (1r.
14)
II t[c lcrlrrtrirrg 1ll sl;rr< lrrn'<l rrr;rtr^r'i;rl is :rrlr,:rrrlltut'otts itt sct ontl l:tttgtt;ter'
Itt'tlttisitiott, lls lll('sltl(li('s ol Nl:rlllrt'ls r'l rtl (11)ll1)t ert<l (lltrt :ttttl (lttttt tr
(l{)1)l) ltl)l)(':u l() \u1,1'(sl, it rvoulrl sct rn llt,rl tlr, ltlr,s ol littorvlt'tlt',t
irrr lrrrlcrl irr llt, ,,,1,rrititr' 1,,r'ttrc tttt,tlt l ltl.t\ lrl,rvirll llrc lr:tsis l,,t
t,,r'rrcr.rliz.rl,l( rlr',! "ur',r lt.ttttltr,,rl.., llr.rl (,ttt lrr' , 'tt1,l,t\,,1 itr 1rt rl.r1'r1,,,,
( ;OGN TTN,T, ( ]ENRI.,S,\ NI I'f I.]ACHING WRIIIN(; 111
contcxts. Sttclt iut :rpproach rvoukl 1rl)pcar to be consistent with the cltral-
proccssing rnorlcl of lancrrage acquisition and trse.
In rclation to storecl exernplar-basc<l knor,vledge, it is proposed here that
the cliscoursal stmctrlrcs of coqnitivc genres could be learned and
retricrrcrl in relation to their rcspcctive types of general rhetorical
pttrpose. Thus, lbr exarnplc, the discussion cognirive genre, which has
the rhetorical purpose o1'organizing knolvlcdge in relation to possible
or-ltconles, conclusions or choices, cotrlcl inforrn thc planning of courscs
:rncl tlte creation and selection of cotrrse rnatcrials relating to cliscursive
argurnent. The cosnitive detail lrom the studics reported in ChaJrtcr 4
secm to indicate that, in prototypical exarnples of this type of discourse,
overall argument.s and elernenls of arguments are grouped contrastivcly,
the actual organization of the written text employs a Generalization-
Exarrrple stnlctrlre and, at a illore specific level, the discourse is frequently
orsanizecl by thc interpropositional relations relating to contrast and
catrsation. In rcl:rtion to the induction of underlying abstract rulcs, tlrc
range of' stnrctures for realizinu the predominant interpropositionul
relations within thc disctrssion cognitive genre could pnovicle the {ircrrs Iirr
the linguistic content - {rranllnar, syntax, and the lneans o[' :rclricvirre
cohesion within cliscourse.
Frrrthcrrnore, Devinc (1993), in considering the rolc of' m,et,a.r:otltti!iott in
the areir of second language writing, suggests t.hat there is a neerl to:
fexpand thc knolvleclge base to] provide explicit inforrnation about the
rolc of metacognition in second language writins. First, since the ability
to rnonitor any t:rsk depcnrls in large part on the extent and
:rppropriateness of the knowledge basc, L2 writins rcscarcirers might
clircct rrrore attention to that knowledge b:r.se. (Devinc, 1993, p. ll8)
'IIrc cogrritivc {renre nroclel proposecl here may contribute to the type of
rrrct:rcogrrit.ivc kno'lvledge that Devine reI'ers to as procedural (Paris, Lipson
lrrrrl Wixon, l!')83, in f)evine, 1993) and rvhich she clefines as 'knolvleclge
:rbout lrorv stratesies can be employecl' (p. 106). Sirnilarly, Wcndcn (2001)
irrclurlcs in lrcr description of the types of rnetacognitive knowledge
crrtl;l<ryc<l lry sccorrd lansuarJe users a catc[Jory callecl ,aslr ltnoutledge, it
rvlriclr catcsory she irrcludes 'knor,ving about a task's dernancls' which
'irrt lrrrlcs krrorvirrs r,vhat knor,vleclge and skills are requirecl to do a
l)iuti( ulirr t:rsk; lrorv to go about doing it; its anticipated level of difficulty;
:rtrrl :rrvlrrt'rrt'ss ol t.lrc lcarning plan that is the outcome of their analysis of
tlrc t:rsk's <l<'nlrrrrls' (p. 46).
'llrt' rrt'r'rl lirl rrovict' wlil<'r-s lo llc ulvlrrc <lf procctlural and task
l.rr,rvlcrlgt':rls. rrppt.rrrs l, lrr.srrplrortcrl lrv Ilirrkcl (2002) who, on thc:
l,.t.is ,rl .ut r'\l('nsi1r' ,,rrlnl\ lt\i \ttl'.tlt()tt (tl lltt' r,r'titirrg 6l tt<llt-t1tli1t'
:i:i;::':,:,,:l':ll:;l:""1,,'',';,",i::',':::';1',1:i',. i::,1', 1'::,",lli,"ll,ii,,l'l;:1,',,1,,i::.ll::i
112 ACAI)l.lMI(l \ rRI'IlN(; '\NIt (;l'lNl{l'l
text' (pp. 261-2),:rncl should bc provitlt'tl rvitlr ollporttrrlities lirr lvriting
practice in the use of srtch fcatttres. A sirrrilrrr vicr'v is cxpresscd by Reicl
(2001) rvho, in aclvocatins a genrelxtst'tl rrlrprrrach lbr thc tcacllirlg tll-
acaclernic writing, says th:rt lbr non-nativ('-sl)('rkcr stu(lcnts 'thc rleccl f firr
these types rif knolvlccleel is critical bcc:rtrsc: tlrcy oftcn havc littler or tro
acquaintance r,r'ith such functions arttl firrrrrs lry lvhiclr rvritcrs lirlfill tlrc:
linguistic and rhetorical expectatiotts ol'tltc acatlcmic attdierrrce' (p. 153).
Two approachcs to implemcrrtine tlris tv1-rc of lnctacosrritive aPPr-oach
in the teaching of r,vriting arc those proposctl lly Flowcrtlerv (1993) ancl
Raclger ancl Write (2000). Flgwerclcw (1993, P. 309) susgests a ratrse ol'
activities cncourasing stuclent analysis of (social) genrcs in orrlcr t<l
develop a consciolls awarelless of ancl pr6{iciency i1 the rtse ol' genrc
knorvledge in their rvritinp; output. Badger ancl Write (2000) ptrt fi)nvar(l
wlrat tlre,v tcrrn a proccss genrc ol)proaclr. This involves the use o1' getrre
knolvlcclge as the basis for rvriting instrtrclion, suclr knowleclger lleirre
presentecl by nteans of 'a clenronstration by a leacher or other skillcd
writer, p<lssibly accornpaniecl by a coltrntcntal' attenrl)tit)g to explain tlrc
mental proccsses tl'rat undcrlie thc exercise of lhe skill' (pp. 159-60)'
Thus, in ternrs of one reccn1 approaclr to languagc learning ancl
proccssing-rclatecl cognition (the drral-processing rnoclel), co{nitivc genre
knowlcdge may provide a ltasis for cleconstntctittg ancl rccollstrttctitlt{
excrnplar texls to Llllcovcr, acqttire ancl practise procctlttrirl knowlcdgc irr
rclation to acacletnic r,vriting turcl, tlrcreby, contribnte to thc kinrl o1'
rnetacognitit'e knowlcdge ltase that Derrinc' (1993) sug{IcsLs is ueccssary to
ludvnnce the tcaching of secrtncl-lan{rtl2lgcl writiIIq.
5.2 Principles of curriculum design for general EAP courses
This section cliscttsses issrtcs relating to t[e clcsigr-r ol' c1-1trrses rv[6sc
prlrpose is to preparc stuclents to nlcet tlre reclttirerltctrts ol- aca(lcmic
writing, sucl) as in pre-sessitlnal or fbunclation cotlrses. Prc-sessional EAP
rvriting courses, strch as senior scconclary scltool an<l fixrnclati<-rn strrrlics
corlrses, cannot mcct letarrler nceds in tcrrns tll'a single tlisciplirre-spcc ilir
focus. For ex:rmplc, [hey cannotjust Iirctrs on thc- tcxts ancl Pra(:lic(]s ()l
business, or humallities, or sciellcc - nnlcss of coursc il is knorvrr that lll
the students .rvithin tlre errtup rvill be stuclying irr only one ol'tltosc ltt-crts.
In relatiol tcl t|eir- laniltr:tgc clcycltlpnrcrrt lintl thc pcrhrrttttttttlc o1't <'t-lrtitt
types of tasks, stu(lcltts at tllis lcvcl nc:er<l t.o lrc g:rirrirrq gt'ttt't ic, prot t'<lttl:tl
knorvlc<lt1c nrtlrt'r tllur l<>pi<-r'orrrrcclcrl, <list ilrlirtc slrt'r ilit lirtou'lctlQr'.
Spccifirlrlly it is pr'olrosr'<l llrrl srt< lt (()ur':i('s ttt ctl lo lr.ttc u'lt:tl \\Iirlllotvsott
(1l)tt:]) r't'li'ts l, lts il ri,l///'rrtt1/r'lirttts llllrl t,,,,1 t,, l', rr)ll((trrt'<l rvillr
<l6r'r'l6lrirrg llt(' l\'lrt's ol 11t'ttt'tltl 1,t,r,t'rlttt.rl Irr"trl''11'r' 1"' l( l( ls l() il\
(rtllll)(l(ll(i
tttltttrill', rvlrirlr rr'l,tltr rlosll\ lo lltc ttoltrrrr t,l ,lt,,rllt',(
rrrlrorlurr.rl trr (ilr.rlrlr.r I llrr., .,r'r lirrrr lil1rlr' I tlr, 'r't'iltlt\r' t'( llli
c(xlNITIVlt (]ENRI,.S ,\Ni) t L\( I ilNO \\rtil-flNo il3
constrllct irs t.ltc l)asic unit arotrrr<l rvlriclr gcrrcr:rl llAP writing cour.scs nluv
be clesignctl. flrc next sccti()n ()rrtlincs possiblc wavs in rvhiclr thcr
cognitive gcnrc rnoclel can provi<lc tlrc lrirsis lbr a sener:rl FlAp cotrrse
syllabus ancl tlrc final scction o1'tlrc clr:rptcr provides an exarnplc s,vllabtrs
unit.
In catcsorizins so-called llrrglish for SJrccific Purposes (E,SP) cotrrscs,
Wicldor,vsorr (1983) cliffercntintes bcr\\'cen nanrnu-angb and uide,a,nsb
cotlrscs, clepentlinu on tlte dcgrce of spccificitv of thc airns of'tlrc corlrsc:
'By ainrs I nrean the ptrrposes to r'vhicli lcan-rins r'vill be ptrt irftcr the cr-rrl o1'
the cotrrsc' (widdowson, 1983, p.7). llanozu-rntgle corlrses arc esscntiull)'a
training exercise to 'providc learners lvith a restrictccl colnpetencc t()
enable them to cope with clearl,v clefincd tasks' (p. 6). The spccific rypers of'
langtrage tlsagcs requirecl to I'trlfil the tasks bcconre thc irinrs o1'the cotrrsc.
On the otlrer hancl, a uiclc-u,rcle course is close r to uencral-ptrrposc llnglislr
cottrses, n4-rich 'seek to providc lcarners with a gcneral capacity to crurlrlt,
thern to cope rvith undefine cl cvenl.tralities in the lirttrrc" (p. (;).
Ftrrthermore, in dcscribins the rrnclcrlyine typcs ol'knorvlcrlsc :rrrrl skills
that are thc focus of ESP corlrscs, wi<klorvson (1983) also rrurkt's :r
distirrctiorr ben'vecn rvhat he calls com,pctntce antcl r:u,lnl:it1,. IIt'rl<'firrcs
competence as'the speaker's knotvlcclge ol- the lansuasc: sysl(.rrr ... lris
knowledgc also ol social rtrles which det.errninc tlrc uppr'oplirrlc rrst' ol
lingnistic fcrrrns" (rr. 7) ca,pa,city, {)n the othcr lran<1, is rlcIirrc<l ls 'tlr('
ability to crcate rneanings by exploiting thc p()lcntiirl inlrcrt'rrt irr tlrr:
language for continual rnodifrcation in responsc to clurrrsc' (p. 8).
Wiclclo'rvson stlggests that n:rrrow-anqle corlrscs lhat rercltrirc a restrictcd
repertoire oI'languaue are cssentially a tr:rinins excrcise in <lcvelopinu a
cor]]petcnce in the trsc of forrntrlaic languauc to pcrftrrm specific
Purposes. An exarnplc of this could bc English fcrr air tritlfic controllers.
In contrast, wicle-anqle corlrses givc 1':rr more irttenti()n t() rlcr,'clopinu a
capacity to cxploit thc social and linqrristic aspects ol- langtrauc c.()urpc-
Ir:ncc in ways that canlrot bc specifically iclentifiecl in tlte :rinrs:
'Ihc purposcs in ESP are arrange<l alons a scirle of specificity rvith
training at. one encl and cducation at the other. As one lnovcs along tlre
scltlc in thc dircction of etlucatit)n, ()nc has to itcc()unt increasinglv f6r
tlrc <lcvcloprncnt of capacity, ancl at the sarrrc tirne, one h:rs tcl tirke into
t ortsirlcration tltc peclauogic problenr of establishinu objcctives r,vlrich
:rrc projc:r:tions of l'inal aims. At tlrc trainir-rs end of tlre scale , ol]jcctivcs
lrrrrl :rirns r'vill convcrgc into closc corresponclence an<l rvill scck tcr
irrrp:rr-l lcstlittt:rl ('()lnpctcl)cc. At the cclucatiorr enrl of the scalc rvill
( lrrsl('t ( ()lllri('s of' Iirrglislr lirr lrca<lcrnic prlrposcs r.r'lrich reqrrirc tlte
rl<'r'r'lopnrcrrr ol < ornrrrrrrrit rrrivt' c:apacit,v arr<l whiclr rvill call lor
1rt'rlltq,rl'i, rlcr isiotts in llt<' lirt ttrrrllrtiorr ol' olrjt'clivcts. At t[is cld 61'
tlrc srrrlr', l,.Sl'slr:rrlcs irr (ll'1,,. (WitlrL>u'sorr, l1)u:t, pp. l0-ll)
ll,1 A(i,\l)Ij\,{I(] \\rRI I lN(: ..\Nl) LI Nlll
Essentially, \Vidclorvson is proposirrg llt;tl tlrt'rr' :rrc rlillcrcnt asPe(lts to bc
consi<lered in syllabus alxl corlrsc rlt'siqrr. llrr<lcr totttfttltnu:, he erotrps tlre
linelistic systcll), as r'vcll as tltc socli:tl tttlcs l,ir its rrppt-opriate rtsc; ttndcr
capru:it1 lre places the prrlce rlrtt-ltl littorvlt'r lut' r r'<lttirccl to exploit tl-re
collrPete rlccl elenicrlts elfl'cctirrclt' itt lt < ottslltttllt' r'ltlt'itlg r2rngc of contexts
cali|ratetl tO COnSI?Irltly changirre t:<tttttttttttit ltlivt' llttrlloses alrd tlseii:
Witlr r,vicle-angle corlrse clcsign, tlrc rrt'<'rl l() il( ( ()tlltt for the Procedllral
aspect of'learninS an(l use is rrrolc st'll:t'r,irl<'rrt. IIcre, tl'rc intention is
obviously not to qct sllldcnts to intclrrrlizt'llrt't.opical realizations, bnt
t() Ltse thern lor learning. it is thc pr()(oss o{ r'clating tlrese particular
realizati()lts to mo,rc {ot?ral 5chernatic sLf'ul:Lun' Irtty crnphasis] which is thc
celltral conccrll altd the ProcrLlss nrtrst. ... ittr,olvc procc(ltlral activit).
(Wiclclowson, 1983, p. 90)
A lurther issr.re that conf rol.tts clesigrrcrs ol-irrl-v llrtlgttagc c()tlrsc is tht: level
()r unit o['langu:rgc aroun(l rvhich thcy arc tti ll<l (]()nstrllcted. For exarnple,
many syllabuscs arct ()rgunizcd arotltt(l gr:lminatical iterns, 'basccl on tlle
prelnisc th:r[ lcarners ac(ltlirt'()ne grlilllltt:lt.ical itcln at a timc] ancl tllat
they shottlcl dclllollstr?rte thcir rnastery of ollc thing beforc nlovillg oll to
thc nexr' (Nunarr, 199{3, p. 101). Wilkins rernrs rhis kincl o[ syllabus a
syttheti.t: .s1llnltus, where 'the clillcrcnt parts ol- tlle larrgtl:rgc arc tatrght
separatcly all(l that acqtrisilion is ?I Process of' graclual
stcp-b,v-step s0
irccumulat.ion of tllc parts until lhc rvholc struct.tlrc of the l;rnguaue has
bccn builr up' (l976, p. 2). In n)oclilyirrs Witkins' (1976) definition of
svntlrctic syll:rlxrses, Wicl<lolvson points otlt th:rt the synthetic aPproacll
rrot only characterizcs 'the natlrre of ;ht1 content ol sYllabuscs alld c()llrses
tlrat lirctrs on teachillg thc strttctttres ol-:r langttaee in a lincar fashion, blrt
also svll:rlttrscs collccrned wit.h tl-rc renliz-aliotls of trlcaning rvhich :rrc
lslally clairneci to charactcrize thc notiorral/firrlcti()nal syllalrtrses" (1990,
p. 13tr). Tlrereforc the synthetic syllalns, l)e il. structttral or notiorr:rl/
functional, lvotlld appcar to ?lsstrlne that langtrap;c lcarning is a systc-matic
trn(l cllrlrllatirrc pr6ceSS. Ilor,vct'er, as Ngnan poittts ottt:
fl,earlcrsl do rl()t learn tlue tlrilg pcrf'ectlv, o1e itcm at ?r time . . . t|c
rzrte ol growth is deterrrtinecl by a complcx irltcrpla,V of factors related t()
spcecl'r pr()cessir)g constr:rints (Pienernann andJohnston, 1987), peda-
gogical intcn'cntions (Pica 1985), acquisiti()nal proccsscs (fohrlstorr
ittBT; anA the irrfluencc of the cliscotrrsal environrrtent in r'vhiclr tllt'
iterns occur. (Ntrnan, 1998, p. 102)
A fiu-tlrcr 1lrrrblerrr r,vit.lr tlrc syrrtlrctic is:tlso llrt'
syllalrrrs lqlptrr:t<'ll
c6rlplcxity <lf-lurrgrurl3r' its<'11, r'orrrplcxit,v irr lt'r rtts 'l tlrt rrrrrllilrlicity ol
il)t('r-t-(.llll('(l:i)'sl('l)l:i llr:rl:rrc t'rrglrgt'rl irr:rrrr silil.tlton ol:tttlltt'ttlir
llttrgrr:rqr' ttsr'. ,,\tttotttl olltt't t'lt tttt ltls, lltlrr' '.\'.1' rll, tlt.t\ itt, lttrlt
(l()()NI'ln'E Ol.lNRl.lS r\NIl i1..,\(tl IIN(; \ /t{tt'lN(l 115
t.llat arc <lcs< r'ilx'rl in terrns of plirurrr:rtics, st'rnurrtics, phrlnology or
ortlrograllhr', Ittot pltoloey, sylltax arrrl <list'orrrsc urutlysis. LJnclerlining tltis
itlcu of langulrgc :rs a corrrplex arrrl rrrulti-l:rcctc<l lvhole, Wicldorvsou says:
To iclentify s()tllctllirr!J us A c()rll)()rr('nt is to recognize tlrc operational
cornplex a.s a wltolc in rvltich it firnctions as a part. lf analysis isolirtes
elelncnts liortr tlris conrplcx, thcn it nlust deny thenr the lunctional
I'eatrrrers rvlrich nlone can givc thern tlieir conll)onent stu.turi. (1983, p.
84)
In crr<lcr to overc()rne tlte atornistic natlrrc ancl artificiality o{' the .syntltetit:
slllabu,s,Wiclclows.' (1990) r.rns ro Wilkins' (1976, p. 2) prop'sal lbr
anotlrer tvpe ol'syllal>us wlrich he ternrs art ana,\tir: syllabus, rvhich 'presents
latlsttagc as syrlthesiscd r-rnits to be an:rlysecl in the process of leantirre' (p.
13,1). Thus:
An analytic syll:rbus, on the otlrcr hancl, would not be l>ottom-up but
top-clorvn. That is to stiy, it woulcl prcsent langrr:rgc in the forrn of largcr
textttal ttttits:rnd set t:rsks of clill'crent kinds r.vhich rvould rlirect tlrc
lcalners' attcnti()rr to specific features, lbrrnal or tirnctional, of thc
languaue thcl' rverc exposerl to. Ar-ralysis lvotrlcl then bc inclrrccrl b1,
rneans of corrtrollccl proceclural work. (Wiclclor.vson, lgg0, p. 136)
lluthcr than fbllow thc convent.ional linear, synthctic approach to
languaee corlrse dcsigrr, widrlorvson proposes that clcsigncrs 'look lbr
rvltys of' cle{ining the :tirns ol' otrr sttrdents in cornrnunicative tcrrls lty
rlcvising a lrlc:ins ol artalysis lvlrich prescn'cs thc essen[ial rliscourse
li:rrl.rrres o[' lansuagc use' (1983, p. g0), tlris bcirre esscnrial to the
rlt'r,clopnrent of syllabus arrd coursc rn:rtcrials tlrat airn to clcvclop t.lrc
<list:ottrsc c()lllpetence ol'sttrrlents in relation to acaclernic r,vriting. This
rrt'crl to rctain lallgua{rc colnl)oncnts as firrrctioning I'cattrrcs of ir largcr
syiitclu, urrcl to:rvoid at()rr)istic approachcs to language teaclling, has becrr
tlrt'r-:rti<rrurlc Ibr thc v:rriotrs gcnn-based. appro:rchcs to laneuagc corlrsc
rlcsisrr arrrl tczrching (see Paltri<lec, 2001, Z00Z).
IIorvr:r'cr, tlrc cmcial isstre, uncl (as discusserl in earlicr chapte rs) 91e
lllrr ni't:s
'isc to rntrch confirsion, is r,vhetlrer it is a socia.l gcnrc or
r osttilivt' Q('r)l(' (:()ltst.nt(t tlrirt shoulcl providc the btrsic unit of a genre-
Irlrs<'<l s1,ll:rlrrrs, srrc:lr :rs:r sy'lllrlrrrs rlcsignccl frrr an ncarlcrlic r,vriting course.
'lllt'ltttstv<'t'tt'lltt<'s
lo llt<'lt'r't'l ol tlr<'rvlitr:t-s:tncl tltc contcxtof tlrc coursc.
ll lltc t otttst' is ptc st'ssi,tt:tl :rrrrl inlcr'<liscilrlirrtrry, ancl tlrc cliscourse
( ()ilrl)('t( D( (' lcV(.l ,l tlil rrrrtIr., is rr.l:rtit,<'lr, l<>rv, il is
1)r<lposc<l that
rol'ttiti\( t'('tttcs sltottlrl lr tlr', r'rrlr.rl lo( 1s:11(l slt6rrlrl ltrrl,iflt,llrc, lltsis
lot stll.tlrtts ttttils ,rl '.tt, lt .r |,,ur'.r ( )rr llr ollrr.r lr;rrrrl- il llrt' r.l:rss is
11,,ur,,1,,1;,,,,r,. ront,unnrr, \\rrr.r', ,ll,.trr,ltirry,irr ottr.rlisriprlirrr. tlrt,
llros,' rlt',,,,q11',.t1 1,,, tt', ol tlrr i i,lr!., ur r\ rr'\,,1\, l,,,tlr.,,r, t,rl,tttrl r 61,11j1itr.1,r.rrtt.s
 il6 ,\C/\I)EN{lC \\Rl't'tN{; /\Nr I ( ;l, Nt<t,
ol'tllc Particular ficltl ()r sul)ic:ct. arclr ()l llr<'rvlitt'r's. Sinrilarlv, higher-lcvcl,
interrclisciplinlrry lvr-it-inu cl:rsscs ulso rrcc<l to Iircrrs on lroth soci2rl llncl
costrit.ivc settre: kttott'lctluc. ((llr:rptcr (i lirllow'irrr-r (liscusscs appr()acllcs to
atralvsittg stlcittl gcttrcs, lrtttl Ohaptcr 7 pl-6r'irlcs ap appr6ac| t6 ipcsrll-
()ratill{r cogrritive arrcl social ge nre kll()wlcrlgc rvithin a hiehcr-levcl lvriting
c()urse.) It is proposcrl here tlrat, in c()rlrscs at. citller o1'the t1vo lcvels
<liscrtssc<1, the issrtc is onc o1'ccrrtral Iircrrs rathcr tlran a rnutuallycxclusive
clloicc ol'cogtritivc or soci:tl {rclll'(:. (lognitir.c qelrres arc ustrally crnbedrlcrl
:rs snrall strctchcs o['tcxt rvitltirr social gcrrrcs lurrl, thcrelirrc, cirn lxr
cxtractc<l :ttt<l stttrlit:rl itt rclation to ir larger tcxt c\/ell rvitlr relativclv low-
lcvcl rvriting cl:isscs. Tlrtrs, lcarlrin{r c()ntcxt and rvriter ncc<l irre really thc
dctcrrninurrts ol- tlrc ch<licc ol- gcnre f<rcus in ir pltrticular writil]!i corlrsc.
Ilorvcvcr, it is proposc<l lrcre tlrat tlre {irst stcp in tlre rlcvclopnrcnt ol- n
tliscoulsc conrpe tcnce lty lor,vcr-lcvcl rvritcrs involves rtr:rsterirrrt the tvpcs ol'
proccrlrrral knolvlcdgc tlrat cognitirrc {renrcs entnil.
\{lrilc arloptitrs arr anallticr, top-(l()\vn approircll to syllabus <lcsisn basc(l
ort soci:ll lrcllrcs tttit,v cnsttrc tlrat tlrc c()ntcxtual irncl disc<tursal clcrtrcnts
<rf' lrrrrr{rr:rec arc inclrrtlerl, suclr irs in thc \ext-ba.sul. approach to syllabus
rlt'siurr of'Rurns an<l .|oycc (1997) an<l Fccz (199s), it is sr.ill possible that
llrt' rrttltorttc tt{'sttr:lr arr appro:rclr lirr lclrvcrlct'el lc:rrners rn:rv bc ,na,rrorl-
irrrlifr'r'orrrPt'tt'rrcc-brrilrlinu (in tcrrns of langrragc uslrgc for sittr:rtiorr-
rP.r ilir ()nr( ()nr('ri lrrrrl Jlrrposes). For exarnple, Btrrrrs alclJoyce (l9g7, pp.
't"i tll, itr :tp;rtolt< ltitrU tlrc issrrc of sgcial
genrc-ltasccl sy'llultgs flesigp frrr
,,,ur\(.\ irrr,llirrg spcakin{ skills, rrse rr t()p-(lown lrp;tro:rch tlr:rt rnav bc
rrrrPlcrrrcntcrl rr'itlrorrt ovt'r'tlf irrcrtrporatinu a procecltrral, capacit,l.buil<l-
rrJ! {'li ur'nr. Il tlrc svll:rllrrs ()r c()ursc is a ttltrro.tr-nnglc otrc, such an
,rl'l,r".rr lr r' r.rrrst rlcsigrr rrLry lrt' cntirely approPriatc. Ilorvcr,cr, if tlrt'
'rrr"r' ", r'l " l, t lcrclr )l) :l nl()r'(' g<'rrcral 'capacity', ()nc that- is ttot sittration-
((
',;,r r rlrr ,u rlrsr rplirrc spcr'ilir', srr<'lr :rs, {irr exarrrplc, :r gcncr:rl EAp r,r'ritirrg
, ',rrt"( 1r'1' ,, Itc scssion:tl ot lirtrrr<llrtion coursc), a rvitle-arrqlc approaclr
r'' rl ,ltrrr'rl, llr.tt is. .ttr ;rp;rro;rclr llr:rt irrclrrcles a cogrritivc clrpacitv-l>triklinu
.l.tttcttl Ilris.rlsr) \rrqq('sls lllrl tlrt'r'c rrec<ls t<t bc a rcc<lnciliatirln o1''tlr<'
r,1rP'rirr1' ;rr rrrr iPlcs ol svrrtlrcsis lrrr<l analysis' (Wirklorvson, Igg0, p. l:l(j).
,\s.rrr.r.rrrrprlt',1 tlris rccrrrtili:rriorr, wiclclor,vson (pp. 136-7) 1;oirrts t,r
( ltrrtttlrit's (l1)S5) n'lrrlittrrrtl lr1r1-lrrxrclr to s1'llalrtrs rkrsiqn. Tlris altproirr.lr,
rllrir lr irrr lrrrlcs rrr:rt rrr P:rltt.r'rrirrg as u'cll as scnlantic rclat.iorutl stl.u(.tut-inq,
ittvolrt's ;t r otttltitt:tliorr ol'to1;-tlorl'rr lrrr<l ltottorn-rrp fircus (solrgtlrirrg llr:rt
rtottltl:tppt'ltt lo lrc n('('('ris:llJ/ if'lr <'rxrllitivc loolt is to lrc:rrr itrl>rrilt li'ulrrr<
,,1 st ll:rlrrrs <l<.sirt-n).
llrrrs. irr :r rli<lcrrrrqlt' lrt:rrlt'rrric n'r-itirrg c()lu'ri(', (lrc lircrrs is ,,rr
rlcrclopirrp nlr:rt \\'irlrlon'sorr ( l{)llli) tt'r-rrrs '<';rp:rcilr'' r'lrtll('l tlr;rrr 'r orrrpr.
t('rr((', :urrl slrcr ilir:rllr' 'r;r;r:rr irt' irr rt'llrriorr r() l)l()(r"ssinq ;rrr<l , rt.:rrirrl
< tlt lttl,tl rrrillcrt rlisrotrtsr'. llris irrcril;rlrlt irr\r,lrcs llrc rrsr'ol
;rrorcrlrrr.ri
Irt,,rr'l,,lt'r'rrr llt, ,.trt .l ,tt.ttlttttir tvtitirrri. l'rnllrrrrrr,rrr'. rl surlr.rrorrrs,.
l lo lrt ,ll ,,'111',t l,.t,t tl (rrrllr untl\ ( on\ltur t,,l .rr,,rrr,,l rrlrulr. lr.rlr) tl
( r( )(;Nn'I\.E (;ENtil.ts /\NI)'I ti.A(lHtNG w{lTING, 117
rtcccls [o lirctrs,n lr genrc constnlct tlrat is not socially recogrlizcd an(l
clisciplinc-spctili<. In support ol'thc <levclopment of this typc of inter-
disciplinarr ('()ursc, Bhatia (1998) tr()rcs tllat'to master thc power o{'
gcncralisati()ns rr('r()ss clisciplinary boundaries . . . one nccds a systcm of
lingtristic anirlysis u'lrich is powedill enotrsh to account fcrr the intricacies
of acadernic scnlc:s ircross clisciplines' (Bhatia, 19g8, pp. 20-1). Sirnilarly
Wicl<lorvson, in proposine thc wicle-angle, cap:rcity-developing nature ol
EAP cotrrscs, savs:
The challensc fbr a widc-ansle approach to ESP, thcn, is to ensrlre that
topics tlrat haver no clirect bcaring on aims are selected and presentecl in
such a way that, clespite their lack of specificity, thcy r,vill acrivare rhe
capacity fcrr lanuuage use and lcarninpJ. (Wiclclowson, 1983, p. 9l)
All of'this sussests that interclisciplinary corlrscs (such as Eieneral EAP
cotrrscs) necd a discotrrsc-frrcusccl approach to syllabtrs and coursc desigrr
tlrat rclatcs to ctxrnitivc {rcnres, onc that cornbines top-down an(l l)()lt()llr-
up :rpproaches in orclcr to clevelop c:rpacity as well as c()lnJ)ctcn(.('
(etrcortrirgirts learners to reapply procedtrral krror,vledge aborrt <liscorrlsc
in varying situations and forrns).
5.3 Relating cognitive genres to a syllabus design
'['lris section provirlcs a cliscussion of r,vays in whic]r thc cogrritivc
scnr.Lr
rrrodel proP()se(l irr Chapter 4 rnay provide the basis fcrr tlrc orsarriz.arion
.l' a general EAP syllabus :urcl particularly an EAP syllabus thirt has a
ct:ntnrl {ircus on the teaching of acaclemic rvritinc. In this section, the
<lillirctrt clcnlents of the morlel zrrc considercd in terrns of their roles
rvitltitr srtch a r'vritins syllalrus. I Iowcver, any clisctrssion of a r,vriting syllabus
(1urn()t bc consiclcrecl in isolation ancl will be relatcd to approaches to
lrrrreu:rgc learning,/acqtrisition thcory, materials devcloprnent ancl pecla-
8()s)'. Thc first section of tlris chaptcr ltas discussecl tl-re cognitive gerrrc
(()nstnlct in rcl:rtion to a tltcory of laneuage lcarning ancl language trsc,
;rrr<l rvit.lrirt tltis scction thcre is also some consicleration of the implications
ol stttlt a gcrtt'el>ascd syllabtrs lor the areas of'rnaterials clevelopment ancl
lrcrl:reogy; lrorvcvcr, consiclcration of lhesc tlvo arcas will be only in terurs
oI lrr i<.f illrrstllrtivt: cxarrrplcs.
Iisirre tlr('c,enitivc scrrrc nroclcl prcserntecl in chapter4, Table 4.5, tlris
scr tiorr n'ill rliscrrss;r to1><lo.rvrr :rpproaclr to svllabus clesign involving tlrt:
|)ro( ( ss('s ;rrr<I lr'1r<.s ol'krrol,r,lcrlgc r-clating t<t:
a
a
a
a
118 ACADIMI(] WRrl lN( I,.\Nl) ( rl Nlil' ( ](X )NITI\T (;I.]NRI.]S /\ N I) I'I.,4( :I IIN( ; \,VIIITIN(I ll9
Thus, cognitive gerrrcs provitle tltc t'xlt trtlcrl l:rrtgttilQc elltity arortncl
which the unils of a general EAP rvlitinll (()urs(' rtllty l>e organizerl. For Table 5.1: Proposal for a scncral EAP rvriring s1'llabus
exarnple, a particular cognitivc genrc llorrr lltt'ntotlcl ancl its cotlstiLttetlt
elements pror.idc a fratttework firr- tlrt'spr^r'i{i<:tlion ol'the types of Cognitivc gcl)re: rhetorical ptrrposc I'ossible rrnit airns fbr :r general EAI'
{iscoursal knowleclge to be locirtctl rvitlrirr:r sirrgle syllabus rrnit. In u,ritins syllabus
realizing snch a syllabns, authentic tcxtrurl s('l{rrr('rrts (inptrt tcxts) may be Il'count: Unit I
used as examples of cognitive genrcs lirl tlrc l)ull)()se of cx:rrnining ancl the presentation of clirta or infonn:r- Stuclents rvill be able to rvrite ir 20()-
cleconstructing the typcs of :rbstrzrct, pt-ot t'<lttr-ltl lirl<;r'vlcdqe o1'the rnoclel. tion that is essentially scquential or rvord chronological recour)t of events
(In the next sctcl-ion there is an exarrrl:lt'o[ lrrr ittpttt tcxt firr a ger-reral llAP chronolosical fiorn a t.imeline ancl other sourcc
inforrnatior-r.
syllabus unit basccl arouncl the rc1>olt r'ogrritiv<: genre - see Table 1-r.3 Unit.2
following). The cliffcrent constitr-lent lcvcls ol'krror,vlcdge of the cosnitivc Stuclenls rvill be ablc to rvrit.e a 200-
genre model enable a top-clown irpproaclr to lrc ctnployed in cxamining rvorcl chronological rccount ol cvcltts
and deconstmcting tl're input text. By ttsirrg tlris approach, Wicldowstln's lrom a eraph that clisplays scquenrial
idea of considcring language elcrnents ?rs J):tl'ts ol'a 'ftrnc[ior-ring wlrole' infonnatiorr.
(1983, p. 84) is not violatecl, and the ovcrall a1-rproach also accgrcls r'vith Rcporl: Unit 3
Skehan's (1996) iclea of cycles of an:rlysis and s,vr-rthesis within a rnodifiecl the presentation of data or infbrrna- rvill bc able to rvritc u 250-
St.trclents
task-basecl syllabus. tion that is essentiallv non-seqtretrtial u'ord reltort dcscribing non-scc1 rrt'n t ilrI
cl:rta fiorn a clal:r lirblc.
Unit 4
St.rrclents rvill bc ablc to rvlitt' lr 25(!
: rhetorical purpo se
Ou erall syllab us obj ectiues
rvorcl rcpor-t clcs< r'ilti n g rron-st'<1 r rcr r I ilr I
It is proposed that the fcltrr t,vPcs of rl-retorical Ptlrpose of tl-re ct.rgttitive dat.:r fl'orn a lint: gnryrh ol bll gr-:rPlr.
scnre rnoclcl can bc ernployccl to provitle the birsis lbr otrtlining thc Ur-rit ir
overall syllabus objcctive of each Llnit of a seneral EAP rvriting collrsc. Sttrrlents *'ill b<: ablc to rvli(<: u 2ir0-
Under the ovcrall syllabus aim fitr eaclr Lrnit will bc sttbstttrting lrinrs rvorcl report rlcscribing non-sequential
relatecl to Ffctstalt strtlctlrre, cliscottrse pattern and interProposit ion:ll cl:rta frorn a pic urirlth or pictogrirph.
relations (in ternls of thc lingr-ristic f-eatures that realize the relations). It is lixplana,l.iott: Unit 6
sugp;estecl that a scneral EAP writing syllirl)tls may re?rsonably inclrrclc the presetrtirtion of inlcrnn2rtion with Sturlcnts rvill bc able to rvritc ir 2ir0-
the oricntatioll on nlcal-rs rvorcl expliuritticln of the staqcs ol'a
more than one ttnit bascd arouncl each cognitivc genre. E:rch syll:rbtts ttnit
simple rnanrrfzrcturin g process.
realization of a particttlar cognitive genre cotrlcl rccycle the highcr-lel'cl, Unit 7
more !{eneral organizational elemcnts (gcstalt strtlcttlrc uncl cliscoursc Sttrclents tvill be able to rvrite :r 250-
patterns), br.rt inch,rde a clifl'erent lingtristic lircus, basecl ort otle or tnort'of rvorcl explanat.ion of iur abstr:rct pr()-
the interpropositional relations that arc salie nt to thc particttlar cosnitivc cess frorn ir florv clrart.
genre. It would be unrealistic, for exarnplc, Lo introclttcc too llratl)' I)i sntssiort.: Unit 8
clifferent iterns of {Jrammar ancl syntax (relatecl to variotts irttcrllroposi- a foctrs on lhc orgzrnization of data in Sturlents rvill be ablc to rvrite a 300-
tional relations) r,vithin a single syllabtrs urrit. Table 5.l,lollolving, otrtlirrcs rclation to (possible) outcornes/con- 'rvorcl contrastive cvaluation of thc
a possible len-unit general FIAP cotrrsc basecl on thc colrnitirtc {rclll(' <'l trs ions,/ ch oices solution to an cnvirorrrnent:rl rvorld
rnoclel in whicl.r e:rch cognitivc scnrc provirles thc lxtsis lirt' trvo ()r llrr'('(' problerrr.
Unit 9
units within tlte cottrsc.
Stuclents rvill be able to rvrite a 300-
rvord disctrssion of irrgurnelts lclr ancl
:rgainst a rcsponse to a social problern
Gestalt slrutlure aint Llnit l0
lr sylllrlrrrs rrrril rvill irrr'lrrrlc lrrr :rittt lo lor tls ott lltr'f'( slltll sllll( llll(' (()l
l'.lr< Strrrk.rrls r.vill lrt.ul)l(, t() u'r'itc ir ii00-
llrl rogrrilir,('ll(.ntr.) :rs tlrt' ltilill'r ltvcl, irl,'.rr\lrttr lttlttltl l).tll( tll rvitlrirr rvorrI t rili<'lrl cr':rlrr:rtiorr ol :r st'lt'<'lt'cI
llrc rlisrotltst' l,rl'r' tlrr' ,,rct:tll ,tittt. tlr, tir"'t.rlt .lllll {,lll lrl ctlrtcsst tl ;ls:t lr'\ L

1r|tlotttt;tlttr'',tt, lt ,t" ttt tt'l.tlloll lo t{ r (tlltll

I20 A(IADI'INII(l \ rRl'l'lN(; r\NI) r.l'Nlili c()( ; N ITI\TI.- ( }EN I{I,]S AN D TEAC]HINC \4IRTII N( } 121

Stud,?nt.t Tuill us( a SOUtt(:L I'A7'll OOtll, tt lrt'tttttlir' .\t.t1l(:L'u,t'e .for shtt(ttt,i)t{ vier'vpoints tltltl lttt'rcltresentecl irr the tcxt. Aeain, like {restalt stllctrlre,
tltc inJrnnation cotlt?nt o.[ a r'?co'u,n!,. clcconstnrctirrq rliscourse patterns in ntoclel tcxts helps to provide a lbctrs
on the types of qcrtcral proccclttral knorvleclse that novicc writcrs ncccl t<r
G.estalt Structltre clocs rlot ref'cr t() tltt'otu:tttizlrliorr of paragraphs and acqtrire to llc rtlrlcr lo plarr ancl carry out t.heir owtr r,vriting of sirnilar typss
sentepces (r,vhich rclatcs to t.hc next lr"n,r'l ol tlrc rtrotlel, that of clisc-ottrsc of tcxts.
pattcrns), but rzrther to thel ovcrzlll ore:llli;':rliott ol'tlre content ideas o{'a
tcxt.. For examplc, in a recorrnt, tlrt'S()tjl{(;l,l ()r startinE point r)f the Interprop o si tional relati oru
SOURCE PATH GOAL schenla rll:t)I l)(' It'llizcrl by thc introductory At tlre lorver lcvcl ot' thc syllabtrs, aims relating to inrerpropositional
par:rgraph, or it nr:ry bc realizcrl lry or rlv t lrc [irst sentence of the rel:rtiotrs will lcacl to an cxatninrltion of salient. rnarkcrs of cohesion ar-rd
introcluctory pararraph. Activitics rerlatirrs ltl tlrc gcstalt aim could involvc cohcrencc itt tertus ol- the ir linguistic e ncoclings. As proposcd earlie r, onc
first exarnining the gestalt structlrre ttl'a ttt<ttlcl tcxt, ancl then planning gene ral EAP syllabtrs trnit rvoulcl icleally hirvc a linetristic focgs op no il]orc
the icleas organization for new tasks tlrltt rr-'tlttirc the rvriting <tf sirnilar than two points ol'lingr-ristic knor'vleclge , ancl variant syllabtrs units based
texts. on the same cogltitive senrc will have clilI'erent interpropositional (ancl
Thrrs, an airn to exanrinc the general icleras organizatiot) in tcrrns of the linguistics) aims. In rclaticln to rcport cognitive {renres, the linguistic airns
gestalt stnrcture leacls to a prelinrinaly reacling of of an inPllt t.exl f<rr both l'rorrr the sarny-rlc syllabus unit in thc follorvins section (sce T:rlrkr 5.2
comprehension ancl fbr undersl.:rncling of tlre structLrrirtg of thc contcnt. follor,ving) :rrc:
This is the first step in decol)strtlcting the input text. Undcrstatrcling thc
schernatic structure pr<tvicles novice writcrs rvitir a basis for t.he strtrcttlring Amplificatiott:
of corrtcnt iclcas when writing sirnilar kincls ol'texts, ancl thtrs is the first Stttrl.ent.s uill hrnc lractice ht, u.sing:
stcp in clcvcloping a I'ranrcwork for plarlning their own future writing of L rcstrictiuc rekttiuc r:la,u,se.s (adjectiaa.L);
thc tarsiet cognitivc genrc. 2. oltjact mturt r:la,u,se.s.

Discourse pattenx Sinltle Oonb'nst:

Follorving the qestalt aim, eacir unit rvill havc a cliscottrsc airrt, rclatine to Sttr,d,cnts uill haue lra,ctiut in u.sing .syttctclir: a,nd lexit:al ntal*n:s of unLltusl.
thc orgartization ol'the contetrt irt rclatiotr to paragraphs and selntcnces.
Althouslt the writtern discourse will be:r rcpresentatiorr of tltc c()lltcnt that
is Uencrally stnlctrlred ltV thc gestalt pattern, its plrysical appeararlce orr Wlrcr-r <lcaling rviLh eaclr of the linstristic I'caturcs thirt cncodc the
the page in terms of sections :rttd 1>zrrltgraphs rnay or may not tnirror the irtterpropositional relations, erxalrrples can bc extractecl liorn thc rnoclcl
parts of the gestalt. The cliscoursal aim, tlrercfbre, Iircusers on thcr lcxt of thc syllabtrs ttnit:rrtd practisecl in tasks that havc a clisc6ursnl lbctrs.
grganizatiol of the actual r,vrittetr discottrse" ASail t|e aim t:an bc Ilr rcalizing this type of syllabtrs, it is irnportant that the lingtristic fbcr-rs
expressccl as a perlbrrnative, such as in relirtion to tllc cliscussion coqnitivt'
(<lcriving from i'terpropositional relations) is connectcd to the clccon-
gcnre: st|trction and rccorrstruction ol texts of tlre sarrre cognitive {IeDre.

Sturle'nt.s tuill, |ncorlxtrata n 'Ocncraliza,tion [ixamltlc' rLiscrturse prtttent in' uritinr!

the report. 5.4 A gcneral EAP syllabus unit based on the report cognitive genre
Stu.rle,nts toill lmztc lroctice itt zuriting tolric sentences and tleaeloping parograplt.s
'l'lris s<rc:tiorr prrx,iclcs the ciutlinc of a possible syllabus unit based or-r
appropria,tc to thi.s disuttrlsc pa,ttent a'nd, the Qln of nnten't in,ztol:oed,.
r'('l)()r't ( ()gl)ilivc {Icnrc with n sunllnary of the :r.irns and content of the unit
The cliscotrrsc pattcn) airrr wotrlrl lcad to lltt't'x:ttttitllt(iort of'lltt' slrorvrr irr 'l'llrlt'
5.2 firllcxvin{r. ln the cosnitive genrc modcl, report has the
<rrgarrizatiori <>l- tlrc llirraur':rplr strll( turc ol tlr<' iltl)rrl l('xl t:x<'rrrplilvirrq Itittt ol :'llt<'prt'sc'ttlirtion olinfbrn)ation thatis cssentiallynon-sequcntial'.
t[c 1>ltrti<:rrl:tt t'ogttililt'e('tlt('. Slrt'<i(itlrllv, il ttt:lv l,,t,l t,r:t lirttts otl lltt' lrlrir:rllr, tlris ti,;rr'ol'rvrilirrg :rr.t.ornPanies the presentatiorl of nurnerical
lyllss ol irrlirlnlrliorr irr tlrc inlro<lttclott'l)irt:u',r.t1,lt.tttrl its rt'lltliorrsltilr rl:ll:t, sttr lt tts irr llt<''tt'srtlls'st'r'liorr ol':r r-csc:rrclt-rcJ)()rtill{r art.icle or irr a
rvitlr tltc lirllotvinu l):ullrlt;t1rlts. Il ttt;tt':tls,, r111,,1r, ' \'llllrll.lll,'tt ,tl lllt' r lrrrItt't ol :t rlisst't l:tliorr llt:tl r('l)()r ts (llrilntililli\(' r'r.sclrn lr (irrrlirres. ()ltcn
silirrtrllcrs ol l;ttll(:t s( ( li,,lts tvillrirl tlrr'(lis( {}tll',t 'tt, lt ,r'. \\rtlrlr t't lrlttltsls tlris ttpc.l rt'tilitt11 :trrr)rnl,.rr(:,r risrr,rl r( l)r(,s('nl:rliorr ol !ll('([:rllr,:ip(ll
tlr,rl ittltorlttr r' .t r oltlt,t,lttt)' \lr'\\ll'rllll ol ,r rrril!' l" 'l '.tttttttt,ttt rrl ,l\ llt .t 1ir.r;rlr. l.tlrlc or l)tr tot,t.rl,lr \.,,rrrllrrrcrl irr tltr,lrrr.r'i6rrs sr.r lilrr, lltt.
t22 A(]ADI.,N'II(I \{RI'I'IN( :,\N]) ( ;I.NIiI. ( r( )( ;Nn'I\iE ()ENtil.ts /\ N I ) il,],\( ]HIN(; \,\rRrI"tN(l 123

oltjectivcs <ll-thc trnit :u-c cxprcssc(l in l('r'nrs ol :ttt ot'crall objcctive (which orgzrnizution lr:rs bccn idcntifierl, it is rclatc<l to :r tcxtual plan basecl on
is esscnti:rllv tlter rhcttlrical pgrposc ol llrr'<oQrritivc gcrlrc) alonS rvith the Pnttiezu-Drlailr rliscotrrsc pattern. Tlrcse plans are then employecl at a
schcnralic, disr:()ttrsal, ilrtclrpr()[)()sitiorr:rl :trrr l lt'xi< ;tl objcctives. later text-constrtrction stage.
Tablc 5.3 firllorving preselrts an analvsccl part-text tl'rat coulcl possibly
Table 5.2: Sarnplc gencral llAP svllrrlrtrs rrrrit senre as an inptrr tcxt for the syll:rbus unit (clescribcd in Table 5.2
prcviotrsly). Followins this proposcd input text is a cornmentary on tlle
Airns analysis incltrclins suggestions as to ho\,v the analysecl information coulcl be
Ouerul.l. Sturlcnt.s u'ill lx' :rlrk' lo u'ritc a 200-rvolcl rcport incltrclccl r,vithin tlre proposecl syllabtrs rinit.
<lcscribing r)()lr-s('(lr.r('lrlilrl rlnta frotn a linc graph, bitr
eraph" pic glirph or 1:rblc.
Gestalt stmcture
Schena,li.r stu<lcrrts lill trsc u WI l()l.l-I'All-f
sclrernirtic strtrc-
Thc exarnplc rexf. in Tablc 5.3 is :r lairly prototypical cxarnple of thc reporr
trrrc {irr rvholc rcports attrl attr UP-DOWN schetnir firr
thc lrorlt' sectiotr o['infirrtrtat.ion re' ports. cosnitive gcnrc. Tlre text is cortcernecl \,vith presentins clata t|at is 1cln-
scquential liorn an accompirnying table and laruely rnirrors the gcstalt
l)isrot rrsu L Srrrrlcrrfs w'ilI incoruolut.c a Prcvicrv Det.ails rliscorrrse
plrttcnl in rvliting thc t'cl)()rt. strtlcttlre , discottrsc Pattern and interpropositional relations of tlrc pr64c'1.
Strr<lcnts rvill havc prirclicc in rvritirlg t()Pic scnt-cllccs In tcrnrs of the over:rll orsanization of icleas (prc-r,vriting), tlrt, rcPorr
nnct clcvclopint par:teritphs ryprrrprittc to this clis- cosnitivc gcnre nr(xlel proposes that non-sequential data will lx, srr.rr<.
corlrsc Durtcrtr ;rtrcl thc tlpcl of colltctll. rlirtir itN'oh'ctl. ttrre<l lry a WHOI,E-PART sestalt strllctrlre. This clraws on llrc .itna,g, .sr.lrnttrt
I nt.er|rolto.s i.li.ort allleh I i.on s Aurplilicatiorr: (gcstalt) concept of Johnson (1987) as ir hish-levcrl .l
Strrclcnts rvill have practice itr ttsitrg: kncxvlcclS;e. Thc concepttral iclea of thc WHOI-FI-PART sc:srrrlr 'r-slrrrizt.r.
is llrlrt llr<.
I. restrict.ive rclative clattscs (adjectivirl); parts of somcthins propcrly configured can rnake a wlrolt' (lxrscrl ,rr
2. objcct uotttr clartscs. I-akoII, l9ft7, p. 273). ln rhc cirse of the sar'plc rcxr i' T:rlrlc l-r.il, rlrt.
SirnPlc Clontrirst: wrlol,E sccti()n of thc gestalt structure is a dcscripticln ol'tlrc srrrvc1,, irs
Sttrrlcrrts rvill havc l)racticc in trsirlg s,vtrt:rctic atld
lexicirl tnnt'kct's of cotttrirst. PtrrP()se arrcl its paranrctcrs. Thc PART scctiou involvcs dcscri[irrg, ip
detail, tlre v:rrious Iinclinss {iorn the sur-\.,ey.
Irxir ul. Strrdcnt.s rvill rcvicrv voc:rbttlltn' rclatccl to statistics,
In cx:rnrinirrg a corpus o[pnrt.s of ircaclernic texts that use<l the rcport, it
clata rlcscription irncl colnrrlerttttt-\'.
r'vas {irtrnd (scc chapter 4, T:rblc 4.ir) that whcre the content cl:rta of the
(li'rrcc, 200ir, p. 250) PART section is qrrantifiablc (as is the case of the data of the s:rrnplc text in
Table 5.3), an uP-DowN gestalt is also used ro org:rnize hicrarcirically the
As statc(l in tlrc previ()us secti()n, thc cocnitive tno(lel first provitles tlrt: rlata of thc PART secrion. (uP-DowN indicarcs a progrcssion fronr bis ro
basis lbr tfie sclection ()l' autllcrrtic text.s (trstrally sc{rrnents of texts) that stn:rll, more sisnificant to lcss siunificant") For cxarnple in the samJrle text
havc a colnllr()ll corc of' f'e:rtures tllat are n()t llcccssarily cerltred arotttttl of Table 5.3, rhc PART consists o{:
iury disciplillltry t()pic, I'catttrcs tltat cirtt be dcconstnlctcd ancl analysc(l
Suc[ rlcconstructi()n tul(l :rnalvsis ol'tlrc rliscoursc l'c:tl-urcs can illitially l)(' o the largcst group of gracltrates - [hose up to the aue -30;o[ 29;
lllodcllc(l to lcarner-lvritcrs. Ftlll6wilrs t|at, givcrt tlrc Pr()cc(ltlral k1()\\' . tlle ncxt lirrgcst group - graduates or,.. ilr. og. of
lcdgc,'learncr writcrs thern lterfirrln thcit'()wn (liscoul'se alrlllvsis ()ll
o a srrrallcr {rr()up - international studcnts w}ro are gra<Iuates.
cxisting texts atrcl ull(lertakc rtt:lv tcxt.-lvritirtg tasks.
At thc prc-writing stir{rc, ()t}cc tlre rhctoric:rl irittt arrrl tltc: lvlx'()l llllg('l Discourse pattem
i1f6r1r2ti91 111' tltc text ltas lrccrt itlctrtifictl, ltrvltr-<'rtt'ss 9[' tlrt' gt'st1lt 'l'lrt' wlI()l.li-P:\RT gestalt relates to
the overall orsanization of the
stnlcturct provi(lcts tr lcarrrcr-lv|itcr$'itlt :t lrt'rr|isliC irr llrt'fit|rrr <tl'lt tlt'ltct:tl ( ()ll( ('l)tu1rl ('()rrtcltt of the report.. \Mrcn
actually realizcd as written
liantcrvork \\'itllin \\'lti( ll l() 1rl:rrr llr<' itl<'lts stt'rrr'ltttc ttl ll l('\1. Itt t ottlirt tllilr rlis< rrrrlst', tlris uivcs rise to what Floev (1983) ref'crs tcl as
a ()enera,l
rvitlr flrc pt'rltrgoqir' ;rlrpro:rclt ol rrol irrlt'r'rt:tlizirtQ to;ric spt'< ili< t<':llizlt l'rrrtirtrltrr <list ottt-sc l)att-crn, an<l in particul:lr tl:re Prezino DetaiLs variati1;l
ti6rrs lrrrl :rlllrlyirrq llrcrrr lo lr':rr rrirrl', (\\Iirlrlou's,rrl, l'l)3:'i, p. 1X)), lllt' lt':tt ttcl. ttl (i'rtltrtl l'urlir trlrtr irt rvlrir.lr:
1fl<'t lllirrt ilrlrorlrrrcrl lo tlrr' licst.rll ;r:tllt rrritt;',. tltctt lrt.tr liscs (olll('lll
lrllrrrrrilti ol :rrrrrl.rr rl.rt.r tr'lrotls itt tcl.tliott l,
olltlt tlr.r1rlls, l:tltlt's rrt It llrc rlcl:ril tttt'rrrlrct ,l llr. r.l,rti,rrr srrlrlrlics irrlirrrrr:rtiorr :rlrorrl llr<'
( )ltt t llrI ttlt"t'' l'rIrr.r\' rrr.rrrlrlr rlr,rr rr.rrlrl,,tlr,111v.,,. rrlrir"rllI llr.1rl:rrcrl.rs;rosrtrrxli
;rir l01,1.p;vl1', tlr,rt ,llt tl'.i rl l(l i rtll\( \ llllol ltl.llli'll
124 ACIAI)l.lN{l(l \\rRll'lN(; ,\NII ( il Nl{l'
Table 5.3: Report cognitivc genrer - s:ttttplc tt'xl
Gestalt Discouxe
stmcturc Pdttsll
T)rt' alt'ntgc agt' of Nt'rv Z<'ltlatrrl ttttivt tsill gtarlttalt:s is
ittcrc;Lsing, indicatille ll1al gl(lillcr ttttttllrt ts of oldt:r
strrtlt:rrts arc ctrrttllittpl rvhilc tlrcir \t)tltrlt('l c()lllltcfPllrls
mal lx: urkitrg l()l)gcr to rtttttplett l)tcit tltrgrt't:s
This is ortc ol-;r nrrntlrt't ol sigrrilir attt rlcltlolltllctrts
rcvt:ltlctl irt lhc latt:st strttt:\' ol ttttirttsilv gt'ltrlttlltt: tl<ls- Arrrpli[ication
tinrLlions carriccl ottt Ir;' tltt: N"cu' Zcltlrtl<l Vit:t:
Clhanccllols' (lontntittcc. All 23,ll2l irrrlit'itlrrals ( I 3,(X)7
lcnralcs, 10,81'tr nritlcs) l'ho lrctattrt' cligiblc to gttdrtattr
.'\mplilit ation
fronr tltis cuttttttf.'s scvcrr trtrilt:tsitit:s rlLu-illg l1)l)8 u'crt:
scrrt thc srrrt'cv qtrt'sliotrrtairc atrd 10,149 (42 ti%)
rt:spondc<I. Thc srttv:v lllrrlinus ilr(' (()ttlilil](:(l ill ;t r('l)or1
- (htiuu.sill Omrlt.tulc l)ts(intl.iott.s 1999 - rvhir:h rvas llttl>
lishcd in L)ccctrbt'r. An cxccrttivc stlllllllal]' t.o th(' xll)ol t
stlrtcs thitl (]tc ltt,ctngc a13<: <tf rttslttlttclt:tlts is 2!), atl
irr, rclrsr' ,rl ;t rlltt ott lll( l)t1 \i"ll5 \lll11 \'
Frrrlht:r, thc avcragt: aet: of rcspttttrlcrlts rvith Bacltt:lor/
Birchclor lil.h Hottotrrs clt:grccs is 26, as opltr>st:tl to 2lr [<rr'
thc prcviotts stulcr'. 'l'ltis is prrrlit:rtlarlv sigrtilicarrt as this
first-ckrulcc groull c()t)stittlttts (i,9.67o ol lhc t()1al stlllcv
poprrlatiorr.'flrt: r'it'r' thal tutivt:rsit1' l:t adttalt's irPp(lar Io
bc taking lolrlrcr to corlplctc thcir lirst clcsrcc is stts-
ucstccl lr1'a rcport tirlrlc rvlrich sltotvs thal 65.17o of
Brcht'lor/Baclrclor rvitlt ll0trottts ljrt(ltta(cs art: itr thc l8 ( lon clrtsion
to 24-vcar agc flrolll), a tlt:clitrc ott tltc llrct'iotrs srltltv (inrrrrtctl)
rvhcrc lht' cquivalclrt pxtportiorr ivas 73.0%. Thcrt' is a
corrcsl;ondine itrctt:ttsc in tltt' ltroporliotl ol' tltt:st: Sirrrplc Oontrast
gradrratcs itt thc 25 to 29 agc bantl, rvhi<lr at lti.3%
roprcscrts a ir.9% incrcasc otr 1ht: ltlt'r'iotts stltlt't.
'I'll(: lrcn(l to lil'c lODq lcantilrg shorvs Ltll ilt tht: rt:1lort
in {lrt: nrrnrl>cr of gracluatcs lvhrt ;rrc agt'cl -10 r't::rrs or
olclcr. ln thc prcviotts stttlt'v this grrttrlt cotlstilrttt rl ll 7(Io
ol all gracltralcs l)ut tlltl I)rol)()ttio)l lras tltttv illt:tcnscd trr
13.8%. Thc rcport <lctrLils that qla(hrat(rs tsctl lrt'lrt'cctr 30
and 40 makc up l(i.(i% of thc popttllrtiotr for lhc tlost
roccrrr surl:cv lvhcrt'lrs tltc t:r;rtilalcttL Pr()llortioll Iirttt 1llt:
prcviotts sllrr'c) \vas I5r. I%. OI lLll rt:s1;otltl<:nts to thtl
iurlc,v, 5l'.87i iut: itr Iitll-litltr crrPlo,vrrlcnl (1998, 58.2%)
rvhilc 2{}.3% arc tttr<lt't1rrkin13 llrrtlrcr Iirll-tinrt: sttrtlv
(190S, 26.(i%). It is irlportarlt 1o trott: itt this corltcxl lhat
rrarrv tcspotrtlcl)1s rcport rttttt'c th;ltl otlc tlt:st.itlitliotr, lirt
irstnncc l)art-t.inc t:ntPloltltt:Itt artcl lturt tilrtc sttrcll.
'I'host rvhO x'J)()11 scckillg hrll-tinlt' clllPloull('1lt llrc Il{)t
ncccssarilv ttncnrplovcd as sttclt. 1'ltc,v coltld ll<' lvorkirlg
hrll tirrt'in an inlt:rittt positiotr rvltilt: sct:kitru a positiotr
morc aPPrOPriatc t() thcir tlttali{i<lttioll.
()tlrt'r sigrrilicltrrt lirrrlirrgs irt th(t rcl)()rl ittt lttrlt' lt
clctlinc irt thc tttuttlrtt of lttlttrtttliottal gtlttlttltlcs (lllosl
rvlto tttlttitt' lt lrt'rtttil l() slll(lv itt Nt rv Zt rtlrttrrl) lrr l111)7
rlrtst glrt<ltutlts totrrllctl l'll I lrtrt itr l1)1)fi tlrcrr'\, r, lli:',fr
Irrtct ttitliot[tl gt ll(ltlirl('s lt 0ttt N|rv /( .ll.lllil rrrrr\ r'r \ll lt \
( :( X ]NITIVE (;ENRES A1.\l) ]'EA(IHIN(; \'\rR[trN() 12Ir
fication lo tlr<':ll)l)r()priatc noun or as acljutrct to the clausc. (I locy,
1983, p. litu)
Intetfroqositional
This refers to llrt'lirr{ruistic encoding of the relationship benvcen the
Rtlations
overall inlirrrrrrrtiorr o1' t.hc introdtrction ancl rnore spccific, dctailecl
information irr tltc lro<ly of the text. If thc overall iclea of' the opt'nin{
paragraph :rnd tlrc principal iclca of :rny one of'the clctails paraeraphs rvcrc
to be surrtnlarized itt one sentcncc, the clctail inforrnation rvoulrl lrc likcly
to be e r-rcoded in tcrrns of a p:rra[rctic or hypotirctic structnrc, c.s.
In 1999, the Nnu Zealrmd LI'nizter.sitics' Vice-Ch.anccllo'rs' (ktmrn,ittec cruried, ouL
a sutl)E
of gra,rltt.ntes tlrctt ycor tult,ich shozoed,: (This slrorvcd:)
c 65% oJ Bru:h,el,ors or lJacltckns uith llonortr.s gradltokt.s a.re ...
o the percentages of oklcr graduates hu,s ...
Arrrplilic;Lt iou o the nutnber of internation,a,l, sttullnts ara,d:urt,lirtg Trtas . . .
Int erprop o sitional relations
The tcxt segment analysecl in Table .1.3 is typical of'the rep()rt cosrririvr.
Ik:lrsorr l{r:sttlt {renrc to the cxtent tlrat it includes cxamples of Arnplification, Sirrrplc
(inlcrtt:cl)
ArnpliIicatiorr Contrast, Reason-Resnlt, arrd Grounds-Conclnsion.
(ixlnrds At the lorver levels of' textual organization, the intcrpropositionul
relations o1- the c<,rsnitive senre rnoclel provicle thc syllabus desisncr \,vith
focns :rreas for ex:rnrinirlg thc internal cohesion (and, the rel;y, cohercncc)
of the text. A rirngc of lanuuagc elerncnts that realizc the salicnt
interpropositional relations :rrc isolatcd and practiscrl in rclation to tltcr
sample unit cll cliscourse, and in prcpar:rtion for t.he rvriting of lanstrase
texts. Table 5.4 followilrg provicles a clescription of' rhe salienr intcr-
propositional relations that occur in the T:rble 3 rcport sarnple tcxt.
Exarnplers of each of the stnlctrlrcs that relatc to tlrc salicnt
Sinrpkr Oontrast intcrprop<-rsitional relarions rvill be ide ntiflerl rvithin the mo<lcl tex[,
.\nrplilication arralysccl ancl practised.
Sirrrplr: (lotttnrst
Rccatrse the report cognitive qe nrc drar,vs on A range ol interpropositional
Anrplilicatiorr r-clations, it is possible to sequerlcc lrlorc than one unit constnrctcrl
irrorrnd a rcport, lvith each unit f<rctrsine on onc particular rclntion arr<l a
lirrrsc o{'syntacticirl ancl lexical realizations of the partictrlar rclation.
()rrcc tlrc cxernplar text of the particular coqrlitive qenre rras been
rlct'orrstnrr:tc<I, analysed and its constituent parts practisc(1, the final phase
of tlrc syll:rlrrrs rrnit involves the crcation of nerv cxarnplcs of thc s:rrnc
togrrilivt'e('ttr(', trsirtg the procc<lural knor,vlctlqc of tlrc rnrtdcl thitt has
lrt'<'tr ptrttlist'tl. Irritially tlris cotrl<l irrvolvc suidcd, joint constrtrctions ol'
n('\v t('xts rvitlr :r rlcgrct'of'assislarrcc liorrr tlrc tc:rchcr lcaclinq to
irrrlt'pt'rrrlcrrt, irrrlivirlrrrrl r('xr ( ()nsllll< tions llr:rt provirlc Itrrtlrcr oppor-
trrrtilics lot ctttlrlot'itrg llrr' ;rr,,,,'rlrrr':rl lrrrrl lirrr-tnislit' krrorvlcrlgc tlltt lras
lrlltt lltr' 1r.rt tir rrl;tt lor us .l tlr,. stll;rlrrrs urril.
126 A(]ADEMI(] \{RITIN(;,\NI) ( ;I',NIiI,, ( I )(;NITIVE CIENI{I.]S AND 'I'F]A(]HIN(] \,\rRrI'IN(} 127

rhctorical l)ur'l)()ri(' ltrtcl thc relatecl organizational stnlctrlres of'written

Table 5.4: Exanrples of interpropositi()rllll tt'l:tliorrs liom thc san]ple text discotrrse irr.rrl<'r'to pror,,ide the foundations for the firture clevelopment
of the learncr''s rlis<.rrrse cornpetence in cliscipline-specific literacics (l-ea
lrltcrpropositiollal DescriPtion'r l'lxrrrrrlrlt's,/l,irlguistic {tattrres ancl St.reet, | 01)t3) . 'l'lrc rop-down ch:rractcr of thc model provide s for cycles
Relirtioni' ll'ottr lltc sarnple text (Table 5'3) ol'synthesis :rrr<l lrurlvsis by rneans of a mediatecl task-based approach in
Ar\ilifit:QLiott: one rllember of the I his is rlrc (}f ;r number of sig- r,vhich the scltcttr:ttit: itncl linguistic elements of cliscourse are iclentified by
Ienn ipec(i,r:a,Li.ott relat.ion zlnplilies tl-re rtilicant rleveloptneuts revealecl in analysis, practisc<l arrrl reconstituted. In re lation to the sclection of
iufonnittiotr itl the thc lirl.cst sttn'ey of ttniversit)' lansuagc for srrclr corlrses, this type of syllabus provides a basis for the
other bv proviclilg a qrlldrtate clestinations'
selection of arrtlrcrrtic rnodel texts:rnd targetccl lingtristic sclcction
spccilic tertn as a srtb- (rcslri.r:liue and retku:ed rcl'o'littc
stittlte fbr a gcrleral cluttses)
including lexis, srarnrnar :rncl syntax that are rcalizations of local
ol)e .
interpropositional rclirtions. The syllabus is not linguistically driven, but
prerl.it:aLc spet(ilaLion. One rnernbcr of the 'The report dctails th_irt gradttates Provides :r fratnework for cletzrilccl lingrristic analysis and practice within a
discor-rrsal sctting.
relation zu-nplifies tl-re irged beuveen 30 arld 40 rnake up
orher by specifying the 16.6% ol the poptrlation for the ln the context .f an article (that cornpares the cliscoursc patterns
conteltt of the semautic most rec:ent sur-vey' employe(l in two clift'erer-rt acaclernic clisciplines - plant biology ancl
preclicatc. Direct or (rtoun tln.uses as Lfut oltjec! of u highway enuineering - in relation to thc r,vriting of Masters disscrtations in
inclircct rePortill[i mav sotl,ence, rcporl'ittg urrhs and olher each of the trvo ficlcls), Dtrdlcy-Evans (1993) claims rhar'an approach to
be ittrolved. tvpes of reporling slntclures)
the teachinq of acadernic writirrq that irnplies that tl-rere Arc cornrnon
Sinltl,c Con.ra.s/ This is a relatiott Further, the averzrge zrge of t.he patterns of orsanisation that r.vill alwal's apply in all clisciplines is, in nry
ittvolvirlg the cornpari- resPolrdents rvith Birchelorl opiniorr, da'uerously nrisleacling' (p. 1a\. "I'his clairn is rnacle on trrc
scitl of tlvo things, B:rchelor rvith l-Ionours clegrces is
grrrttncls tlrat 'the difl'ercnces in Lhe sor:in,l Irny ernphasis] rolcs of writin{r in
events or abstraction in 26, irs opposecl to ?ir for the
terms ol'solne P:rrtictt- prerio115 sttn'ev'
the t\,vo departrnents can be sceu in thc organisational pattenrs of the key
lar itt respect of rvl'rich (gramnm,lical and lexir:a'l na'rhers of section of tl're <lissertation, that is, the cliscussion section' (lgg3, p. 146).
thev are clifftrerlt. t:onlra,st) l)trcllcy-Evarls' colrlments abotrt lvhether the lbcus of' lvriting instruction
Retr.Stn-llcsull. Herc, the rcason mcrn- I'his is partic[larlv significatrt as shotrkl be discipline-spccific or general-prlrpose surnmarirc a clebate
bcr (rvhich very ofiell this first-clcgree qrotlp cotlstittttes r'vhich l-ras bcen ongoin{r an)onFf those rvho are concerncd wit}r the
follcxvs the rcsrtlt rncrn- 68'9% o{ the to*rl sun'ev poprtla- tcaching of acadernic rvriting to non-nativc-speakcr learners (Ferris, 2001,
bcr in Finglish) gives a tiorl' pp. 298, 300; llylancl, 2002b). Although it is certai.ly tme tlrar whar arc
reasotr zrrl21 a partictrlar (nn,rkers oJ reasott,) rcl'crrecl to herc as social gcnres c?rnnot provide a basis for a com.nnn crtrc
elfcct c;rrnc or rvill :rpproa.ch to the teachins of acaclernic writine, thc arsutnent here is tfiat
cotne abottt.
wlrat are rcferrerl t.ct as cognitiue gctl.rc:j can do so bccause cognitive gcnres
(lrormrl,s (in.clusion Flere , a dedr"rction is The view that university graduatcs rlraw orr non-disciplir-re-specific procedural knowleclge. Furthermore,
clra'tvtt ot't the basis of aPpear to be taking lollgier to
cornplete tl'reir first clegrce is stre-
llrose social gcnres that occur in disciplinc-spccific acaclernic writing
sotne obsen'atiot.t.
gest.ccl ltv a rePort lvhicl'r shorvs
(srrclr as essays, case stuclies, research articles and dissertatic,ls) are
that 65.1%, of Bachelor/Bachelor' Itrttctt:rlllc-. to cxarnination in tenns of (a) the selection and trse of coglitive
with llorlours graclrtirtes irrc itl tltt' ll('rr'cs, anrl (b) tlrc efl'cct of tl-re selcction of cognitive genres on t.he
18 to 24 age srotrP. lriel1111'lcv.,1 oreatrizatioual elernents of qestalt organization ancl clisconrsc
(uerlx tignal,lirt.g erltt r:Iiort s)
l)llll('r'ns, lrs lvcll lui on cognitivc processes, sernzrntic relations and, by
d

*Cronrbie, 1985, pp. 2l, 2(i) ('xl('rlsi()rl, lirrgrristic sclcction.

l,t'l.i (2(XX)) t'tttpltitsizcs that ltrturc research related to seconcl-lan{ru:rge
5.5 Conclusior.r lil.r'lrlv rr.r'rls r, t'xlrlolc lirrthcr thc social context of writing, and she
spt'r'rrl;rtcs llrlrt 'tlrc nt'xl rk:r:urlc will brirur about greatcr:rttention to tllc
A lvritirrg s),ll;rlrtrs llr:rl is lr:rs<'rl ott lltt' t,rgttilivr' 1'r'rttr' rrr,,r lcl ur('('ls rrr:ttt1 rrrrrltilrlir ilv rurrl < orrrpl<'xily oI lilcllr< r, :rcrprisitiorr, at. lcast pirrtly throrurh
ol llrc tcrlttitltttt ttls ol tvirl,' :tttt',lr', lictrct:tl 1".\lrr ,rtt',r ', ll i\ lr )l) r lo\vt t, t tol tttotc rlcl:tilcrl. "llrir l.t't" <l<'sct iplions ol irrrlivirlrrlrl :rcrlrrircrs witlrirr
,lrs, r;rlirrc slx'r tltr .ttt,l Ior ttrr': ott lltl tr'.tltr'tllott, ll I "il||notr ltlr|s ill slrcr ilrr (r,rrr'\r\ (l) loli). i\\ ;r:rrt ,l tlrr' 'rrrrrltilrlir itr,' lrrr<l '<.ornpl<^xitv'
128 A(]ADI]MI(] \\RITIN(} ANI } ( ;I.]NI{Ii
of context-sPccific social genres that lravt' lo llt' ltctlttirecl and m:rsterecl,
exarnination of social genres in tertrts ol tltt:ir selection and use of
conrbinations of cognitive genres coul(l pr()vi(lc a l'ruitful area of research
that may help to uncover a little ttrorc ol tlr:rt. cornplexity.
In Chapter 6 following, the conccpt 9l's<>ciitl genre ({irst introcluced in
Chapter l) is revisited and expancle(l [y prcscnting and considering the
constituent knowleclgc areas that givc risc t() s()cial genres, and consider-
ing ways in which novice writers may invcstigate these knowledge areas.
The following chapter, Chapter 7, provi<lcs a cliscussion of integrating
cognitivc and social genre elements withirl the context of a unit of a
pt-lsl gra(ll late-lcvel rvrit i rt g coltrs('.
Chapter 6: The scope of social genre knowledge
6.0 Introduction
In Cl-rapter l, a dual approach to the classification of texts was proposecl
involving the tlvo related but different constrlrcts of social genres and
cognitive genres. The principal focus of previous chapters up to this point
has been on cognitive genres as text-organizing structures that mediate
betwee n conventionalized social genres and the actual systems of
language. However, in this chapter we now turn to consideration of social
genres as classifiers of whole texts or conventionally recognized sections of
texts, and how they inter-relate with cognitive genres. This chapter has two
aims: the first is to discuss the types of knowledge used in the construcrion
of social genres, and the second is to consider the social genre,/cognitive
genre relationship, particularly in terms of its application to the teaching
of academic writing. The chapter is divided into two parts to realize these
airns. The first part undertakes a discussion of a proposed approach to
examining social genres and the types of knowledge that they draw upon.
Part of this cliscussion involves suggestions of ways in which novice writers
can deconstnrct the social genres of their field of study. The second part
of the chapter considers the inter-relationship of social and cognitive
genre knowledge within the areas of: the creation of discourse, developing
a cliscourse competence in learner writers, materials design, and pedagogy
ancl assessment.
6.1 Towards a construct for social genres
Irr Clraptcr l, drawing on the concept of text genre of Pilegaarcl and
Franclserr (1996), social genres were defined as 'socially recognized
(:()nstnrcts according to which whole texts are classified in terms of their
ovcrall social purpose'. Along with this definition, examples of social
gcnrcs providccl were: personal letters, novels and academic articles. The
Icrrrr sr>cial genrc, as used here, refers to a text as an outcome or product
rts wcll irs thc socia,I actions (Dcvitt, 2004; Miller, lg84) rhar surround rhe
.l'('itti()n ol'llr<'t<'xt. (()cnrc as social actions is the view of genre theorists
workirrg in llrc N,r'rlr Arrrt:ricarr,'New Rl-retoric'tradition.) In the
IrllPrtllrclr crrrplot'r.rl lrcr.r., tlrt. lirrccs tlrat givc risc to a genre as a
rlisr'iplirrlrr\' l)rir('ti( (' rrx' < onsirk'r't,rl ;rlorrg witlr ilrcir irctrral tcxtual
ttt:ttt illsl;tt inttr.
 \( \t)t,Nil(. \\'|il I tN(. \i..il) (,t Ntit.
Irr (,lr.rPlr.r I'r, trrr,;rcrltrgoqir :r1r1rr,,:r, lrr.s lo soci:rl Ucl)rcsWere exanrillcd
tlrt' .rP1rrr,;tt lt ol lltc gctttt' lltcorists irrllu<'rrr t'rl lty systenric ltrrrcti1;lal
lirrtirrislir s. :tttrl llrrtl ol tlrr'l',rrqlislr lirl Spt.r'ili< l'Lrrltoses (liSP) r11;lr,cr1ept.
'\s lt tcsttll ol llris Icvictv, il rvlrs torrclu(lc(l tlllrt both approachcs to soci:rl
J,,'rrc irrvolr'<.rt.l:rling tlr<'(.()nvor)ti()nally rccognizecl, organizational stagcs
cl tll('( ()nt('rrl ol :r t('xl l() lrr.trr:rl lirrgtristic fcaturcs of cxetrnplar texts _ this
r orrrlrirr;rtiorr ol r'orrl<'rrl st:rging and linsuistic featrrres lteing
sccrr :rs
r lrrr:r< tt'rizinLl llt('l)itr.li(.trlur gcrrre to wltich t.lle text belongs. In
tlre case
ol tlrr' :rp;rrol< lr irrllrrt'rrt.t'rl lly systcrnic-l.unctiotral lingtristics, thc lexicr>
t{t:uililr1ttit;rl cll1rr.ur.lt.r-istics tcn<l to bc resarded as gcnre_clef]ning, r,vhilc
irr tlr<' l,)Sl'aPPr"olrc.lr, ucrrrc is seen as a .clctcrrninant of lexical choice,
(srvrrlcs, l1)lx), 1rp. ,tl-2). IIowcvcr, the discr_rssion of this issge i1 chapter
2
P'irrrs ()ut rlr:rr rlrcr rcscurch ol'Bibcr (lguS, lggg) ancl paltriclqe (1993a,
ll)1)7. 2(x)?) sueecsr.s rhrrt sociirl gcnres cannor bc sinrply rlcfinJ irr rcrrrrs
ol Pltllt'l'tts lirr tlre st:teirtg oI conterrt (srrch as sclrematic stnlcture or
rr()\'('ri lrrrrl stcl;s) linked to lirrurristic Ie:rtr-rres. On tlre basis ol- extcrrsivc
< rr
Prrs-lxrsc'<l rcsc:rrch, Riber (t989) enrphasizes tllat (soci:rl) {rcnrcs
(:unr()l lrc'<lcscribecl in linguistic tcrnrs but are'dcfinecl and clistinsllishe(l
()n rlr(' lr:rsis o1'systematic, nonJinguistic criteria' (p. 39). paltriclec (2002,
PP 7'l-{i) provicles a very clear illustration o1'this issuc lvith his iiltrstrativc:
,rrr:rlys<'sol tlrc genrc of lcttcrs to the cditor.
l)r'slrilt'lt ctlttsiclcrablc volumc of researclr that Iras cx:rrninecl socilrl
l'('ilr('s irr l<'r'rrrs of f,he frarneworks irroposecl by tlrese trvo approaches, a
rrrrrrrlr.r ,l rv|ilcrs and theorists now appcar t() support the vicrv tlrirt arr
.rrllr;rr.rlt' rlcst lilrtion of a social gcrtrc involves lnorc than ,lilelv
-just a
lrr.rr( tl syrrlrr'.rric ar-ralysis oI'texts' (Luker, 19g6, p. 333). Reflccting this
rlr r.l,rlrirrg vi<'r'v, Sr'vales (lgg8), in conrrast with his earlier (lgg0) texrrral
'rl)lrr),r( lr, lr<l<>Pts a more etlrnoeraphic approach to examirring sociul
I'r'rrr( \ Protltttt'<l within onc particlll:rr institrrtion. As a lirrtlter flcyelglt
r!r( rt in tlris trcnd of ltroaclening the conccptuzrl basc of uenrc (botlr
r,rr i.rl ;urrl cogrlilivg), Bhatia (2004) has prescntecl a rlual approach t<r
1'r'tttt' l<ttolvlctlge ancl gellre research inycllvilg a texlu,q] lm.sp2t:t:iltz nnrl 1rr
ir lmsltctiiue (p. I63).
,'tIt rtttst tt Ith
l'lrrrs, lrorrr thc rr:r'icws prescnted in earlicr chirptcrs (J>urticrrl:rrlv irr
( ilr:rPtcr'2) :rrrrl subscqucnt stuclies by tlreorists
irncstigatine soci:rl scrln.s.
il st't'ttts tlt:rt sot ial gcttrcs cillrn()t sirrrplv lrc corrcc:1ltrrirlizctl irr (crrrrs ol lr
sirrrlrlt'sclrcrrr:rl.ic ll'lrrrrc:rvork lirr tlrc t.cr{ultrrstagitre ol'l.lrc t.orrtt,rrt r.vitlrirr;r
( itt('H()r'y of tt'xts (litrk<'rl to lirrtrrisli(. lilrlru-r,s),
trlrlrorrull tlris ktrorvlcrlr(.
rrIri' rvcll Pror"i<l<' P;rll ol rlrr' Pit lrrrr,. l{:rllr<'r', <lr:rrving orr llrcor.it.s rrrrrl
tt'st'ltttlt tt'l;rlittu lo:t tttttttlrr'r'()l:tsl)('(l:,i ol rliscorrrs;rl l<rron'l<.rlt<', it is
;rto;rost'tl lrr.rc llr;rl:r t,rorrrrrlcrl rrrr<llrsl:rrrrlirrt, ol llrt.rt:rlrir<,:rrrrl
o;lcr;tliotr ol .t .\r)( r,rl t,(.nt{ ( u( lt .ts ;t
{ illt.|1y11 ,,1 tltilltrr lr.tls iti .trr
.tr.trl, trri, \r'llntJ' ) rrrt,rlrr.i l.rro\rllrlt,r. ol
SO( ]I/\I, ( ]E^\ RE KNO\\T-!] IX )E t3l
o c()ntcxl - ittrolr,ittg spccialist knor'vled{-fe ol'a fiel<l:rrrd its rncals 9{
cornrrrrrrrir':rIiorr (Wicldor,vson, 2004);
o ePistcltlology - 'clisciplilirry assullpti()ps ab6lt tlte natrlre ()f
knor,vlc<ls(.' (l.ca and Strcct, 1998, p. l62);
. stancrc -itrvolvirrg issucs of arklressivity ilrrcl audiencc, such as Ilylirnd
(200--r) rlcst rilrcs in tcrrns o1 thc use of' tn,elo,di.\(:o.uts"'
. content sclrcnlrta - the recognizccl staging o[, content in tcxts, strch
as sclrctnaLic .\lnu:ture (Hasan, 1989) or s)/stcnls o| rnoues all(l .rl4r.!
(Srvirlt's. l1)1){)):
o thc ttse of- cogltitive genrcs to rc:rlizc localizerl rhetorical J)rrrJ)oscs
witlrir-r cxten(lccl texts in relation to a particular rn()vc, step or stage
of schematic stnlctrlrc.
This chapter aims to provide a clctailed disctrssion of knor.vlcrlse tlat
relates to social genres in ternts of tlre fivc areas indic:rtctl ltv thc brrllet
points above: context, cpiste rnolow, stance, contL:nt scherrr:rta arrrl
cognitive {renres. The underlying iclea hcre is that, in rclation to ped:ruonrr,
develoPing trnclerstandings of ancl lranrcr,vorks ftrr senre knorvlcclue (116rlr
soci:rl and cognitive genre knorvleclue) is trscfrrl in trvo arcas of uctiyitv:
o it provides a hetlristic for tlrc analysis of' furtlrerr tcxts (of tlrg srrrrrt'
senre) within a cliscipline;
o it providcs tlle lneans for r'r.riters to crcate their orvn tcxts rvitlrirr tlrc:
sarrle discipline, rvhich requircs a syntlrcsis of socially c()llstlrcte(1,
cogr"ritive arrcl linsuistic kncxvledge.
Thtrs, cach o[ thc follclwing subscctions thut frrclscs ()1 thc clillcrcrrt
aspects of social gcnre knclr,vlcclge corrsists of two parts. TIrc first purt is a
clescription of :r particular aspect of (social uerrrc) knorvlerlsc. This
knowlcclge description is thcn followcd by a srrrall set o{'crrquiry r;Lrcsriorrs
that arc off'ered to zrssist novice r.vritcrs in unpackins thc particular aspect
ol'genrc knowleclge in texts liom tlrc fielcl in rvlriclr tlrey arc e ngased. tle
overall airn of cliffcrent sets of enqtriry questiorls (lbr caclr of tlrc:rrcas of
kDolvlcclee) is to cncottrage novice r'vritcrs to bccornc cliscotrrse analysts in
tlrcir or,vn field b1' dcveloping l'reuristic processcs ancl lianreu,c,rks t9
:rrurlysc thc cliscourses o[ the ir subjcct arcas. The encluiry que stiolls rcqrrirc
slttdcttt rvritcrs to examinc thc cliscourse of tlreir fielcl liorn both an
.tlr'rsrirphic ir'd a rcxt.:rl perspccti'c (Bhatia, 2004, p. 163). Thc
ctlrrr<xlrapllic {ircrrs rcqrrircs thc rrovice lvrite rs to enqage r,vith cxperienccrl
lvt itt't s (of'tlrt:ir- [icl<l) arrrl \,vitlr tcxtlrul t:rsks that involve tlrc gatlrcrinu zrrrl
;rrrrlvsins ol'tr:xts lirrrr tlrcil fic'lrl. Rotlr typcs of actir..ity arc inrport:urt ftrr
rlcr'<'lopirrg tttttl<'tslltrr<lirtes ol tlrc rlilli'x.'rrt tyl)c's ol'krrorvlcdgc necrlccl t6
( ()nslt u( l llrcir orvrr l('\ts ( ()lnlx't<.rrllr,. (llrtrlrlr'r. 7 lirllolt,irrg
rcvisits thesC
t'ttrlttitY r;rrcsliotts tvillrirr llrr'(()nl('xl ol lr corrlsc rrrril llltt |<lcttscts 1;tr a
llilll l'( lll( , lrtr)\lrlirrli lrrrllrt'r rlisr rrssion :rlrorrl llrr^ lt,1r<,s 9l' lrr.liyitit's lr
132 i\( )\DE\.{l( I IVRI'I'II.r(} AN I ) ( ;t.N ltl'
n()vice writcr can unclert.ake to allalysc an(l lur(l('l-s(.lurd tlle genrcs nf'his/
hcr particular clisci Jrline.
6.2 Social genres and context
Irr the ttvo approachers to social genre rcvierwcd in Chapter 2, it is the
rcsrrlarizecl, pllrpclsivc rise of a certailt type o{'t.ext\'vithin a certain context
tlt:rt is a ftrnd:rnrcntal characteristic of the operation of a (sociirl) genre.
I,iugirrs ancl Mart.in (I997), in dcscribing the aPproacl.r to genrc inflrrcnced
by systenric function:rl lin{:[ristics, sav that 'diffcrcnt sclrres are differerrt
rvnys o1'usins langnirsc t() achicve dill-ercnt cttlttlr:rlly cstablislrt:cl ursks' (p.
230). In relation to tlle Eslt approacil, Slvirles asscrts that the prime
deterrninant fbr locating tcrts r,vitl-rin a gellre catesoD is "s'hared
conrrnunicative pttrpose' (1990, p. 46). l-lolvcver, Swales later rnoclifies
his viervs oll the rolc of colllllllllticalive pr-rrpose to stlggest that thc:
iclcrrtification of a {rcnre is achievecl by investig;rting the opcratioll o['texLs
I,r.ithin a context iD ternls of 'sets o{' conlmtlnicative purposes' (Askehavcr
and Swales,200l, p.210). I3otlr:rpProaches then atternpt to establish
stronger or weakcr clairns of detcrrninistic connections betwt:en thc
context-spcci{rc stauiLtg o{' collLernt and lingtlistic fcatures'
In thc approach tnken lrere, it is acceptcd that the rtse of corrvetrtio-
naliz-c<l tcrxtllal Iorms to achievc certain types o{ corrtnlLrnicat.ion lvitltin a
rlis<:iplirrc (social scnres) is in<leecl inflltetrcccl try a ranue of text-t:xternal
I:r(tor's th:rt relate to contcxt-, but tlrat t.hc infltrcnce of these factors orl
lirrerristic cll()ice (rvith thc excePtion of tcchnical or disciplinespecifr('
r,oc::rllrl:rry) is rnecliirtcd and nol deterrriinistic in tlte \'vay stlggested by
llrt'sc tr,vo upproachcs to socri2rl genrc. Irr relatiot-t to creating social genrcs,
ct()ltcxt hcrc is takcl to ltc:rn o\.crarching iclca, I'vhic[ inclldes:
knorvle<lge ol a cliscipline (an<l its lexis), its epistemoloQ1l, schctn:rtic'
strllctllre (for staging of contcnt in texts), ancl the usc of cosnit.ive {rcr}rcs.
In :r recent rcvie\\r of what is actuall,v ntcztllt by context, Wiclclolvsorr
(2004) proposcs tlr:rt, irr relation to crrcatins discolrse, c()ntLrxt nrir)'
rrsefirlly bc clefincd as a 'schernatic construct' involving lroth 'intralinsrtis-
tic:rncl cxtralinguistic fzrctors', and th:rt estal)lishine lr conttlxt is':t
cliscourse process engaged in ll,v the participants tirctnselvcs irt tlrc ortlitrc
aclticvernellt of pragrrr2rlic nrcaninq' (p. ir4). Witl<lorvsott ptrrlrost's tltlrl
'tlrcre is no understanding <t{ t(ixts trs tt scrtllrtttir l)l-()(('\\. rt'Pltrltlt'Iiottt.
an(l prior t(), 1t prlrglnati( ('vululllion, tvlri< lr lrr-irrgs ( ()tll(^xl irrl<> pl:rr''
(2004, p. 3l-r). Sirrrilrrr-I,v, wlrt'rr rr^lrrlin{.1 (r)nt('xl rrrrtl (sot irrl) B('rrr1', lilrrrti:r
(2004) st:rt('s Ilt:tt 'lllirrerristir lirrrrrs <lo r';ttt\,spcr ilit qt'tt<'tir vltlttcs, lrttt
llrc orrlt,\\,llY r)ri( r lrn :rssirirr tlr r iqlrt qcttct ir t';tlttt" lr, .ttty litrLittislir lr';tltttr'
ol lltc qt'tttc ir l,t tclctt lttt lr) l( \l ( \l('ltt,tl l.r, l.tr' (1r I l1)) Ilrlrs' irr
rcl:rliorr to (.rl(t,,lt{" rrl ttlt,,lr',tr.t,l,ttti, l{'\l', llr.ll l'r'l"rrll lrt,t lr,ttlirttl.rr
.,,,, t.tl t,, tnr r llr li'r\. .r lttlrtttt, ttlt,tl \\r,l,l,'r. ,'rr r 'rllr .r ltl.ll'lll.lll(
S( X ]Ir\L (]ENI{I.] KNO\\, T-F]D(iE 133
cvaluatiorr rvorrlrl lrJ)l)car to clrarv upon both spccialist kr-rorvlecluc of- the
ficld to wlriclr tlr<'l('xt relates (the extralingr.ristic f:rctors) and spccialist
knowleclse o1'tlrc lirrrrts of corrlrnunication :rnd the particulnr lcxis of a
field (the intralirrsrristic f actors).
Thtrs, it is srrg{lcstcrl tfuat 1<-ryice writcrs r,vho are in t]re pr<rcess 6f
acquirir-ru an insi<lcr tttrclcrstandirrs of a gcnre of their cliscipline shoulcl
first consitler thc contcxtual I'catrlres which cnclor,v thc genre rvith
speciurlist meartitttrs for metnbcrs o1'thc part.icular cliscipline. Tlrcy neecl
to cousider thc Ii:rtures of the genre that rnake it cocled in rel:rtir>n to the
spccific typcs of knor'vledgc and forrns of cclmmunication ol tlreir field.
For novice writers, sorne possible enrlrriry qrrcstions to interrosate the
contcxt of clisciplirurry gerlre ntay include:
l. Wh,at is tlrc mrtin or rnsra,ll rea.sort ultl expet't rertdts uln utorh in tlrc subjet:t,
arcn uou,lrl. uant to tprul this Lype of lext?
2. Wtat (iJ anl arc tlLc types of' sftuialized knozuledgc ncc6sot\ to full1,
unrler.start,d, lln rcntcttl in,forntation of- tln text?
3. Wm,l spr:cialisL uoca,buknl, is rler:e.t.sat) Jbr prccessing a,nd, .u.ttd,o..sta)ttli.tr!!.
lltis text?
In clevclopinu cliscipline-specific :lnswcrs to Questi()lr l, rrovit:t. rvrirt.r's
coulrl cx:rrninc texLs fiom thcir lielcl (that rel:rtc to a pirrticul..rr.ecrrnr) rrrrrl
{irrtn sotrtc lrypotlrescs about rea(lcr prlrpose. They coulrl tlrcrr tcst tlrcir
Irypotheses by sur-veyirre :lcadcmics or professionals who lroth rcixl ancl
contrilrttte ttt the literattrre o{'the {ield. In rclation to colnlnonlv namt:cl
g('llr('s. sttclt:ts rese:trtlt ilrti(l('s. slu(l('lls in tlrt,slrrrt'tllrss. aftt]r lrlrviuu
irrvcstig;atccl texts Il'orn therir respcctive disciplincs, coulcl thcn corrrparc
tlrcir findinss.
Irr responding to Questions 2 ancl 3, novice r,vritcrs could cvaluate thc
cxtcnt and infltrence o1 <liscipline-specific lcxis in shaping the tcxts of thcr
Bcrrrcs of thcir fielcl. To achieve this, studcnts can analyse their sarnple of
t<'xts lbr clisciplinc-specific ryltcs of knor,vledge ancl lexical irems.
(i.3 Social qenres and epistcmology
r\tt irttpot tlttll llsPcct ()f contextual knor,vledgc that infltrences tlle natlrre
:rrrrl lirlrrr ol rvlitt<:rr uncl spokcn gcnrcls is episternological vicwpoint -
rt'llt'r'tctl irr lrorv ('xl)crts rvorking irr a particular fiel<l r,icw, usc arrd report
littrrrvlt'<lg<'. 1'lris is stl[)l)()r'lo(l Iry tlrosc rvorkirrg in the alndcmic litctu.cies
ttrrt(rr,ntt'nt (scr.Lt'lr lrrrrl Slr-<'<'r, llXlu, l1X)1);.forrcs, Trrrrrcr:rn<l Street, lg99;
Stit'rt'r, ?(XX)). rvlro lroltl tlr:rt :r siqrrif i( lnlilsl)('( l ol <lis<iltlinaryrlilfcrences
ttt :tr,trlcttti, rrritirrq rirtr Irr' .rrrorrrrl<'<l I()r'in l(.r'lns ol'rlif'li'rt'rtcgs <ll'
r';rrsllrrrolol'r Ior ( \.rrlrlr'. I r'.r rrrrrl Slrt.r.t (l1)1)l.l) srrgt('ril llt:tt 'wltill
Itt.tl.,i.r l)r.rr',,1 trtilrrrr,.rl'l'r,'llr.rtr'lrritlrirr ,r p,rrtirrrl;rr rlisrilrlirrr.l lr:rs
r34 ,\( l.\Dll\ll( I \\IRI'IIN(; ,\N I ) ( :l' N lil
In()re t() clo rritlr issues of e pistcrn()l()gy tlrlrrr r'r.'itlr srlrl:rcc {'eattrres ()l-fi)rln
... fan<ll undcrlvillg, oftcn rlisciplirurrl' assrrrrrl)li()lls abotrt the n:tttlre ()f
kntrrvferlge affcct the trtc:tttittg gi\rcrt t() tlt<' lctttts stt11,d'ttl'cltncI tt{umntl'
(p. l(;2). This is also sttpportccl by II1'lrrrrrl (2(X)0), rvlto accottnts firr
intcrulisciplinary rlill'crences in acarlcrnic lvlitirrg in tertns ol'c1;istt:rrroltt-
sit:al vicrv ancl thc rolc of thc disciplinallr (:()rlultul)it), arl(l its practiccs,
irrclrrrling: 'IclisciPline l cornrnurritl.rccogniscd rvays of atlopting a position
anrl exprcssing stance . . . As a rcstrlt, tlrc rlrctorical conventions cr1' eacll
tcxt \vill rcflect s()nrctlling o1'thc cpistcnroloeical zrntl social lrsstuuptiorrs
ol'thc auth()r's cliscipliniuy cttlturc' (p. I I).
I Iolvcver, :it tlris point it nlust be statc(l th?rt tln(le rst.andillg thc
cpisternolow of n partictrlar rliscipline cannot be aclrievecl erxcltrsivcly as
an utornizctl lcarning task in a writing class. T<t ttuclcrstatrcl tlrc
cpistcrnolouical vicrvpoints of acnclcrnics lvorkirtg in a particrrlar sultjcct
ilrcu - lrorv thcv vicrv knorvlc(lgc - a nccessary co-conclitiott is ttt havc :rrt
rrn<lerstancling o['ltorv Lltes, t:r'ca,te knorvleclgc. The rcscarch or knowlctlge-
crcatins pirracliettts enrplovctl rvithin a disciplirrc (incltrcling thc
irpproachcs, stvlcs ntrcl rnctlro(ls o['research - sec (loltctr, Manion antl
Morrison, 2000) clcurh' shal)c its rerscarch activities ancl givc rise to tltc
episternolog;ical vicrvpoints tlrat crncrger in thc r'vritirrg ol' thc cliscipline.
Un<lcrst.anrling thc conscquenccs ol' tltis kncxvlcclge-creating p:rracliunr
cannot, thcrclbrc, ()ccrlr ill A vzlcuurn. It scerns that a c:l-uctiitl aspcct of tlrc
problcrns {acc<l by apprcnticc st.ttrlent r,vrilers in tlrc ac?rdcmy is tlurt
irrlirrrnatirtn altotrt knolvlcrlsc-cre:rting rvithin tlrcir partictrlar {relcls is ttr
s()lnc cxtcllt r,tithlrcl<l ulltil stu(lcllts reach postqraflu:rte lcvcl. At tl-ris lcvcl
tlrr'\,ulc rnorc likclv t() ellc()tult('r lrrirnarl'rcports of resc:rrch in their ficlrl
arr<l t0 trn<lcrt:rke rcsearch nrclhOtls c()tlrses att<l carry otlt rese:rrcll
ltrrrjccts tlrclrrseh,cs. ()n tlrc otlrcr hancl, undergr:rduirtcs tcn(l to cllc()ttll
tcr rescarch in sccon<lat,.r reports, sucll as in tcxtbooks, an<l arc less likcll'
to be requirecl to pcrfirrrrr rt:searr:lr tlrernsclr,es. As :r resttlt ol this clelayc<l
cxposrlre to thc kno'rvlcclge-creatitrg Paradigrrls of their ficltls, ilpprelrtitt'
rvriters (both nutivc- ancl non-rlnti\/e-speakers) arc '['ccling tlteir tvay' <>t'
firllorr'ing tlrcir instincts in the early -vears ol thcir:rcatlctrtic r'vritins tlntil
thc firll picturc of tlreir clrosen clisciplinc or ficld enlcrscs latcr in tlrt'ir'
studics. Thcrefirre , tasks th:rt rcl:rtc to the epistetttologt' ol- a J)llrti(:lllltl
fielrl rrcccl to exarnine kr-rorvlcrlgc creating atr<l ltou'it. is t:tt'r'icrl ottt itt tlrt'
{lcl<1 and srr}>seqttetrtly lrolv it inllttcnct:s krt<xvlcrlgt' t-cyrot titttt.
An illustration tl['tltc irrllrrcrrcc ()l-cJ)istonl()loev tlr:tt ttt:ty lrt' rrrt'ltttittglirl
t() ln()rc atlvarr<rtrl l)()slq-r'ir(lll:rl(' rvr-itt'r's is llrrrvitlr'<l lrt' llt'r'kt'rrkollt't ;tttrl
Iluckctrr (19{).5) irr lclrrtiorr t():r trtn(l irr r<'1>orlirtg lriologv tt:sr':ttt lt.'l ltcr
sttgq('sl llutl ccrrlr:rl Io llrt lor rrs on lrroltssiott;tl rr';trlitttl lttttl 1rt, t,'ttlittt'
t't'st':tttlr lirrrlirrris irr lrirrlo!'\ lr)lurr;rls is lltc nlcrl l. s.tlrslv lltc sr':tttlt lrtt
i',r,,r'sri,,l ,,'a\ r"l,r,,'.'r!,",.,\ln.i,,lh r{l.,rr,!, r,, r,'t),(\ ',,x,,,,s,il
',,
I
k
SOUAL GENRIi KNO\TT,I.]D( iF, 135
f'ltcts ancl, ()rr llr('lrlrsis ol'these facts, rnaking inferences. Tl-re
litcrature 9f
biology is rrr.srlv l)rcscntccl in thc l'orrn of 'the four-p:rrt expcrimental
articlc ccrrnplisirrs of'Introduction, Materials :urd Mcthocls, Results, ancl
Discttssiotr sc(li()ns, c:rclr of n'hiclr serves to codity scientific activity into a
cohercr-rt nlrrrati\/c oI' inductive cliscovcry' (lgg5, p. 46). Ilowever,
Berkenkotter alrl I Itrckcn proposc that articles in biology-jotrrnals have,
()vcr tilnc, rnorlificrl thcir genre conventions to ernphasize the news or
newr)css aspcct of t.lrc corltcnt of an article. To achieve this, they say that
thc :rrticles that thcy cxarnined sp:rr-rnine a Zl>year periocl showecl
evidencc of thc sraclrral use of longer and rnore informative titles. Also,
abstracts lrave bccome longer ancl more inhrrmative, ancl introductions
contain rnorc detailccl sunrmaries of tlre final results of the research.
Therc is eviclcttce of tnore ttsc of infornrative subheadings to guidc the
reader to the 'ncwsworthy' parts of the article, and g;reatcr use of vistral
aids srrcli as eraphs, linc clr:rwings, scher.natic cliagrams and phororraphs.
Mcthods scctions Irave becorne srnaller ancl less prominent, in sorne cascs
beirrs rclocateci to tlte end of the articlc in srrraller type. They susscst tlurt
in thc fielcl of'biologv:
Tlrc scientificjotrrnal articlc is er:rdlrally takins on text f-c:rturcs t.lrirt art^
nualogrttts to tllose o1-ner'r's rcports, an<l in so doingis conlilrrtrinLf rll()l('
to thc actttal rc:rrling practices of working scientists. In an irrcrcirsirrgly
corllPctitive rvorlcl lvltcre thcy are delugcd with inforrn:rtion, scicrrtists
nrust rearl quicklv and efficiently. A top-down layotrt of irnportant
inlirrm:rtion facilitates a sclcctive rcading process. (Rcrkenkottcr and
Iluckcn, 1995, p" 39)
Il'cpisternolow is consirlerecl to bc ir major influence on the crcation of
<liscourse within spccific acaclenric disciplines, the task, thereforc, fbr the
ttot'ice writcr is to gain a clear undcrstanclins of thc (epistemoloeical)
vicwp()ints that un<lcrpin and influence the r,vriting of tlreir fielcl. It seerns
tlurt {irr nurny stu(lents, developing an understanding of this type of
krrolvlcclse (partictrlarly in tcrrns of its influence on writing) has to be
rl,rrc ovcr tirne dr.rring tlrer beginncr lvriter's engaqement lvitl"r their
p:rlticular rliscipline , since this type oI' infornr:rtion is not alrvays overtly
r:rrrelrt. For cxurnplc, lvhen the nrethodologics of knor,vleclge-creating are
llrrrelrt (srrclr us irr rcscarch rnethocls conrses), it is often thc c:rse that ncr
<lirr'<'t lirrks lrrr: rrr:rrlc l>ctween strch methoclologics and the forrns oI'
I'rrorvl<'rle<'-rr'Portirru o[' tlrc particrrlar fielcl.
'I'lrrrs, <'rrr;rrir1'<lrrcstions for novice
nriters seeking to uncover the
r'lristr,rrroloqics ol tlrc socilrl gcnrt:s ol'[lrcir particular discipiine coulcl
irrr ltrrlt':
136 AO\DEMI[] Wl{l'l'lN(; r\Nlr ( il'Nlil' S()CrAL OU.NRE KNO\\]_EDGE 137

3. IIout is neu, knolltle(lg? repul?d, itt tlri.: .ttrltlr'r I rtrt'rL'l Hyland (2(x)l-)) :rscribes an irrrportant rolc r() ir catesory ol' lirrurristic
4. I\hat rnahes a pie(.e of ut'rilittg of this lvln'1rtf tr ttrla,i'n disciplinaty ucnrc) feattrrcs tlr:rl lx' r<'rms 'm,ctorl,iscotr,r'sr. IIe defincs mel-atliscorrrse as 'llrc
a,ppropriate? trleans by rvlrit'lr prrrpctsitionirl content is made colrererrt, intcllisiblg alrl
perstr:rsivc to:r p:rrticrrlar aucliencc' (p.3!l). Hyl:rnd presents a nroclcl 1irr
Knowing tlre answe rs to Qrrestions I :rr rrl 2 is ct'r t lt rtl to the issue o[' trovicc intcrpersonal nrct:rrliscourse fe:rtures involving |nt.eral:tiue .ancl i,tttu.a.t:tionnl
writers gaining an ttnclerstanclirrs ol lltt^ <lis<ottrsc of thcir Partictllar resollrces (scc'I-:rblr: 6. I follorving).
subje ct arca. To AnSWer these cltrcstions, sl tt<lctrts neecl lo bcgin to
understand (er,en in a rudilnenl-ary wrty) lltc rcsearcll or knowlcclge- Table 6.1: IIyl:rnrl's intcrpersonal rnoclel o[' rnetacliscorrrser
creating paradigms of their field, anrl tlrt' rrrrrlt'rlyins assullrpti()ns of thosc (lat('Hotl, l rrrrr.tiorr !,xltnplcs
paradiFims. They need to be:rblc to irlcrrtily lltc rcscarch nrcthods that are Inlilw(jre ldl uifu
I thc nader thnu!:h th? td! lleioutrtt
most coltllnonly tlsed in their field, lrrrrl to collsider the assttnrptiotrs 'l'ransitions t'xprt'ss lt'latiotts l)(t\r(('ll nlain (lalls('s irr arl<litiorr; ltrrt; tlrrrs; irrr<l
underlying such ltlethocls ancl how tlrosc itsstrtnptions infltre nce the Frarrrt' rnark<'rs
Iin<lrlpltori< tttarkt'ts
r<'fi.r to tliscorrrsc i(.ts, s('(lllcl)(.(.s ()r stilg(,s finlll_v; to rorrtlurk,; rnr.ltrrrlrost. is
rt'fi'r t() in1()fntirtiori in oth<'r pitrts o1 tlrr. rrotr.tl ;rlxlt'; scc Irig: iir .sectiqrr 2
communication of knowleclge. To atrsr,vcr tltcsc <;rtestions, sttldellts coulcl t( xt
exarnine recent isslres o{'t}re rescarch-rcporting-iottrrtals of'tlteir fielcl, ancl L,vidcntials
(ir<lc g)osscs
xftr ttl ittfitrttrntiott fionr ()llr('r t(,xts
t'llllrratc ptttPositiorral rrrclrrirrgs
ltrorrlirrg I(l X; Z stlrl('s...
,ra,rrcl,; ii.g.; suc.lr ls; irr ollrt l rrorrls
iclentify the research ntethods crnployccl. Thcy tlrer-r neecl tt.r consider fhe
ontological ancl episte mologicirl asstrtnptions that trnderpin the se lnl.ril(Lioilal
llcrlgcs
lnuthn (hc trudil in thr trx! llc.totrn*
n'ithlrolrl qrrrlrritrncrrt iutrl oltt,rr rlinlogrrc rrriglrt; JtcrlraPsi Possilrlt,; alxrrrt
methods. llq)stcrs cttrph:rsizt'(('rtairln or closc <lialogrrc irr frut;-rlclirritclr:; it is <lcar tlrrrt
FinclinS answcrs to p-uestions 3 ancl 4 inyolvcs consi{ering hor'v thcr Attitrrclc rrrarkcrs
Sttlflttrt'tttiotts
cxltrtss rvritt'r's attitll(lo to ltroPositi0rr
cxlrli<it r<'fi'rcrrc<.t() aptlt()t(s)
llIl,)ttilt)it(.lu I :rgrct.; s11111115i11g11
l; *,c; rrrr.; ,,rt,;,rrr,.
particular aspects ol knor,vledge creatins ancl kr-rowlcdge tlse (that they L.ttgagt'rtrcrrt rnllkr.rs t'xlrli<itlv brrilrl t.<latirtrrslrip \,ith rt,u<lt,r corrsirlt,u il()t(,: \()ll (.ln \(,(,
Llncovcr when resear-ching; Qrrestions I ancl 2) are tnirrorecl iu the writtetr (Hylancl, 2005, p. 4!))
discourse of thcir freld.
Hylancl 's rnodel provides a ttscful approaclr t() svstclnatizinu tlrc lirrurrisrit.
resotlrccs enrploycd by lvriters in establishillg tlrcir stllnce irt rcspcct ol'
6.4 Social genres and writer stance their subjcct-rnatter and thcir enga{rclnent r,vith their a.urlicrrce. Il6rvcycr,
in relirting I Iylancl's nretadiscoursc rnodcl to tl)c sernrc liarncrvork
The ovcrall contcxt and epistcrrrological vielvpoint of a particular fielcl, irr prescnted here (of coenitivc/sociirl gcnres), it is proposccl that:r ftrcrrs
trrrn, both exert an infltrcnce on the stance or starulpoint that a rvritt'l on thc linguistic clcvices in Ilylirr-rcl's rnodcl referred to us'transiti<rrrs'are
a(loprs in comrnunicating with liis/her rcaders. Baklrtin (1986), irr Inore appropriately placecl within thc cosnitive lie nre catcsory il- orrc alscr
clescribing his notions of zrcldressing a hcarer throush sPokcn langttauc, trses the cognitive genre nroclel to analyse tcxts. Il this r,vay, tr:ursition
statcs that 'from thc very beeinninq, the Lltterance is const.ructed lvhilt' rnarkers are rnore comprchensively accotrnted Ior by crornbie's (lgg5)
taking into accollnt possible responsive reactions' (p. 9a). Rakhtirr interpropositional relatiotts, rvhich, :rs (lronrbie lrcrself says, inr,glyc l>etlr
proposcs that r,vriting, like speakinFi, is also dia,logic - a clialo5;trc befrvcctt scmantic and pragrn:rtic considcrations. It is inrportant to note t.llat irl
the writer and the reader and that writing is constrttctecl lvitl-r tlrt' :rcacletnic cliscortrse srtch so-callcd 'transitions' cilnnot always bc rerluccrl
expectations ancl knolvleclge of the reader in rnincl. Likc Bakhtin, I lylarr<l to lists ol'sranrrrr:rtical signallers, since rnuny cliscorrrse signallcrs, suclr as
(2005) also emphasizes that writing is clialogic 'becausc it Ir'vritirrg,^| tlrosc of rczlson, lneans, prlrpose :rnrl chronology, are elrectccl lexically
presLrpposcs and responcls to an active andience, ar)d beczrttse il trtltkcs (srrclr:rs by thc rrsc o1-r,crbs, particles, nouns or norninal groups) orsirrrply
links to other texts' (p.88).Thrrs, in acerderrtic wrilten q(:I)rcs <'t'c:tlt'tl tltrottslr tlrc.jtrxtlltosition of prop<tsitional content to achicye ccrt2irr
within specific disciplincs, this ztwarencss of a particttlilr cxl)crl t<':trlt't rrrt';rrrirrrl r t.l:rl iorrslr iPs.
:ruclience (involvinu thc rvritcr's ancl rca<lcrs' sltrtrt:tl krr<tr'vlc<lgt' ol llrr' l')rr<;rriry <;rrt'stiorrs scc:kirr{r to cxarrrinc r,vriters' stance in a Jxrrtictrlur
activities and cx1ant lilcr':rtrrrc ol'llrr' Iiclrl) t'lrrrs<'s llt<'rvlil<'t'to l:tlit' ittlo <lis< iplirr:u'v socill qcrrlr.r'otrltl lrc:
?tccoultt. a rlulg(. ol rlisci;llirr:u'V ( ()nt('xllrlrl llrt tots itt ()t<l<'t l() ( l(':ll( ilrl
ac:cc:1rt:tlrlt'r<'lrliz:rliorr ol l gcrttt'.'l'lrt'st tottlt'riltt;tl l;tr lots tvill irrvolvc tll,' l - ll'lrrtl lttnt: of tlrt' rt'.tr .sltlt i.fitnlll, lttitlr rtr .sltrrrh rlint:!ly lo lltc warlrr?
:rlrclr<11, rrr<'rrliorrr,<l:rrt':rs ol rlisrilrlirr:rrr (()rll('ttl l.tt,trtl,tltlr';rrrrl t'lrislt'
tnoloqit :tl vi<'tv1r,'irrl. ' f',,1i, 1'1. llrl.rrrrl. l( (lllx)t,) i\ltlrtr!ittrttrrtt,. l,orrrlorr: (lorrtirrrrrrrrr. l':rlrlc
Irr llrl r.st.rlrlirlrrnrtrl of llrr' .tl)l)tol)tr.rllttr'',', ,,1 lltt '.l,tttr t ,'l .t trtil, t
Ir'lrrorlrr, r'rl I'r I rrr,l lr(.lrr\\torr ol ( lrnlirrrnun llt(.l rr,rliorr.rl I'rrlrlislrirrri (;tolll).
138 A(lAl)EN,tI(l \tRl'llN() r\Nl) (:l Nl{l' S()ClAt. (;ENl{E KN()WLEDGE 139

lht rtrt'ilt't:'s tlttitude toturn'd's lhe case studi('s (ltlrrrtia, 1993); and grant proposals fbr H,uropeun union
2. Wttt tlnferttrtrcs of ktttguaut
n't'c t'ltrtl' slrrrttt
research enull:i (Ooruror ancl Mzrur.ancn, lggg).
lext a,nd ils content?
Thtrs in :tP1-,r'.:rr:lring the tcaching o1'a clisciplinary senre or part scnre
3.Wtata,rctheJerl,turtlsrlftllclallgurlpt'tl|llttlr.r:t.l'lrlt,a,retryingklinfl,uence (such as tlrc Disttrssit)r] section in research articles), t.he issue rcrpains of
or persuatlc the read,cr in sorn'c turrl'l
in tlu, ttxt rril, rrgl(il1 rtsul to conncct id,eas? ho$' t() crnplol, u sclrcrn:rtic or lno\re and step stnlctrlrc (il'one has bccn
4. wiru.r.fent,ures 0f kmgu,uga
ofl'ered). Itt rclatiort to learner n'riters, thc key issue is th:rt r,vhcnever this
also applying type ol'schertta is prescntccl, itslroulcl be able to providc a heuristic for the
Analysing thc ntetacliscoursal clctncrtts ol l s-t'ttt'<' ittvolves
It-ottt :t genre. I1-a class of analysis ol' firrthcr texts (o1' the sarne genrc) within :r discipline, lrtrr a
the enqtr"iry questions to a set o1'texts lrttt'licttllrr
ol't.cxts, tlrt:ir fintlillgs could leacl to a hetrristic that shotrld contain sufficiently general higherJevel oruanizing
novice r,vriters has a comrnorl sarrtplc
rnarkers fiorn strtlctlrrcs to allolv lirr a range of inter-textual differences r,vithin a single
particular lbcus on salient catcgories o{' rrtctatliscourse
if they are part.ic*larly in genre (sec Paltriclee, 1993a, 1997). while it is useful to provide lcarners
itylu,.r.l', r'odcl, lor exa*plc ltetlges anrl ltoo.sLar,t,
sanrplc .l'texts' A'other apprtlach with a contertt. scherna fbr a particular gcnre that relatcs to their learning,
cviclc'ce in the ..,,ttt"t"-'11' "*a"rit"cl
it is irnportant to ask learttcr-writcrs to usc it critically to exarninc a samplc
worrlclbetclprcserrtanclexelnplifyt'lrecatcgt>ricsolHylarrcl'snrodelfirst
ancl t5e' ge:t rrovice writcrs [fior. clift'cretrt clisciplirles)
to cxrmitre a oI'text.s, perhaps trsing some variation o{'the research questions off-crcrl
fbr frequerrtly oc.currittg bclor'v:
partictrlar.n..',," frorn t}reir own clisciplitrc
cotrlcl thcn rtndertake sorne discrtssion
rnetacliscoursal I'eat.ures. The class
.
9f the diflcrelces in the ways that clifl'erent clisciplines aclclrt:ss their
I Wt'ct't prttterns nf cotttent s/rtgint ltauc alreodl bee'n proposed
Jbr tli.s (rttt stttl,
langtiage' of texls? OR: Wtot pottcr,n appea,rs to be used, to organizc !,ln utn,tent, ol tltt
auclience through their clifferent Lrse clf rnertacliscortrsal
lext.s?
2. 7-a ulmt utent does tlris pattern appll to tlrc r:ontatt of lou,rsample of t.rxl.t'?
of content 3. Wticlt of lour ktxts uary Jirnn tlut lrtttern, a,nd, irt stlta,t urrys?
6.5 Social genres and the staging
4. Ialrcre uruiation from tlrc pa,ttttrtt, occurs, roltnt arc tln possibk 'loca,l' n,a.srnt..s
As alre acly discussccl in tltis chapter, it is regularities itr cotnmon .[or this in tlrc uo,riant ktxts?
c.r'r''nicati'e forms usecl to achievc a partictrlar commtrnicative purpose Tlre qucstions relate(l t() contcnt staging coulcl bc appliccl to a sirrnple oI'
t'o cle{inirrg
(<rr sct ol cornrrrttrricatir,e prrrpclses) tl)zrt are Secn aS ct-'rrtral
purposes (Ilyon' 1996 )' ln particular' texts bclonging to a partictrlar genre category. IJowever, when consiclering
s,rc'ial genres, sttch as for peclaiogic
of thc contcnt in certaitr tyPes of texts were contcnt stasing lirr thc prlrpose of student analyses of texLs, it rnay be
..,g,.,1^iiti"s in the staging
,o',l"iir-ri,-rg {Jelrres in t}re two :rpproaches reviewecl ilr rnore trseful to focus on higher-level, rnore gerreral content structures
reiardecl as central
(strch zrs nroves), rather thnn rnore specific content schemata (sucl-r as
Cti.pt"r 2. There, the review irict,-,a"a the approachcs tcl genre.influencccl
steps), since r'vith an increusccl spccilicity of fircus will corne greatcr
bysysterrricftrnctionzrllirrgtristicsarrdtlleapprclaclroftireEnglislrfclr
vari:rtiorr of orsanizational choices and, thus, gre:rter clifficulty in estali-
SpecificPtrrposes,''o..,",''..",.'t.Ir.rbcltlrapprclachels,attcmptsarenradettl
the content lishing gcneralizable patterns. Furthermore , if the Ibcus is on a part-genre
relatc the conl,entionally recogniz-ccl, oreanizational stages of
tlrat relates to a rel:rtively hornopJeneous prlrpose (for exarnple Methocls
of a social genre to act*al iinguistic f'eatures of cxern'lar texts. Thcr
terrns of a schentatir' rrnrl Results sections in research articles), it
systemic funltional approach to conte nt staginu is in
nray actrrally be rnore useful to
upprouchis in tcnns of lno\/es alrd stePs' Rcscarclr cx:rrninc thc organizational stnrcture o{'the text in terrns ol the usc of. a
structllre, and the US'e
thc !lSI' Pr-c<lorrrirrant cognitive gcnre than to focus on lowcr-level content
that oflers patterns for acaclenric texts tencls tcl largely follow sclrc'rrLrtir. -lltrrs,
hltvt' it is irnportant. to separate the iclea of content schemat.a
approachto genre . Aspects of acaclernic articles tl-rat report
research
((ilctllrill, llrrrrr irlt'trs oI grtrrcral rhctorical stnlctrlre as tlre l:rfter rnay bc more
b""r, q.,it., i*ntensively analyscd, fbr exarnple: Introrh'rctitlrrs. rrs<'lirllt' t <tttsi<lt't-crl itt rclutiorr t() t.llc use of'cosnitive gerlres; this issue is
1994)' Rcsttlts st'tlit,tts
2000; Samraj ,2002;Srulalc', l!190, 1998; Thotrrpson'
rlisr rrss,',1 irr tlrr. lirllorrirrq sr.r'tiorr.
(Brett 191)4;"Williarns l()9()) lrlrl l)isctrssi6rl strt:ti.tts (ll()pkirrs'llrl
I)tr<llt'1'

Ilvatrs, l{)f38;.f:rr'olry, l,<'<'<lr rrrr<l Iloll<'' l{)1)5; l't'rr{' l1)lt7;

Swllcs:ttt<l lit'rrlt'
gt'ttt1s llt:rl lr;ty(' ltt't'tt:tttltlvs<'tl itt
l1)1)4). ()rlrt'r tr,.lr<l..,rri. 9r 1r;6li'ssi6tt;tl
st iclt, t'llissltlltliolts (l)rrtllt y
l<,t.rrts ol :t n)()\'(, :rrr<l slr.1r,,,,,,',tt.'irrr ltrrl.:
l1)l'11). I loIl.irts;ttrrl l)rrrllt'r'l''r''tttr' l'li{i{1 1"'Ittl'ttizt rl lrrcrli' 'rl
l,,r':rrts, l1)ll(;,
l('\l\ (\1yo1,rr. lr)tll).;r,lt.rlrlrlir.tliott. s,rltr lrlr'lttillloll l(ll(l\ 'lll(l lt'1i'rl
140 r\C,\l)ll\11(i \\'ltl l lN( ; \\l) { 'l \llil S(XIIAL (}IiNRE K\O\\L[]IXIF, I41

6.6 Social genres and cognitive gcnrcs nonJingrristir t'ir<'r'i:r, ancl tlrcy are valid in thosc terrns' (Biber, 1989, p.
39). 'fherclirrr', rlrt' :rpproach outlinecl in this chaptcr h:rs involvccl
In (lllapter l, it rvas staterl tlr:rt $,lrol<' lcrts rr'.rlizirrg tlill'crcnt social gcnres clescribitrs soti:tl q<'nrtr knorvleclse in ternrs of the 'nonJinguistic criteria'
(srrch as scientific rctP()rts) t,vpitlrllv t otrtlrirtt' rrtt<l lintnc a r:rttgc ol' ol'crlntcxt, cpist<'rrrology, stance , schematict stllctrlre and use of ctrglitiye
c6gtritir,c {-fLrllrcs. I I<l1Vctvcr, solttt' n'llolt' l('\1li, sttclt irs lirr elXample {rcllres (scc tlrt'sunrnrrry in Tablc 6.2 fbllowins). The suggested quesrions
illStllcti()lt rpltttttitls, trtay llc ltss<tti:tlt'<l tvitlr:r siltgltl cogttiliVC gctrre by Ibr learncrs irr rtllrion to each of tlrese knowledge arcas provicle:r
vir-trrc <t1'tlrg fact tlrat tlrcv lln'c:r sirrglc rlrcloli<:rl yltrpose. ((krunitivc hetrristic to rlcr:orrstrtrct social genre knolvleclee in a partictrlar context.
{Icnrcs, trs statcrl prcviotrsl,v, llt'c sll ('1( ll('s ol l<'xt tlrat realize a SilllllC
rltctorical ltttlposc.) In ()haptcr'1, lt Ittorlt'l lirl c<xlnit.ivc {rcllrcs \'vlts Table 6.2: Frarrrcrvork fnr analy'sing social scrrrcs
pr()lx)sed its a \\'1i)/ o['<lcscrilring l)11)t()t\,1)i(:rl tlis<'ottrsc Pattcrns tltat rcsltlt
Iiorn t,vpcs o['r]lct()rical pttrposc tltltt t ottttltottl\' occttr in ac:r<lemic prosc. Tvpcs of knorvledqe Rese:rr-ch questiorrs relatins to
Rccausc tlle tl'l)c of classificution rrsc<l lrt'r't' is rlt'scribccl in tcnns ol- a ()r'elrll coltlcxt Specializecl srrbject krron'ledqe Overall reacler motir,:rtions fbr
ptotoryp? t,ffu:t (scc Rosch, l97U), actual tcxtu:tl rcrtlizations (){ the ln()del relating to collcepts :rlld text eltgagcrneltt, spccialize(l
1ra,v [c gradcd ()ll a collt-inuurn li()nl cxatttltlt's tltrtt ltrc highly PrototyPical :rctivities; par-allel specialized srrltject knorvlcclge arrc[ spe-
lingrristic knorvlcclge suclr as cialized srrb.ject vocabulatl
(t|ut slr<lrv all 9l'thc charactcristics ol'tlrc rrro<lcl) to cxatrll>les that:tre teclrnical r<rc;rlrrrlarl
nrorlcnrlcll, or otrlv sliUhtll, prototyllical, rlislllaf ing thc ttsc ol' Fcrvcr
liPisternolopl' L)isciPlinarl :rppro:rclrcs to The crcation, rrse and report.
f'catures 0l t.hc ttrotlel. ancl r':rlrres conccrnirrq knorv- ing of knorvledec lvi(hin ;r
Mtrch has becrr rliscusscrl :rnd proposccl irr prcviotts cllaptcrs rclatilrS; ttr leclgc, its fbr-rnation arrd rrse particular. discipline
the irrtcrnal stl'ucture atrrl typcs of' knorvlctlge crrrployc<l by cognitivc \\rr-it.cl stancc Attitrrdinal leatrrres ol-lan- Use ol larrsrraqc in tenrrs ol
{rel)r3s, tlrt',rclgre thcrc is no in1entiot't to rt:r'isit tltose issttcs hcrc. (Tlrc' gtlage re latcd to :tdclressing intcr-:rctir.e :rncl interacliorr:rl
litst secti()n o1'Olraptcr1-r provirlcs an extcnsit'e cliscttssion of'tlre tcachirrg ancl appealirrg to the audi- rnetadiscourse
9[- c6glitiyc gclrc krrtxvlcrlge rvitlrin thc corttc--xt of rvrititrg instrtrction.) At cltce
tlris point, ltor,ver.er, tltc issrtc is consi<lerirlg the rtse of'cognitivc gcllrcs Sclle ttratic Stl'ttcttlr(' (lonverrtionalizcd patterns lbr Schernzrtic stluctul-c or. nl()vcs
rvitlrirr lirrgcr social gcltrcs - ustrallv rvholc tcxt.s. In lltrger, conrplt:x lvltlrlcl staging crtrtain types of corr- antl steps
t.cxts, sttclr as resc:trt:h rcl)()rts ()r (lisscrtlltions, it catr bc hclpfirl ttr
tclt t

cxarninc l)arts ()[ tcxts ()r corl'ent.iott:rlizcrl scctirltts of tcxt.s in l.crnls ol Use of ccxrlrilive ecl)les (losnitivc p:rtterns ol textrral (loqnitivc gerire krrowlerlge
or.qarr iz:rtiorr
tlrcir lsc 6l'6pc ()r nt()rc cognitivc {r('nrcs. For cxntrtple, stti(lcnts c:ltl
cxnruirrg a nrn11c ol- Mcthocls sccti()lls in rcsearch rctP()rts irr their {reltl.
Tlris can provide a basis lirr ex:rrnining organizirtiotr ol-cotttc:llt, c{rltercttct' ()ornparcrl rvith this rathcr open-ended approacl-r to social genres, tlrc
an<l colrersiolr, ancl lirrgtrist.ic f-catrrrcs o{-scctiotrs o{'tcxts that cottvt:ntiott- prcviously outlincd approaclr for opcr:rti<>nalizins cognitive gerrres (in
ull,r, ch-.Ir' Otr ccrtain ty'pcs of- c<Xlnitivc genrcs. olr:rptcrs 4 arr<l 5) ap;rcars to be rrrore prcscriptive in tenns of thc
Rcscarclt (lucsti()ns rclating tr> uncovcrintt an(1 cx:ttttitritrg cogttilir'<' cornlrinations o1' organiz:rtionai knowleclgc prclposecl in the cosnitive
gcrtrc ktto'wlcdgc rvithirl a partictllar s()cial gctrrc cottlcl lrc: scnrc rno<lel. Ikxvcver, in reality prescriptivencss in relation to thc
tognitivc {Icnrc rno<lcl maybe rnore apparerrt than rcal. It is irnport:rnt to
l. I|h11t .s1t:li.rnt.s rtf'tlu'Icxt rtitn Lrt t:ottrnttrn.it:ale a. tntuitt tlln ol knouk'tlgr r'<'rrrcnrbcr tlrat the rnorlcls arc proposccl as prototypes rvhich, in their
(t.g. rksnibittu' d,rtta, rlt.stti.liil{l n ltrot:r'.ss, ltn'.scnting nntntsliut or{tr- :rctrurl rcrrliz:rt.ions, rnav cklsely rcscnrblc or be relativcly clifl'crent from tfie
ncttt.r)? rrrotlc,l. As srrclr, cogrritivc geltrcs need to lte viewcd as orqanizational
2. IIozu i.s llu' rnnnul.rtit:atirtn of'thi.s Lylte of lntorululg' u'grrttiztrl? lcltrlt'rtt'it's l'tttllcr tlurtt :rs fixerl, irnrnutable frrrrns. The purpose in ptrttinp;
3. Wutt typc.t ol'lrtngtutl3t, rltrt.rut:lrtizt tltt uriting rl llris .tt't:!irtrt rl lltr lrsl'l Iirtl'ltrtl :t tttotl<'l firr tlrcir pr()1()typical Iirrms is to provicle the curriculurn
rlt'sitltt<'t, ttt:tl<'t'iltls rvlitt't'ltttrl l<':rclrcr lvitlr fianrcr,vorks arotrncl which they
6.7 Summary of social gcnrc krrowlc<lqc r':rrr (:t) rlt'< ottslt ttcl ltttlltcrtli( l('xtuill s('{rrncnts irr syslernatic ways ancl (b)
orp:rrrizc rrr:rtr"ri;rls. l;rsks :rrr<l p<'rllrgogl, llr:tt Ir:trrt' rr rliscgrrrs:rl fbctrs
r\s lt:ts lrt't'tt tttt'ttliott,'rl itl liilrlr ( lt)S()). ott lltt'lt;tsis,,l irrvolrirrl rr,l,s,rl lr.:rrrrintl tlr;rt lrcgirr:rrr<l crrrl rvillr l<.xls. Itr tltc s<lci:rl
lris lirrrlirrri: lt.ttt r'\lt ttrtrr Ir..,r',ilr lr ;rro1)o\{ \ lll.rl 1,r'tttt' 1t( ilrI r {,j'rurr\r l'r'r!rc l)rolros.tl, ir is sccrt llr:rl crlgtrili\,(' {('nl.(^s :lr.('
(..pr t.tl 1'( 1rr'rL) ,ttr rlcltttr r .lrt,l ,'rr tirr lr.r',t..l ',r',llttt,tltr tltrt ttttt'.,r1 I'rrrl,lrrrl'lrl,,,1..,. tlr, ', rrl*t.tl( .t\.t t\1r,.,,1 rlcl,rrrll lr:rrrrr.tvotii llr:tl
t42 AC]ADENII(] \\TRI'I'IN( i /\NI ) ( ;I. NIiI' s(xlIAI- ( )t,tNlil,t IiN( )\\',t.r..r x ;1, 143

is retrievecl to grganizc the represcrlt:tli()rl ()l ( ('rlltilr types of knowleclgc it

\,vithin larger, socially orqanizetl tcxls.
A cor-rcern oftcn exprc'sscd by sonrt' t'rlrrt rrtots irt tclation to
genr(il)ased
approachcs to rvritine instruction is tlrlrt lltt'r':tt('t()() Prescriptive and
clo
not allolv fbr tl-rc clcveloprnent ol :rrr irrrlivi<ltriLl authorial voicc. Itr
:rclclressing this chargc o{'exccssivc lltt'st tiptir'<'ttcrss, it is Jrrol-rosccl lrere
that highly conlpetent writers havc .'t rvt'll<lt'r't'lopc<l unclerstancling o[' rhc
protcrtlpical pzrttcrns that relale lo cllclt oI tltt'st: tyPcs of knolvledUe' Reing
iarniliai wirli such prototypes, exlterricttcctl rvritcrs arc zrble to intcsrale
and exploit tl-rern in creative ways t() aclticvc tlrcir intlividtralizctl artthorial
prlrPoses, appropriate to colrtext artcl attrliettct:'
6.8 Relatine social and cognitive qenre knowledge to EAP writing courses
gelrres
Ohapter 5 prescnts zr propgs:rl lbr the incorporation of'costritive
into the clcsign of gL,reial EAP r'vriting collrscs, sttclr :ls courses for
srudents prcparing I'or stuclies in highcr education. The fbllolving scction
(.()ntinues tlris discussiorr of gcnre and pcdagow by incltrtling consitler-
ltion of social genre constrtlcts ancl the rclative rolcs ol social g(lnre lur(l
<..grritive g.r-r..: knowlcclge in ac.clcr.ic writing, a'cl appr'ltclrc's t. thcir
i,,,,,r1r,rroii.n int' r,vriti,rg course clesign. Spcci{ically, this _clisctrssion
cx:rrrrirtes dre intcr-relationship of social an(l cogllitive
gcllre kn<lrvlcclgc
irr:
. lllc creation of cliscourse ;
o rlcveloping a discoltrsc ccrlllP('teltce in lt:arner writers;
o rrtatcrials desiqn and pcclag;og,v;
. :lsscssrnellt.
( llrtrptcr 7, following, further clevelops thc issttes raisecl in this cliscttssiorr
l,v llrcscnting and provicling cornmcntary on a Llnit fiom :l postgra(lturt('
gcrtlt'
Itivcl IIAP coLlrse that is clcsienecl arottncl s<lcial ancl cttgt-titive
krrowlctlge.
Social antl cog,titiue genre hnouledge and the creation of discourse
Silt'r: llrc ltrcviotts st'tliott ol tlris clrltl.rtct'ltlts orttlittt'<l lttt ltlrllt<rlttlt lo
<l.s< t-ilrirrg lrrr<l <l1r'6ttslt ttt liltU sot iltl tt'tttt'kttotvl<'<lgt'lrrrr[
(illlptc|s'l :rtrrl
5 11.r's<.rrlr'<l :rrr tr;r1rto:tt lt lo < ogttiliyt'U<'tttt kttorvlr'<lgt', it is ttrlr"v s:tlit'ttl
rorrsirlcr tltr.rr.ltrlivc rcl:rliotrsllip lrt'lrvt'r'tt llrt'l\\'() 11'1rt's ol t('tll('
l.rr.t*1,'rlJir. irr llrr. { t(..tltorr ,l cxlt rrrlcrl tvtillltt rlirr,tttst" lr,,tlr sor i:tl
Ji(nt(,rtr(l,,,1'11111\r'1'r'1,,t'l'ttt'tlltrll't',l\tortrlr""llltr''"ttttr'toittittlltrt
.ilr' rrrlt,.rl 1,, 1l1i rottt;lIlIttl .tttrl ,lltl)lr'llll'll( {illl'llllrllott
,r,,r,1,tru, 'lt.'rilll , Il,,tt,tlt tl llrt l\\rlIItll llll(l 'llr lr'lrl
genre-b2rsc(l pctlituogy, is irnportul)t. l() ull(lcrstan(l tlleir inter-rclatiorr-
ship.
The {'rrst kcy issue in the rerlat.iw-' rclationslrip of social {rc}nre an(l
cognitive gcrrrc knor,vleclsc is attelnptine to unrlcrst:rncl tltc lcvcl ol'
consciollsness at wlricl'r each typc of knor,vlcdse appears to operate . At tlrr:
beginninu of Ohaptcr 4, it wrs proposecl that cosnitive ge rlrc knorvlerlgc is
procedural knorvledgc, r'vhich anlon{r n:rtive-speakers ()f il lanuuage is not
(generally fully) cngaged at a cr)nscious level rvlren erlc()din{r cxtr:r-
linguistic contcnt into cxtendccl written rliscoursc in an organizc<l zrncl
principled way. Native speakers ten(l to acquirc this type o{'knorvledgc
fiorn their long expcrience alld continuotrsly clcvekrpins knorvlcdgc of'
prior texts, ancl it is usttally the case that their fbrrnal literacy edrrcnti()n
h:rs containecl little ovcrt Focus ()n the teaching of'these fbrrns of cliscor.rrsc
structrlre. Nevertheless, given tlrc requirerncnt t() represcnt certuin tyl)cs
of knowleclee in rvrit.tcn cliscoursc, it seerns tlrat native spcirkcrs <tf f.inglislr
will ernploy, alrnost in :rn autornatic way, the t1'pes clf procc(lrrnrl
knowleclgc described in the cognitive genre rnodel. Furtlrcrrrrorc, tlrt'
second study rcported in Cl-r:rpter 4 also appears to inclic:rtc tlrat (uir,<'rr :r
Particular rhetorical purpose) nlore pr()ficicnt \'vriters rvill a<llrcrt' rrron.
closcly to the features of the rnodel than lcss proficie nt or lcss cxltt'rit'rrt <'rl
writers.
Social genre knowlcrlge, on tlrc other hanrl, tcntls 1o lrc rrror-t'
consciotlsly clevelopecl as part o{'a writer's indtrction into tlrc scrrrcs urrtl
conventions of"a specific professionnl, occup:rti()nal or acarlcrnic [iclrl. For-
exantple, the incorporation of conttntrnication strrrlies c()rlrscs into rnan,v
btrsiness sttrdics degrees attests to this rnore overt focus on s()ciirl {rerlrc
knowletlge. Rusiness lettcrs, newslcttcrs, lne[los, evaltrativc rcports nncl
pronlotional articlcs are genrcs that are olte n the ob-jccts o1'loctrs in suclr
courses. In rclation to genres that :rrc usccl to rcport reseurcll {irrrlirrrts,
ref-crencing systerlrs and ptrblication mantrals, such as that ol- the Arncric:rrr
Psycholouical Association, an(l tlrc eclitorial quidelines {br strbrnittcrs ol'
articles to academic jotrrnals pr()\'ide ar) increasingly prescriptirrc liarne-
work for thc strllctrlrins of knolvlecluc, textunl organization an(l irspects ()t'
Presentation. Sirnilarl,v, the ntttnber of aclvicc books on stnrcturing
aca<lernic :rssisnment r,vriting (cspccially <lisscrt:rtion rvriting) is irlso
t'onstantly increasin{r. In thc case of social gcnres, il- sccrns thnt tlre levcl
ol' prcscriptivencss ancl the riuiclity o1' this specificiltion seenl t() l)c'
itttrcrtsitts ratlter than bccoming rnorc flui<I. Srvales (2004), irr exarnining
rt'st'lrlt lr {rcnrcs, clescribes this proccss in te rrns o{' arr incre:.rsing
tt' u'ttrri.fittrlirrtt irr acadetnic zrncl prof-ession:rl c<lrrrrrrtrrric:rtions. As lul
t'x;ttttplt', lt<' rlist ttsscs hou' acatlcrnic irrstitrrti<)ns llrc irrcrcasincly, using
r ottt't'ttliott:tliz<'rl rlot'ttrtr('llls l() ('iln'y ()ut arlrrrinistrativc lrrrrl irrstitltional
ptor't'tltttcs. sttclt irs llr(' irrr rclrsirrult, lirrrrr:rlizcrl lririrrg ltrrrcc<lrrrcs ol'
('l rrttllt tt ,\tttctir:ttt ttttivt'tsilics ittr',,ltitr1' 5q11 lt 1,,'1,'t's 1s'1r1;silir)ll t('(11('sls, fiyt'r,t';tr'
tttlll't'tllrl ttt lrl.rrlr' (p fr) |lt trolt s llt.rl lt,ttr".tr ltttl'rrillrrn:rn irrr rr'.rsirrr,,lt 'licrrr.rilit.rl'
144 A()\DEN,ll(l \\rRl'l'lN( i /\Nlr ( :l Nlil
elvirorlrlent invglves thet krrgrvlcrlgt' ol n('l\v( )l l.s o[- relatccl geltres:
'Itl hesc processcs o{'gertcrific:lttiorr tt'r;ttitc rr:i t() pay mttclt cl<iser
attclltion to the operation tif Qcttrc r)r/rttrr (or ltit'lltrchies' sets' nelworks
or other kincls of collectivity' (p. lr). I lorvt vt't,,tt tolltt:r' aspect of the use of
s()cial gelres that Bhatia (2004) arrrI olltcts:tlso lroittt to is a tcnclcrlcy lbr
seltre ;nixitlg ancl blending learling to llr<' lrvlrli<l rraltlre of rnany social
!"r-rr.., alt-hough Rhatia cnrphasizcs llllrl llt<'tt ltPpear to lre tle{inite
ccrnstraints on tlre exlent to lvlrich r'vlilt'r's lltt ltlrlc to do this"
In relltion to tl'reir respectivc irrllrrcrrtcs orr lirtstlistic choiccs, lht: vierq
takcn hcre is that both social and c(x-{llitiv('s('llrcs influencc thc rvrit'er's
choice of language, btrt thcy infltrenr:c [lris t lroit'c in cliffercnt areas' Social
gelre ir-rfluen."to." exertcd in rclatiorr t() (()llt.cxt-spccillc choices, sLlch
Is the trse ot' the specializccl technical rocitlrr.tlaty (relating to a parlir:ular
ficld) ancl the clroices of metatexttral larrgtra{c rclating to thc art:a o{'
writer stancc, adclressivity and iruclicncc. F'rtrtlrernlore, in terms o{
cliscgurse ()rganiz-?rtioll, soci?rl gcnre kn{)wlcdgc rclales to the c()nvel)tio-
nalizecl strtlctttring of cerftlin gcnres, sttch :rs tlle Introcluction, Methocls,
Rcstrlts ancl Discussion sections ol'thc researcl-r ltrticle. On the othe r hancl,
trse ol' cognitivc genres relatcts to atr aitn tt) rcPre:'icllt a certaill type of
knowlcdSe (rrsually within oue sectiott 9r sttl>secti<.rn of a larger text) and
influeuccs linguistic choicc in tcrrns cif the siunalling of locnl rliscourst:
organization in<l lorver-lcvcl, lnore specific aspccts of cohercnce anrl
coiresion. At this more detail(:cl ler,cl ol'tliscottrse organization, it is sccn
tl-rat Crotnbie 's ( 1!185) interprop<lsitional rel:rtions provide a nlorc
cornprchensive approach to itlcntifying tlre types of lorver-level rel:rtion-
ships within cliscottrse, ancl their cncoclings in lan{uage, tlran thcr
corrventional lists oI so-called transition markers that arc founcl itr trlauY
writing textbooks.
Therefbre, fbr clcsigrrers ol'ircaclcrnic writinq crourses that ttse a wholer-
1ext or genrc-bascd approach, the lirntlarnental clesilfn choices ar('
tr,votblcl. First, fhe clesigner has to clecitle r'r'hich scnre collstructs (social
or cognitivc) shotrlcl bc selcctecl as th(i trasic unit arottncl n4rich tltt'
..r.,.r.j, arc designed. Seconclly, thc clesigner has to <Ieciclc which typc o{
genrc knowledq; shoul(l be incluclcd rvithin lhc course and lrow it shotrlrl
ire arrangccl. Iri selcctin{r and arransin{r senrc knorvletl{re within a svllalrrrs
., p..,giortrme, learner lar-rguage prollciercy ancl lcartrcr rrccrl will lr.
ccniral' gui<ling factors. Thcsc factors arc dis<:ttsscrl in tlrc [irllorvirrg
SCCtiOII.
Relati.ns social crntl coprtitiz,e {cnra hntnulatlg: lrt dn,clolti ttg, a d i st'ou rsc
competence
l)cc<lttslttttlirle lt'lttttt't ttct tl irr tt'l;tlit'tr to :rr:ttlt'trtit sl.ills, 8('lll('
ktrotvlt'<lgc lttrrl lltc tlt vt loptttt trl ol ;t rlisr oilt\r' ( ontlr('l('tt( 1 1111151 lrr'
t,,rrsirlt'tt rl irt t('l.tltolr lo Iltc sl.t1'r'ot lcvcl oI ,r.r{lr ntt( t tlttr.tltrttt,tl tvltir lt
,r tvt rtitrl', , , rrrr ''r' l" lor .tlctl I ot ,trlttll :t otr,l l.rtr!'rr.rl'r' l,'.ttttr t',, llrr'
'
S( )( llr\I- ( ;l'lN lil'l 1(N( )\,\rl,l,ll )( ;1. l45r
teaching of' ltt:t<lctnic r'vritirrq is arr irrtcgr-trl ltart of ntost Enelislr ftrr
Acaclernic l)trrlroscs (EAP) courscs. liAl) is r:sscrrtially taught at thrcc levels:
prc-univcrsity (olicn calle<l pre-scssionrrl), in-scssion:rl (undergraduate
level) ancl, irrcreasinuly, postgracltrate lcvel. At each level, becanse o1,
clillercnt typcs ()l' lcarner conlpetence irrrcl neccl, the Ibcus oI' the corlrse
and tlre cliscotrrse rcqtrircrnents will be different.
As statecl prcviously, prc-sessional EAP courscs, such as seni<lr seconclary
school antl fottnrlalion cottrscs, cAnnot have a sinule clisciPline-spccific
focus. For exirrnple, thcy cannot, in the first instancc, org:rnize peclagogic
ttnits arottnd tlre texts ancl pl-acticcs of a single clisciplinc, such as business,
httrnanitics or scicnce - trnless oI'cotrrse it is known that all of the studt-.nls
r'r'ithin a cl:rss grollp will be sttrdvirrs in only onc of thosc areas. Ensuring
the deve Ioprncnt of a cliscourse competence throuqh corlrses :rt this level,
therel'ore, neccls to be achicvc'cl in trvo rvays. Thc first involves nrakinq a
principlecl approach to rlcalinc with tlre nlore gencral f-eatrrres ol'
cliscoursc stnrctrlre tlrirt occur in acadenric texts, and thc second involvcs
lraving '.r ttttr.lti-conlexl and a 'multi-tcxttLal climcnsion when locrrsirrg orr
clisconrse stnrctnres in dill-erent types oI'EAP course tasks. In tlrc fir.st
instnnce, this can be achieved by appro:rching discourse krrorvlcrlet. in
tcnns o[- cognitive gcnres. (This issue rvas cliscussecl ar.rrl dcvc'lopt'<l irr
considcrable detail in chapter 5.) Ilorvcver, such corrrscs also rrt'c<l r<r
anticipate lllt: {uture c}r:rllcnge of disciplinary clill'crencc irr tlrc cr.c:rtiorr ol'
texts, such as thc stu(lcnts' |-rture assignrnent tasks in l,ariorrs strltjcct or-
disciplinary arcas. Tltc cognitive gcnre knowleclge prese nterl at tlris levcl
tlrcn ncccls to be taken :rncl usecl in a mtrlti-cr)ntext, mtrlti-textual plrase of
a learning ttnit, r'vhcrc it is usecl to exarnine arrd deconstnrct cliscourse
frorrr a virrietl' of' subjcct arcas or <lisciplines. For exarnple, havirrs
presentccl and practised thc cliscussion cognitivc {rcnre, the coursc coulcl
then so on to exalnine horv this stmcturc is usccl in critiqtre. As part of this
Ibctts on critique ancl trsing tlrc discussiorr corrnitive genrc framer,vork,
stuclcnts coulcl bc askcd to anzrlyse critiquc texts Il-orn a rrtrmber of
rlill'crent clisciplines arrcl cornpare t.lrcir sirrrilarities and difrerences.
Tlrc scconcl lcvel of FIAP rclates to in-scssional EAP colrrses - suclr :rs
f irst- or sccottrl-year ttndergracluale courses. These collrses
ustrally :rirn to
lirr-tlrcr addrcss th<: llrnguitge neccls (:rnd usually, lnost trrqenlly, thc
rvr-ititts Ircctls) o1'sttr<lernts at this lcvel. Tl-rese stlr(lents will trsually have
g-:rirrc:<l crrtrv t() lrighcr ecltrcation on the basis of an overrall aver-agc IEI-TS
(:r< rrrkrrrric rrrrrltrle ) score tr.O or a ToEFL average score of 550 or
'f'
lrirlrt'r'. I I,r.vcvcr, it is irnporurnt to realiz,e thc limitations o{' these
pl,Iicicrrr:y lcvcls. T'lrc 2005 II.],LTS Flancibook recommencls an overall
:r\'('r'ire(' Il'll,'l's s<or.<'<>l'(i.0 as probalrly beirru a suitable entry level tcr
lirrgrristir':rll1, lcss rl<'rrlrrr<lirrg rot.:rlional tr:rining corlrses, such as in the
;lr(:ts ol 'lrrrirrr:rl lrrrsllrrr<lr\', r.;rlr.r.irru trrrrl Iir-t: st'rriccts' (p. ir). Tlrcreforc,
sltttlt'ttlr { nllrntJ' rrrrrllrl,;:rrlrr;rlc tnrivcrsilV ('()ul'S(':i rvitlr llris ltrrtficiCtt<.V
llr, l rrrll..trll lr.rrr .r r.rr1'(.ol 1'r'rrr.r:rl l:urrlulrgr.;rrolrlr.rrrs.
l,to ,\()\I)llNll(l \\rRl'l'lN(;,\Nl ){ ;l Nl'll' S()(]I]\I, (]ENI{I.] KNO\4II,EDGI. t47

Ol'tlrcsc lutrgrtage ttcc<ls, trsrralll'tltt'trtrl\l l)r('ssillff at this lcvtll is thc Social and costtitiz,e gotre knouledge in materiak design and pedagog
nccrl to rlct,cltip a tliscottrse c()lltl)('l( rr( ( itr rt lltliott t() t.hc writing skill' ln chaptcr 5, il rv;rs proposecl that cognitivc {renrcs provicle a reasonable
bllsis arottlttl n'lriclr to clcsign :r generirl EAP corrrsc, such as a syllabus unit
Strrrlclts pccrl t<l ltayc tlre lllcltlls l6 ittlt't t 6g:ttg, <lcc1.,lstrtlct a1(l
altpropriatcly rcsltgnd t() tllcl rlist'ottl'st' t <'rlttit t'tttcllts of rtndcrgraclttnte:
lbr:r yrrc-scssi.rr:rl rvritins class. The arsumcnt is tirat cognitivr-. genrcs
nrrlorrir-r"r,, g",,r.:*, rvfiich, us rr nurrrlrt'r'ol rtscltltltcrs ltoirrt rtttt, is not:t 1:rovirlc :r basis lirr cyclcs of analysis ancl syntl-resis in conformity with
gcrlrcs irnplenrcrrting wi<lrlor'rson's (19g0, pp. 146, 136) approach to wilkins'
straighttirnvnr<l issrre . As Apl .f,lrrrs (11)1)7) srrvs, tltcsc assigtrntcnt
ltltttost castrally n:unelcl' (p' (1970) a,na$tit syllal^rs :rncl Skehan's (1g96) propos;rr for incorporaring
a.., iifii.,,lt t9 pil <lorvl:rllcl'at'c loost'lv rtrt<1
litcracies ttr1;r'entcttt (Lea cycles of an:rlysis an<l synthesis r,vithin a modifiecl tirsk-basccl syllabus.
23). Ftrrtlret'lltorc, ltccorflirtg t9 tlrt' ltt:r<lt'ltli<'
ap(l st.reet, 1998), 1ssi5lrllrc1t gLllrcs ylttl' ut-<'ittlV i1 t|eir exP(rctllti()ns In approachins thc clesisn ancl clelivcry oI courscs that clcal lvith both
ltccarrse ol' tlrc partictllar erpistcttrolor-li<'s ol' tltc diflcrent strlicct arcas'
social an<l cosnitive {renres, it is suggestcd that cssentialll' the same
This has bccn illtrstrittc(l by lt,tttt,,lrcr. ol'sttr<lics, stlch lts Sllrnrilj's (2004) principles apply, ancl that a top-down approach to cxaminins discoursc is
r.rscd. Thc fr:rrrrcrvork lor analysins social genre prescnted in Tablc 6. I
cotnparisotr tt{' thc gcnrc ol rcscarclt Icl)()rts fl-otrr tr'vo clisciplincs' Thus'
trndergraclrratc tasks trcetl to llc strl>.iect to botlt coqnitive atrcl stlcial
genre proviclcs the hiernrchy of knollcclge around which analysis carr bcr
organizcd. Tlrc cognitir,e genre rnodel can be used to ex:rnrinc tlrt' lowcr-
an:rlysis.
In rclation t() coglritivct {rcnrc collstrttcts, :tssitrttnlcnt task pronlpts nee<l le'cl'rganizational .nits of th. targct genre. Thc c1,cl.,f'rt'u'rrirru
proposc<l filrgcnreltasccl syllabus tlesign can be b:rsed on tlrc lrplrro:r< lr ol'
to l)e irrtcrrogatetl irt tcrrirs ol t.lrc scopc o1' tyJrcs tll tliscottrse that thcv
Ilarnrnon<I, Burns, Joyce , Rrosnan and Gcrot (lgg2). "l'lrt' srlsirrr ,l :rrr
rc(luirc. F,rr^ ii*,,rrrpl", stuclen1s olicrt encotrrltcr irlrPcrativcs likc d.escribc'
a.cc,rrtrrt .fin, cxlfu.rirt, ntrtlurtle, lrouirl.c (r cotnttl.\ltTt)'.
(lognitive gettre knrxr' EA[' syllalrus unit incorporatins b()th social gcnrc an<l r.ogrritir,(. rl(.nr(.
lcrl{re cirn be uscl'ttl in tlris reg'arcl, ittltl catt lllso provirle a lilcuscd basis for knowlecltre is outlinccl under thc fbllorving poirrts:
ort iirg clarilication <ltrcstiorrs of-a cortrse instructor abottt thcir cxPcct- e A srrtall sat-nple ol'authentic texts irre sclectcd to lrt' rrst,rl :rs :r lr:rsis
atiorrs ol'thc assiqrttrtctrt tasks. Irr a<ltlition to ttnde rstettrding thc coquitivt' {irr examinine the social ancl cognitivc elerncnts ol'tlrt, q(,n11..
{crrrc rcqlir6trlclll.s 9l- ttttclcrgraclttltc assigtrlllcllt tasks, str'rdcrtt's irt tltis o Thc syllalttrs trnit follorvs top-down principlcs (soci:rl ut'rrrc lrclirr-r'
l.'.,.,1 olr,,-,t.,ecl to lrcqin t() tlll(lerstlurd tlre typcs of iclentity' orit'lntatiorr cosniti'\'c genrc). The enqtriry qucstions proposccl in tlrc lirst scctiorr
Iur<l rrrct:tdisc()prsc tlitrt tlreir partictrlar discipline retlttircs. To lhis
cn<l' o{'tltis chapter coulcl providc a basis fcrr tasks usecl to cleconstmct the
s()(:i1tl gcltre analvsis O{ tcxts Ol tlrc clisciltlinc carl hclp t<l llllswcr qucsti()ll\ tliffe rcrrt typcs of socinl se nre knowledge.
irr this arcn. Thc issrtcs rel:rt.crl ttl <lcconst'rtlctillg tltc rcqttiretlrcllts:llI(l o The linetristic l'eattrres that rel:rtc to thc morc socially constmcted
crltctctutiorrs r.rl' <lisciplinitry :rssigtrtlrcnts 2rre rrltrltipliccl in thc casc ol' elerncnts of the {rcnrc: are dcalt with at the social genre analysis
staqes. Thesc' cotrlcl include elcments such as technical lexis ancl
trrrrlcrgr-atltr:ttcs rvlttt arc takilg llrgirtl-[asccl (lcgrecs ancl lircinC cotlrscs
rnctarliscours:rl feattrres (with thc possible exceptions of transition
arrrl assigrttncllts il) ;l rr:rrietl ()l- sul)iect areas' rrr:rrkcrs, rvhich it is proposecl here are tlealt with rnore aclequately as
'I'lrc tlrirrl lcYcl o{'llAP ()['J)()stgrir(hlatc c()urses r.vill usuallv telr(l t() fi)ctrs
part ()f thc cognitive gcnre lbcus).
()n tllc rvrittctr irn(l sPokcln gcnres <lf rcportinU rcscitrclr alltl irr sollle \'vaYs o TIre sarrrple ol- texts is cxar.i.ecl lbr its trse oI'cognitivc senres.
tlris ulca ol'ltAP is thc ortc tltat is irr{irrrnetl llv thc clcellcst rcseirrch llasr" o ()tte (or Ittort') ol'tlrt' ntosl cotttrtrorrly occrrrrinlI iognitive gt'rrr<.s is
(]cnrt.rs tllat lirc cotnnrotrly tlsc(l l))' rcscarchers alld ?rl'e likcly to lrt' clcct.rnstnrr:fed in terrns of its highcrJevel organizational f-"atttr.r,
incltrtlccl lvitlrirl srtclt c<lttrscs ltre: tlrc tlisscrtation, tlrc rcscltrclt nrticlc' tllt' and as a liarnervork arotrnd which to practise salient f-eatures of'
corrli:rcncc :rl)strirct arr<l t.ltc coltf crcttcc Plll)cl'. Ot.htlr Qcllrcs tltat ltltlt' griullrnllr arrd syntax.
l>ceninvcstigatc(lilltlris:trcallr('tllcrt'llrilttrc(lrlcst,lltt:grattlllrollos:rl' o Tlrc crxr11i1i1'c senre framework provicles opportunities for r,r'ritina
artrl tltc b6gk rc\,ic:rv. At tlris lcyt'I, tlrt: li;\l' ( ()tlrs('s rtrl6' still lrl 1;r:rcticc, rvlrerrel;y students constnlct new texts with an intensive
intcrrlisciplinurl (tlrkt'rr ll1, slrr<l<'rrts Ilorrr <lil'li'r'<'rrt srrlri<'< t lttt'lts), llt<'rI fi>< rrs orr orgunizational ancl linguistic fL'atures.

firrc tlrcr.c,is a rrt.r'rl to r'orrst:urtlr,:rl('r'l slrl(l('ttts to <lis< iplittlttv tlil{i'rt'rrt ''

t

ilr llrg r-t.sllrr'<'lt-tr'lrollitrq g('lll('s. (llr:r1rt<'r 7 lirlloryirlg:ttl<[tt'sst's lltt'issttt "

(llr:rlrtt'r'7 Iirll.rvirrs tlrcn providcs an exanlple of a syllabus unit that
ll itr<.,r'116r';rtirrg s,r i:tl g.tttr'. r lillllli\( t( lllt':tttrl litttirrislit ktl,rylt'<lqt':rt ittt otpor;tlt's lltis ltlrJrroaclt t() tlle stagilrg o1'both the social and cognitive
tlris l<'r',il lrr'1rtt'st'ttlirrr',:rrr,l rlisr rrssittr', ottt'ttttil lt"ttt t lrorltlt:ttlrr;rlt'lcri tttt' r'lcrrrr'nls.
l
f'c
1",\l' rvr ilittt',,'ttl.,'
148 AcAl)liMI(l \ArRrl'lN(; ,\Nl) ( ;l N l{l' SOCIAL (;EN-RE KN()\\Ll.lD(;E t,19

Social genre and cognitiue genre hnor.,ledga unrl zurititt{ assessrnent

The EAP teacher, likc teachers itt otltt't :ttt'rts ttl lll-T, needs to h;rvc a Table 6.3: Arrrrlyticirl rnarkins p;uicle for reporr cognirivc senre
developed kno.n4eclgc of approachcs t() lss('sriirrg llrc lbur lanstr:rse skills,
particularly in rclation to r'vriting tusks. Irr prrr'1i< rrlar, it rvoulcl secrn l() b(l Task Response
important to l-rave knowleclge o1' approltt ltt's lo itssessing the prodtrctivc Introduction Tlrr: topic is cxplairrc<l in tlrc stutlcrrt's nor-cls (l poirrt)
skills of speaking and writins in tcrttts <l lmfrvrnance-baserL asscsslnent. ()rrc elerncnt of'the leqcrlcl is describccl (1 point)
McNamara (2000, p. 135) clefines pcrlirrtttrttt<c tcsts as'a langttase test irl All the elenrcnLs ol tlrc legcrtd or tlte axes zrre cleatly
which assessment is carriecl out in a c()lllcxt wltcre thc cancliclatc is clescribed (2 points)
involved in an act of communication'. Tlrtrs, lirr exarnple, a perfbrrnance Ideas Topic group or palzrglaph icleas:
test of writingwor.rlcl involve the writing ol an cxtcndecl piece of discorrrse one poirrt lbl each sienificarrt paraer.aplr irle:r rcleviurt to
in response to a task involving a specilic conrrnunicativc or rhet<trical the data (rrraxinrrrrn 3 poinLs)
purpose relating to a context of cotnrutrnication. Using this tyPe o{ The developnrent of icleas:
one point fbr aclditional clitta or. devckrprncnt o( the irleas
approach to fbrmative assessn]ent of' writing (and speaking) can bc a
above (nr:rxirrrrun 3 poinLs)
vehicle for provicling ongoine and cttnrttlzrtive f'ceclback to (EAP) sttldents.
Conclusion One point fbr a srrrnnrarrv of thc rlatir
In effect, thcre are trvo broad ways ol'scorins \,vriting tasks: (rnaxirnrrrn I poirrt)
r holistic scorins - assigning zr single score for a whole tc:xt; Discourse Oreanization
o analytical scoring - assigllins a scparate score for cach of A ntrrnbt:r Discourse Pattem (llear evirlence ol a (leneral-P:rrticrrlar.
l)attcrn in tl)e
o[ aspects of a task. stagills of the cliscorr|se
(l point)
In relation to the writing skill, lor cxarnple, it is proposed herc thnt tlris Organization of Sorne eviclence ol'selection and orclerine of tlre
ltar.aeraplr
typc of feedback can be best provicled by using nnalyticr.tl approetches ttr paragraph topics topic ideas
assessinpi the writing skill, alonp; r,r'ith the use of Portfolio asscsslnent. (l point)
Selection :rnd ortleling of'topic ide:ts fbllorv a clear
While the advantages of holistic scoring :rre that it can bc clone qtrickly an<l
orc:rnizing principle (2 points)
it c:irn be more easilv rnulti-marked to chcck reliabiliLy, analytical scorilrs
Paragraph Trvo poitrts fbr c:rclt par-:rgraph rvlrich contains zr t()l)ic
|t'<lttires the scorcrs to look at a range of aspects ol the r'r'ritet-'s Development sentencc and sorne clc:rl dcveloprnent of'the toltic slrrxvine
p<'r-litrrnance. Its tlisadvantagcs are that it is tirnc-consrtming ancl thct't' intcr-sentclttial cohesicln anc[ colrere nce (rrr:rxirrrrrrrr 6
ll(.potential problenrs with thc valiclity of the cotnpositc scort'itt points)
tttt'ltsttring the tasks' For example, the weightinus rvithin the cotrlp.sitt' Sentence level FIalf a point fbr each synurcticallv c()rrect, appropr-iatelv
:i(()r(: may reflect the cottrsc clesigJner's prefercnccs, bttt not provicle ltlt cohesion rrsed cohesivc device rrsetl rvitlrin sentcnces (rnaxirrrrrrrr 4
l(lc(luate overall operzrtionalization of thc task. The composite scort'. points)
tltcrcfore, needs to relate to an ovcrall theory of discottrse in ordcr lo L-anguage
()vcrcome these potential problents. Ilcllvevcr, in tcrttts of provirlirru Vocabularu 1p. nt) lilnite(1, irrsrrflicietrt rarrgc firr the topic
systcmatic ancl ongoing curnulalive fccdb:rck to wt-itcrs, arrrrlyticltl scot'ittu 2po rILs) adeqrruite r-ange fbr tlle concepts Of the topic
can provicle types of clcvelopmental ftedblrck tlrat irrc ll()t ofl'crc<l lrt 3po nts) coilrpctcltt aud controlled rrse ol vocabrrlan,
lrolistic scoring methocls. Sentence Structure (l point) rveak, lit.tle srrlt-ject/verl> asreerncnt, nlan\. crrorc
To ovcrcorne thc tlif'lic:rrlty ol' olrt'r:tliorlillizirrll :r wlilirre trrsk, it is (2 poinrs) consideraltle trurnlter of'error.s brrt sorrre sorrnd
sen teltces
su{r{rcstc(l LIrat tlr<'socilrl lrr<l <ogrritir,<'t<'tttt'llltttt<'rvotks pt-opos<'rl ltt'rt' (3 poirrts) nrole clcveloped seutcnces, I'crver
'l':rlrl<' (i ii err-or.s
<itlt Provitlc :t lxtsis [irl llrc ltrl:tlyli<:tl llss('s:iltl('lll ol l',Alt lvlitirrg. (.1 points) contJ)ct.elrt and contr.ollcd
lirllrlr,virrg lltovi<lr.s :rrr t'rlrrnplc ol :r r opittilit(' Hlrrr(' :l\s('s\llt('tll li't'rllr:rt l.
lirtrrr wlri< lr rrr:ry lrc tts,'rl itt llt,' :ttt;tlyli,:tl :tsst'sstttt'lll ()[- tll(' l('l)()lI
cognilivc ll('nr(, irr tlrir grri<lc irr'l':rlrlt. (i.ll is used, thcrc ncerls to bc consiclcral>lc clisctrssion :rnd
Itottt ;r Hr;tlrlt ('t l.tltlr' rrtgolilrl<'<l llgt('('nt('lll ()n llrt' awar<lirrq ()l' l)()ints in the'f)isc<ttrrse
Itrrlrllntlttlrnt' .ur,rn rlt trr ,rl rrr.n l. rrr1,, 1,,rtrrl, r( rlln( \ rli:,r ttssi,rtt,l)tit( llr {' ( )tg:rttiz:rlion' \r.( li()n, irr 1r:rll i< nl:rl in rtllrtiorr to llr<' s('(.ti()ns firr
.tttrl ,t1',r ( ( ltrr'rrl .ttrrr ttrl' rrrrrllrl,ll lr.ul r't\ I (rt r'\.lllrl,l( . $ ltIr r' Ilrc rrr:tt l.ilrli
150 A(]ADEN'{I(; \\R.I'|IN(; ANI) (II NITI ,

'Paragr:rph Developmertt' ancl 'sclntencc lt'r't'l < oltcsiotr'. An approach that Chapter 7: 'l-czrching genre knowledge in an
has been fbllorvecl (in thc context whcr'(' I tcrrt lr) ltits bcen:
ir(lvanced writing course
o for paraerzrph clcvelclpmcnt, t\,v() l)()inls rtr(: awardecl for higltly
devc.iopcrl parogrophr in tlc lr'rly .l' t5e essay (but not the
introcluction .rt tt-r" conclucling pirr':ruIrrl;lrs), and no single points
:rre p;iven;
e fbr iohesion, l-ralf a point is ar,varrl.<l lirr the first insta.ce of e'ery
correctly ttsed cohesive clcvice ltsctl ol srttlcnce lettel'
7.0 Introduction
Thr,rs it is possible ibr lirll lirur points fbr cohcsiolr at
rvritcrs to gain thc
scntence ievel, rvhile receiving no points 1'or parauraplr dcvelopment This chapter illtrstrates thc inter-relationship betwecn social ancl cognitivc
lte canse of the arvkwartlness ancl lzrck o{' cliscoursal cohesion
zrnd
genre constructs in the context of one trnit of a postsraduate levcl writing
cohe rence resulting lrorl the arr2rngelnent of tl-re salne Sentences lvitl-rirl collrse taught by the r,vriter. This is a non-comprrlsory course fbr stuclcnts
par:rgraphs. In thisway, a problertr faced by many teachers of .acatlemic lvho are engag6d in research ar-rd clissertation rvriting ancl who are r)on,
writing is aclclressccl, that is, the teacher is able to give crcclit For tl're nativc sperakers of English. Sttrclents taking the course are studyinq ancl
r,vritcris ability to creatc se*te'ces tSat are, on their otvn, internally performing research in a varietv o{'clisciplines. The unit topics of tlrcr
cohcsivc, but able at thc same lime to indicate to tl-re rvriter that thcre is a collrsc are shorvn in Table 7. I following.
lirck of cohesion ancl cohcrence in the \,Va)' that the sarnc sclntences come
t()gether at a discottrsal level. Tatlle 7.1 Postgraduatt-' Ievel rvritins coursc: unit topics
With holistic I'eeclback, the assessment critcria arc not transparent, lvhile
lrrr:rlytical rnarking provides nlore transparent crilcria and fecclback that t. Key issues in
:rcnclernic l'r'iting: iltrcliencc, purpose, organizution
r.irrr provicle the basis for consultins with notice writers. In this w:ry,
2. Reporting research: ovcnierv ar-rd introclrrctior.rs
3. Reporting research: Introcluctions irnrl the litcraturc revierv
lirr.rnative f'ceclback arising liorn analytical rnarking (such as the rnarkins 4. Rcporting
ol cottrscr researcl-r: I\{cthocls (1)
gr ritlc in Taltle 6.3) can he lp to provicle a basis {br the reclrafting 5. Reporting rcsc:rrch: Metlrocls (2)
nt of a portfblio of writing durinq an EAP collrse'
rvor k irncl the clcveloprne 6. Reportine research: Rcsrrlts
7. Reporting research: I)iscr.rssions
L Rcporting research: titlcs, abstracts, acknorvlerlgemel)ts :urcl relerencc lists;
li.l) Conclusion conferc nce :rbstr-:rc ts
9. Sumrnarv, paraphr:rse ancl plagiirrisrn
'llris (lrawlr I0. Critiqtre
r.lrapter first proPosecl sotnc of tlle central types of knorvlerlge Il Conf'erencc posters ancl confercnce prcser]tatiurrs
rrlrorr in lhe c()nstnrctiotl o[ social gcnrcs ancl then provicled a bricl 12. (]rirrnrnar revierr'
,,rttvic,rv of the social genre,/cognitive genre relationship' particularly irr
It'r'rrrs of its appiication to thc teaching of acaclcrnic writing' Chnpt.cr 7
t.orrtirrtres t9 exarnitre the rclationship trctwcen cognitive gt'nre nnd sociltl
wlrile rnuch of the collrsc appcars to be organizecl in terms of' the
gt.rrrc knolvleclge, Partictrlarly in relatiorr to the tcachins ol' aczr<lctttit' convcntional IMRD (Introcltrction, Methocls, Results, Discussion) stnrc-
trlre that is cornmonly usecl in rescarch-rcporting genres, such as rescarch
rvriting.
llrticlcs in acadentic journals and clissertations, the activities ancl processcs
of'tlrc coursc aim to encorlragc corlrsc participants to consider clisciplinary
rli[]'crcrrccs thal occtrr in thc reporting cll- research. IMRD, therefbre,
;rrrrvi<lcs ir qeneral prototype or baseline asainst. r,vhich clisciplinary
rlilli'rtrr<cs antl pref'erenccs in rcsearch reportins can be idcntifiecl irr-rcl
lrrurlys<'r[. As purt of this process, corlrse participants tlrcn exarnine tlrc
tt's<';ttt lt-tt'prtt littg {rcnrcs crnplovccl in tlrcir orvn purticrrl:rr <lisciplir-res.
l'lrrrs, llrt'lMl{l) sllrrclrrrr'r('l)r('.i( nls lr 1r,,inl ol'rl<'1r:rrlrrn'to r.x:rrrrirrt':rrr<l
1rt:rr tist lrrlrrlcrrrit r'vlitirrli,rs il rrllrlt.s lo llr<'rt'sr':rrclr r.r,llor.lirrg g<,rrrt's ol'
I r-r2 i\(li\I)liN{l(l \\'ltlTlN( ) ;\N I ) ( ;t" Nlil'
thc writers'orvn p2rrticular clisciplirrcs.'l'ltt'lrti()rllllc f<tr its tlse in the
c()rlrse is tlrat rlcveloping an un(1('rstlur<lirrq ol tlte ch:rractcristics of'
rcsearcll rcp()rting in one's ()wll l)ilrti('lllrrl tlisciltlinc is heiglrtcllecl l)y
ilwarencss ()l'the rillgc of di{l'crcnccs tlutt t-lttt ()cctlr irl thc rt:st:arch-
r(:portirlg gcnrcs o{'a rarlgc <lf clill-crcrrt. <list ilrlirrcs.
7.1 The sample course unit: syllabus
This chaptcr exarnincs thc sixtlr tttrit ol' tltc cottrsc as an exitlllplc of
illteCratitr5i social and cognitivc ge nrc c()nstrLrcts u'itlrin a cotlrsc unit that
fircuscs on rvriting instrtrction. This nnit dcals r'vith rePorting the rcsrtlt-s or
findings o{' rescarch, sttch :rs in tlrc Rcstrlts scctions in -iotrrnal articles or
rlissertitions. Taltle 7.2 follorving sholvs atr otltlille of the syllabtrs ftrr this
particular r-rnit r>f thc c<lttrsc.
This syllabus unit is selccte(l for this chapter bccattse thc cognitiv<-' Qenrc:
lircls tfiat it incltrdcs (Rcport) is thc sarnc as that for the sarlrple tttrit frorn
:r gcrrcral IIAP r'vriting cotlrsc llrcscrtted in Challter 5' The rcason fclr
sclecting a c()ul-sc rrnit at a nr()re a(h,anccd lt:r,el tltat incltrrles a firctrs on
tlrc s:rrric cogtritivc qenre is to buil<l on t.lle sctreral llAP proJ:osirl in
Olrapter 5 (that f<lcuscs tttorc cxclttsivcly on cosnitivc getlrc knor'r'ledge)
lry illtrstrzrting tlle intcgratioll Of coqnitivc artcl sociirl gcnrc kttorvlecl{c.
Wlrilc thc orqanizatioll ol' this cotrrsc unit is arourtd thc social anrl
<.()urritive {I(]ltre corrstnlcts prese nted in earlie r chaPtcrs, tlrc unit also llinrs
ro irrcltrrle the firr<lings of extant rcsearch that lras cxamined Restrlts
scr tiorrs in rcscnrclr-r'cp()rtill{r texts. Thc social genre sccti()Il (the first part
ol llrt'cotrrse urrit) irrclurlcs a fircus orr resc:rrch tlrat lras exalllinc(l Resrtlts
sr.r.liorrs in tcrrns olcxisting socinl gcrlre approacltcs. Thc sttrclics flrat:trt'
irrt lrrtlcrl in this scction are thosc of Rrctt (1994) ltncl Willianrs (l!)99). Itt
tlr<.st.corr<l pnrt o1'the cortrsc unit, wlrich invol'i'es tlre cognitivc !felrr('
lir<.rrs, sorrre rese:rrch cviderrce is provicle<l as a ltltsis f<rr t.lre sclcctiorl ol'tlrt'
(.()rrl('nt of this sectiol'1. Tlris is tlre reportol'a small-scale sttrtly (carric<l orrt
lrv tltc rvritcr) tlrat invcstisatcrl thc trse ol'Rcport cogtritivc {rctrrt's itt :t
srrurll sattrplc of Rcsttlts secti()ns.
Irnl>lerncnting t.lte cluitl lbcus on social an<l cogllitivc gcllrc kttorvlcrlq('
irr tlris c()ursc 11it lirllows thc gr:rrcnrl principlc ol'.folrns (1997) tltltt gt'rrlr'
krrgrvlqrlgc, ratllct- tlurtr lrcirrg prcscri;rtivc ltv ol1'crirrg lirrlttttlltit l)11t1('l'lls
6r' 1'1rlv-rrlrtlg krrorvlt'rlgt' to rrovicc rvt'itt'r-s, sltotrltl ittr'olvt' llrrrvi<lirrQ llrc
t66lsl9irrylsliqlrtr'tlr<'rt<.rrrt'sol'llr<.ir'l)ill-ti(ullrt lit'l<1.'l'lrtrs,:ttt'rtll':tl:titrr
ol llrc lrplrrolr< lr lrcrl is l() ('n( ()ltt:rllc ttot'it <' rvt ilcts lo lr<'< ottl(r tlist otttsr'
:rrr:rlysls :rs lltt'\ tttl( 1)\('l llrt' lrllilttrlcs, t'r.1rcr l.tlirtll\, ( oll\'( tlliotts :ttttl
t('\llt:tl l):ltt(.ln\ llr:rl tcl:tlc trt rvritirtg t'itlrirr llrcir ;r.rrlir ttl:tt tlisti;rlirrr'
Iltr'1,,111t.lltr.rrrt,rrr,l r{'\(.1(lr rlrlrtvn rl)otr rlr tltt', tltttl;ttt', lltt'tt'lolt'
rrscrl l,r lt,tlttt ,ttt,l t'ttltlI lltl"rlttrlcttls'{)\\ll lll\r'"lll"lllitll\
t.. lr!olrrrrr'tl llt,ll rt,'\lrr \\lllr'1",.1\tlllt,tlllrt
Irrllrr..,.rrrr1,l,,,,rrr,,i.ililtl,tl
h
I l'1,\( ll II N(l (]ENRE KN( )\,\rl.l,ll )( ll,l I N r\ I )\/r\ N( it,.l) WRITINC; 153
allillysts, crxlttttirtt' the eenres of tlrcir <list'iplirrt' in terms of the fivo areas
tlr:rt Blratia (2004) itlentifies - etlmogrt.ftlLit '.rn<l kxtua,L As the ethnoeraphic
part ol'thcir :rrrlrlysis, n<lvice r'vritcrs gallrc:r inlorrnation from experienced
n'ritcrs or ()tllcr ttott-textttal sourcc's in tlrcir own fielcls. In their textual
itnalyses, they cxatrtine a sarnple ol Restrlt-rcporting texts from their fielcl
in tcrms of tlrc r:rnsc o[the categorics of social gcnre knowleclge discussed
in ohaptcr (i, an<l in te nns of one parricular cognitive gcnre (Report) fiom
the rnoclel prcscntcd in Chaptcrs 4 ancl 5. To assess this unit of the course,
the students' analyses and otrtcome r.vriting tasks are gatherecl together as a
portfolio that is clevelopecl and refined incrementally cluring the cotrrse
ancl strbnrittecl at the cnd of the course.
7.2 Results sections: social genre focus
The appro:rch to an:rlysine Rcsults sccti'ns ernploys the top<lown
approach of chapter 6, with the cliff'erent elements of social genre
krrorvletlse <liscussccl in the strl>sections following. Each sub-section
corrsiclcrs activities that nlay be useful in unpacking the enqtriry questions
that rvcrc first prescnted in Chapter 6, tl'resc questions relating to thcr
knor'vledge areas of context., cpisternology, writer stancc, schcrnatic
stnlctrlre :rnd, in the scconcl part of' tl-re chaptcr, cognitive scnr.cs.
where relevant, existing rcse:rrclr on Restrlts scctions will also be reli:rred
to; this rnainly ()ccrlrs in thc thircl ancl fburth sections, which consider tfie
lvritcr stance and the schernatic orqanization o{'Results sections"
In Table 7.2, thc activities of tlre corlrse unit that relate to tl-re soci:rl
genrc locus are bricfly strmrnarizccl as:
o exarnine the functions ancl importance of Restrlts sections in
reporting research - incltrcling their relationship with the other
sections ol' IMRD strltctllre:
o clevclop entluiry questions relating to the key areas of Results
sections and investigat.e the context ancl episternoloey of Results
sections (in a particular cliscipline);
o rcvier,v existing resc:rrch on Results sections and thcir functions
(Brctt 1994) and highlight langu.gc that relar.es ro these social
Iirnctiorrs:
. currl Out joirrt textual analyses of three Results sections in terms of
Rrctt's (1994) caregories and Sr,valcs and Feak's categories (1994,
2rrrl t'<ln, p. I l6), ancl decicle wltich seerns to work best;
. ('arly orrt irrdivi<lual analysis of Results sections examining two
llt'srrlts sccti()'s from thcir own discipline using one of the two
;rppr'<xrclrt's (rrsctl in the.joint analyscs).
lrr tlrt'lirllorvirrg srrlr-st.r'liorrs, r'u<.lr ol'llrcsc lrclivitics is rlcscribccl in rtrorc
rlct:ril lollorvirrg tlr<. :rlrPro;rr lr lo cx:rrrrirrirrq so<.itrl U(.nt1.s Jrrrrlrost,rl irr
( )lr,r;rtcr (r .rrrrl rrsirrl' tlrr. lr'.rrnr.t t.rrr;rrirt rlrrr.stiorrs llt;tl
\v(.tt. lilsl
154 I\CIADEN{II] Wlll l'lN( I /\Nl ) ( ;l'
Table 7.2: Unit 6 syllabus: rcp()rtil)li lLt'srrlts
Aims: Social genre and disciplinary
(iDtlut.ua.l. ard Strrrlcnt-s will lrr(l( lstnr(l lltc
tlisr ottrs.rl
(pis I qn ol.ogt M I frrncliorrs arrrl rlrt lor'i<:tl 1( rtllrrl s ()l
l{csrrlt scctiorts ol x'scar< lt iu I i( l( s/(lis-
scrlati()ns. 'I'lrtst' u'ill irr< lrrrlt :
r firn<:tiorral rclatiortslrip ol l{<'sttlts
se(tions to otlr( r J)ar1s ol ll\llil)
stfilcfllf(
:
a rcporfirf{, r)('xlllt('xtttal rtt<l <tttlt_
mcrr titr-r' firn< tiotrs of l{c;ror ls sct _ iI\'(stigatc tll( ('xtra-tcxtllitl c()l)tcxt
tior) s:
r irtl|qt.rtirr.gAral)lriill.tl:r -t, l, ttirrA t,,
au<l higlrliglrtir g languagc;
r l:rngrraruc rclrrlcrl to slrtrtgtlr ol'
clainr /rnorla!in.
Aimsr Cognitive genre and linguistic
Strult rrts will bc ablc to n,ritt zr 2(Xhrrrrrl
tlata rcport dt scrilrittg tton-sc<1ttt'n tial
(lnta fir)r)r a Iirrc graplt, bar uraplt, pit
graplr or tabl<'.
(,t\tdll \lrtttltrr? Strr<l<rrts rlilI rsc a \\'ll()l-L-Pr\l{l-
sclrcrnntir stnlctur( firr r|lrolc rt'Ports
irnd lrr []ILDO\{'N scltcttta lirr tlr< lxrrl\
sccti()D of ilrfi)nlliltion fcl)orts.
Stttrllttts nill irr,,'r;','r:rtc t I\'t'i'a
/rr,r,l,,li'r ollr'\( l):rtt( rr irr rrritittt .rtr
illfirnil:rlior) rcl)()rt.
Snrrlcrrti nill lrlrrl Ir.r(ri(' rr \!ritir!l
topi( scntcrr((s ltttl clcvclopittg qrtra-
graplrs appropriatc I() tlris tlpt' of rr'til-
irrg 2rn(l lll( tvJ)c ()1 (()il1( rl (lirtx
irrrrrlr'< rl.
I t tI olntlrt.s i t ion rt I from their own particular clisciplines for futrlrc textual analysis. For this
',tll, rrr, rirll r,rrr rr r,'r.rlrrrl.rrr rr Lrtr,I
1,, .r 1lr,lr, , .ilril il.rl.r ,,,nrfir. rrl,,rl
Nlil
itr l<'scarch
A.t iviti(:s
Strrrllrrts rlill:
o lrrrnrirrc lllc liln( tior)s atttl ittrytrtrt-
,rrl i ,rl l{r'sttlt. .r'r tirrtts itr t{ l,i'llillt
rtsclrlclr, irrclrttlittg tltcir rclirtiottslrilr
rr,itlr llrt'otlttr s((tiorls of INlllD
\lt ll( lut (:
o rltr,r'lop <:rrrlrrirl clttt'stiotts rt'lalittg trr
llrc kcl arr':ts of lLcstrlts scctiotls atttl
.rrr,l , f i.tltrr,,l,,qr ,rl lir':rrll. scr ti,,rr.
(rclatinc t() a l)irrti(lrliu rlisciplirrr');
. r('\'i(\{ cxisting rcs('?rr(:ll ott l{csttlts
sc( tious an(l tlrcir firrtctiotts (B|t'tt
l{)l).1; Williarrrs llX}l)) irrrrl i<lcrrtih
1i'.1tlrrcs ()l llrrtgrr:rgt tlltt r( lal( 1o
tlres<'firnctiorrs;
. (irfll out ioirrt ttxtrral aDnlyscs of
tlrrcc Rcsttlts scctiotts itt t(rllls i)1'
Brctt's (1{X)'1) catcgotits attrl Srv:rlts
an<l Ft :rk's t ittt'gorics ( 1 01)'1, 2rttl ctl tt,
p. I l{i) anrl rlcci<lt: nltich sc('!)ls lo
rtrrk bcst:
. (Arr-1' ()ut irt<lit'irltral attirl)'sis rll litlsttlls
sct lir.rtts, cxatttittirlg t\\o ll.('slllts s('('
ti,,rrr ll'ttr tlrit rrrtt rlisr iPlirrt rsirre
ortt o{' llrc t\\() a[)l)rr)a( l)( s (lls('(l il]
tlrr'.joirrt artall'scs).
Activities
I l,.A( :H INO CITNRE KN( )\\'t,t.] )( ;t, l N,\t )\,/\Ncl.)) \\'t{r'trNG 155
presente(l in tlrat chapte r. llsscrrti:rlly tlr<' trvo strancls of tlrc gerrrc
investigatiort ittvolve first an ethnour-aplric li>t'rrs, whcre ll()vice \,vriters (thc
stltdents ()rl tltc c()urse) intcnicrv ('xJ)cli(:lr(c(l writers in their field, an<l
secondly a tcxtuzrl examinirti()n ()l' :r sanrl)lc ()l' Results scctions. It is
proposed that preparation fbr thc tr.vo aspccts of the investigation \,rill
proceed by sttrdents initially clevelopirrs a scllcchlle ol'intervier,v questi()ns
(from the fcrtrr:rre;rs of social senre krlowleclgc) and by selectins a sanrplc
of Restrlts section tt:xts fiom their partictrlar cliscipline" Srtrdcnts Iirst carry
otlt the inte rvielvs ancl ()thcr extrir-textual invest.isatiolts (trsing thc
questions frorn the four areas of social genre knowlccluc prescnted in
chapter 6), and subscquently use thcir finclinqs as a b:rsis fbr carrl,inu otrt
the textual investigations. In thc explanations of each of tllese actir,'ities
that follor'v, the acttral pcdagogic order (ethnographic f<rllor,vccl by tcxttral
analysis) is not fbllowed, but r:rther the clisctrssion is orcanizecl argtrncl t|e
four areas of social senre knowleclge witl"r their rclatecl en(luiry qucsr-ions,
as presented in Chapter 6. Following these explanarions, the chapter thcn
tllrns to the cognitive genre focus in relation to Results scctions.
The context and purpose of Results sections
In Chapter 6, tl-re possible cluestions for learner analysis relatinq to tlrt'
context :rnd prlrpose of a sclcial gclrre werc sLrtecl:
o Wat is the mri.n or oaerall ,rcason
fo,r rut,dn:t utithin e lnrtit:tLlur ftekl
tut?
\ua'nting to read this type 0f
. What (if any) arc thc tlpes of specialized, ltnozolcdge necesso,r) to .lult,-
und,er.tt(tnd the content infrn'mation of thk tjpe of tcxt?
o Wtat context-.tpecific uocab'ulat)t is necessnry.fbr processin{ and. u,rulctstend,
ing this typc rf text?
Inducting novice \,vriters into the part senrc of Restrlts scctions begins rvith
the issue of context. This involves sonle initial teacher input, sucll as
reviewillg the gcnerally acceptccl functional rclationships an(l rolcs of
Results scctions wifhil] the IMRD stmctlrre in rcsearch-rcporting text.s.
Lcarners are. then introcluced to tllc enqlliry quesr-ions relatins to contcxt,
ancl gtri<led t()wards gathering a sanrple ol fotrr or five Rcsults sccti()ns
tcxtual rulalysis, the students are rcquired to select articlcs frorrr pccr-
rcvicwecl .journals in their o\.\'n fields.
In rt:latiorr to context, tl-re 'cthnographic'()r hurnlur investigation
irrvolvcs n()vice writers asking the first tr,vo enquiry qucstions of more
('xl)('li('ll(('(l r'vritcrs in thc partictrlar cliscipline as t() their expectations of
l{<'srrlls st't liotts irr tlrcir clisciplinc. ('Experiencccl' herc is taken t() nrear)
\vt il('r's rvlto luttt rtt lticvcrl n)()r'('llr:ul ()n('l)c('r-rcvicrvcrl ptrllliclrtirlrr.) TIris
tt'1rc ol irrt't'stig;tliott tt<'t'<ls lo ittvolvc glrtlrtlilrg lrrrrl < orrrp:u'irrg llx' r,i<'rvs
ril ttttttt'llt:ttt ottc ittlirrrrt.rttl irr orrllr lrt rllvr.lo;r tr lr;tl:rntr.rl victv ol llr<'
156 A(i\l)EMIC \\iRIllN(; ANI) ( ;l' Nl{l
fielcl. (T[ps, stltdents fiorn thc salltc: Ii('l(l r"rr<lr itttc1iew a different
inforrtrant.) Stuclents thcn try to iclerrtily sirrrilrrlilics atrcl differenccs in the
inforrnants' \'ic\.Vs in order lo gaill all ot'ctvit'tr, or syttthcsis of idcas fiom
thcir cliscipline. Students fioln the satttt' tlisciplirrc also then cornpare
their inten'ie\,v inforrnation lvith stu(lcn{s lirrrrr otlter disciplines in order
to itlentify sirnilaritics anci clillcrenccs ol'rr1-rlrnritcltcs to Resr-rlts secti()ns.
TIrc textual staser of the invcstigatiorr o[' c()rltcxt ancl purpose begins
rvith tl're novice rvriters irririally exarninins tlrcir sarnple of texts in terrns o1'
their confbrrnity t<t tltc findings glcanc<l ll-orn the interview cytestions
relatins to context.
Epistemolog and Results sectiotts
to
In Ohaptcr 6, possible qlreslions for learncr analysis relzrting
epistcrnoloe,v ol social genres were listed:
o llout is n,nu lt'nozokd,gc crcakd, in thi.s s'ubject rtrea'?
o l{out rlo exptt'ts itt thi.s subjecl, a'rea ttittu a,ncl usc h.nouled,ge?
o Ilotu is netLt knozuktd,ge (sul:h a.s 'resca,rclL 'renilts/findings) Tepoded in, lhi.s
sultject areo,?
o Wmt m,nkes a, littce of'tuti!,in{! of thi.s typc r,tl\tr"opriattt?
Trying to uncovcr the cpistentology of a cliscipline and its inflltence on
r,vriting (in relation to Restrlts sections) involvcs both ethnog;raphic and
t('xtual rcsearch act.ivitics by novicc writers. Yet, as lvas etnphasized irr
( llrapte r 6, clcvclopina rhis tyltc of knor,vlcdge gcnerally requircs a length,v
pt'r'io<l ()f ellgagelnent with a partictrlar ficlcl, its researclr activities,
l)t1)(.('sscs an(l research-reportinU gcltrcs. Ncverthcless, the quest-iolls
rrlrovc rclating tt-r epistcrnolopry can lead to sonle tiselul consciotlsness-
r:risirrg that rnary help ttt sharJrcrt the novicc lvriter's:lw2lreness of this typer
ol lirror,vlcrlge, antl help tltern consider thc inflrrence of slrch knorvleclgcr
or r lcscrrrclt-lvritirtg.
Irr rclatiorr to uncovcring thc cpistemoiogy of a particular cliscipline, thc:
Iilst two ques[iol]s are really uriclerlying questions thal novice rvritcrs nectl
to c:orrstantly keep befbrc thern in cleveloping their ttndcrstzrncling of thcir.
liclrl. Systematic answers to thesc two questions c()lllc lionr tlrcir sradtrirl
rlcveloprnent o1- an in-clepth trnclcrstanclinq of'llrc altProac:ltt:s, stylcs arrtl
rrrcthocls ol'research ilr tlrc {iclrl - tlris rn:ry (()tlrc l)ltrtly [iottt it rcscltr<lt
lrctl)o(ls c()ursc lrs rvcll :rs lclrrlirrg, t:rlryirrg ortt :tttrl rrtlroltilrg rtlsc:tt< lt
()\r('r-l Pclio<l ol'titrr<'. Il is stu.:u('sl('rl llrlrl sltttlt'ttls lrt'girr lry tottsirl<'tittg
tlrt' {ir-sl lw() (lu('rili()rrs :rnrl tlrcrr rvril<' il surnnilt\/ o{ lllcir ( tlll('lll
rrrrrlt'r'sllrtrlirrg ol lirron'lt rll.ic r rclrtiorr irr tlrcir licltl. llr<'t' tlrt'r.r lrpplv llris
sunnl:uYlollrr,rr tcrlrr.rl.rrr.rl\sis,:tttrlr,rttsi<lt't ltotr'lltt'\'stt'tlris;tslrt'itlg
lt'llt r lcrl rrr llrl licsrrll\:{ r ltotts tlt;rl lltr'\':ttt':rtr.tlrsitlP',
'llrl tlrir,l.rrr,l lolrtlt rl1(.,lto1\,ll( rrr,,l itt llrl clltttolir.rlrlri, tttrtsli
t',,tli,,tr Illl('llll.llll, .llr .r''It,l lr,'tr tr':ttll: ol llttrlrrrti" 'rr( l( l)otlcrl 'ttttl
l\lr ,,1 \\lllllll'| .llrlrlrtlrll,lli rttlltttr llr, tt l).llll( lll,tl
ll.lA( ;H IN() GENRI,I I(N( )\,\11,t,.t )( ;1,. l N /\ t )\//\ NCI,] ) \vRl.f tN() 157
<lisciplinc. Again the nor,ice lvlitt'r' rrt't'rls lo gltlrcr tlre views of several
inlbrmants and tr.,, to synthesizc: tlrt'il vi<'rvs Ior-r:orrrrnon featurcs ancl areas
ol' agrecrnent" 'I'hev then corrrp:u (' tlr('ir iuIorrn:rnt.s' views rvith thcir
cttrrently hclcl vielv, r'vhiclr thev llrvc writtcrr in tlrc initial surnrnarics.
Ad.dressiuity and audience in Results sections
Rescarch qucslions seckirrg to cxanrilc writers' stancc in a partictrlar
clisciplir-rary social senrc coulrl ltc:
o WrtL patts oJ tlte text specif.cal\ guidc o,r speoh tlircctll kt tlrc rearlet?
o Wa,t a,'re Llrc.feattu'es ollanwrnge tltat slLou the zuriter's atLitud,e toua,rds tlte
tcxl rmd its content?
t wha,t arc thefettturas of tlrc kt'ttguagt o-f the Lext tlmt are tryint to infl,,uence o,r
the
per:suait tlrc rcader in sontc zuay?
Writer stancet stems liont context and epistcrnolopry br.rt is encoclecl r,vithir-r
the cliscourse, and investigating rvriter stance rclates to the textual aspects
of' tlrc novicc r,r,ritcr's discoursc analysis. The types of langu:rge that relatc
to r'vriter st?Ince arc sornct.irnes refrrrecl Lo zts ntetac]isr:uu,rse, and thc
cliscrrssion of'this in chaptcr 0 points to Hyland's (2005, p. 4g) rnoclcl lirr
metacliscourse .
In de aling rvith writer starrce ancl related language in Rcsults secti()ns, the
stttdents ex:rtnine examplcs of the types oI'langtraec that Hylancl idcntifics
as tnetadiscoursc in the gtriclcd analysis of selected texts. First, :rs :rn
exarltple ol'research that exatnitres one aspect of metadiscourse, stuclents
exanrine thc stucly of Bre tt ( 1994) , rvh<> cxaminccl the Rcsults se ctions iiom
20 socicrlogy rcsearch articlcii ernprloying what he calls thrcc corn,mutticttliuc
ca,kgories, one o{-whiclr he terrnerl m,ctatcxLua,l,which }re says 'de fines parts of
the text rvhich refer to the data or to other written scctions; it is tcxt altolt
Lhe tcxt . . . guidinu the rcader to other parts oI'the writing' (p. 52). In the
sarnple o1'sociolcigy exlrmplcs thirt hc exarninecl, Brett sees what he calls
'ln('tltlexllral sltrlcnlenls as ll r('( lrr|irrg pattt'rn irr RCsrrlts st.t.tions
-
sonrcthins that is aclclressecl in thc next scction. Afier examining Brett's
carlier approach, students then cxarnine Ilylancl's model for acttral
lingtristic f'catures of nret:rdiscoLlrse, and specifically the intcractional
asPe cts of tnctadisctturse. This is theu exernplifiecl by guidecl analysis <l1'onc
()r two Rcstrlts secdons to idcntify tlrcir particular use of feattrres ol-
iltt.critctiottirl nrctacliscourse. Stuclents then use this approach to exarninc
tlrcir orvn s:rnr1-rlc of tcxts, in orcler to begin to clevelop an understanclinq of
writor- sttulcc and t-lte usc o1'relatcd nretacliscotrrsal langtrage.
(lrttlt'tt! schantala and Resulk sections
Itcs<':rrclr <yrrt'stiorrs sccking to exarninc c()ntcnt schcrnata
in particular
rIisci;rlirr:rly socilrl gt,rrr-cs corrlrl lrc:
t llt ttlrrtl t'.tlr'ttl tltu't llti: l)(tllt't)t rtftftly'l2 !ltt,tprtlt,rrl pf yptrr vttrtftlr,rtl lltts?
t5fl r\()\[)I'INII(l \\rRl'l'lN(i ;\Nl) (:l Nlil I l,t,\( ir II N( r ( )ENRE KN( )\\'t.l,.l )( :t,t I N r\l )\i\N( ),]) WRI.I.IN(; 159

o Wriclt of \o'ur t.exts ttary Jiorn Llu'ltotl(ttt tttttl irt Iilltilt utQ)\? an(l illtl)('lriorrllly report, prescl)t, or-lrislrliglrt. tlrc resrrlts or thc ways ill
'Iot:al' 'ft\\ot/j .fu r.vlriclr tlrcy nt'r't' olrtainecl ... (:onn(nl (:atc{r()ries are those in which
o lwvrc yriiution. .fntn, th,c .strtrctu rc ttt:dt r:, tt,lr rt I tt n' lln tl]'ls
in llrc urn-innt tcxls? :mt.lrors ollcl tlrt:ir o\vn interpl'ehti()ll of, or cornrrlcnt and opinion
abottt, tltt' I-t'sttlts nlready prcsclltc(I, buildirrs up on tirc presentartion
(iarryirrU ()tlt this l)nrt lclrt-ttcl- l-cst'rtlt lt tlt'llcncls ()n t.hc types of
ol thc categorics. (p. 52)
cxistilg'arralyscs ol--thc gcnrcs tlrat lr:rvc lrt't'tt olli'rcrl in cttrrctlt rcsearcll.
Thc tcliclrcr, thcrclirrc, llec(ls to lrc llrrrrililr'\vitlr lrtly cxistillg rescarch on Brett clairtrs llritt tlrc organizatiorral catcsorics he iclcntifies are cyclical,
1he larqct qcnr.c ol' thc lcarrrcr-s in or<lct' to grtitlc tlretrr throturli tlris tlrer rrr<rst Iicrlrrerrt pirtte rn beinu pointer (metatextual) followed by statement
scCti()lt. If it is tlre casct t|at lt() scltctltlttic stl-tlctlrrt] Or n1()Vc all(l SteP oJ Jmdittg (prcsentation), and .su.lt.s/*ntiation of tlrc
finding (comment). Hc
stnrcturc has l>cctt oflercd filr lr llarticttlar gcttre (irntl tlris is qtritc dcscribcs c:rclt ol- the threc cornrntrr-ricirtive categories in ternrs of thcir
possiblc), it is uscltrl to lttok lirr orsatrizati()t):ll P:Ittcnrs lirr tlrc staginU ol' linqtristic lt:rtures. In anorher study, williams (1999) analysecl eight
c.lterrt wit.llil thcir s:rrtrplc o['texts, llIr(l thcll pool irleas $'ith stttrlcttts rnetlical rescarch articles trsing a rnoclified version of Brett's comnrunica-
rvorkilg i1 tfic sarlc sllticrt arca. wit.lrin a rr6ticc $'riter grotrp cotlllrisirt{ tive c:rtegorics. while williarns fountl Brett's rnoclel to be 'an acleqr.rate
stu<lcnts liorrr difl'e rcnt clisciplincs, it rnay be p<-rssilllc to colrlparc fitrdings basic rnorlcl for the rhctorical categories of'Results sections for interdis-
:ulloll{r rlisciltli rtcs. cipli'ary gcnrc analysis' (p. 362), hc'bsen'ed rhar rhe cyclical parrerning
I1 tfie case 9f Rgstrlts scctiolrs (like Metlr6cls scctiorrs), existirlg rese:rrc| proposccl by Brett f<rr sociology articles was less conlmon in biornedical
lurs gcttcrally ltot l)x)Poscrl lut orglttrization:rl stntcttlre ltrr tllc staging ol :rrticles, r'vhere tlre Results scction tcnclecl to be presenteci in a rnore lincar
contellt (s1c[ as tlre CARS ln()vc] strtlcturc tlllt has llcett prgptisccl lor rvay. I Ie thcretorc snggcsts that both the tlpc of rcsearch (approach, stylc,
Introrluctions - sce Su,alcs, 1990, p. l4l); horuever' tlrerc is in tltc nlcthod) antl tltc strbject-rnatter influence orsanization, r,vhiclr rnay lrt'
litcntturc sotttc discttssion allottt the types of infcrrrrrirtiott thilt nray or lna)I eithcr clrrorLol.ogical <tr licran:h,ical. The problern, howcver, rvitlr bot.lr 9l'
n()t l)c inclutlc<l in Rcsults sccti<,rtts. In ptrblishc<l pcdagogic lnaterillls, thcse st.tttlies is that tlrey were ortly exanrinins Restrlts sections liorrr tw<r
Srv:rlcs lnrl Fcak ( 1994, 2ntl etlrr) tliscttss t|is isstrc ol' incluclirlg <lisciplincs ()r srrbjcct are:ls - t.hosc ol- sociology arrd rncrlicirrc.
c()lnrnentlily in Rcsttlts scctiolls. Tlrcy sa,l": Fttrtltct'trtorc, thcir :rtralyses of Results sections is clescriptive in terrns ol'
conter)t cntcgories, rathcr than stnrcttrral in ter.ms of intcrnal textual
It is tracliti11rltlll, sairl t.hat thc Rcsttlts sccti()ll o{' a RP shtltrlcl sirnPlr' orgirnizirtion.
rcJ)()ft thc rlata tlrat hns ltcctr collccl.ctl; that is, it sltotrlcl fircrrs Follolving a revicrv of tlre rescarch on Restrlts scctions, corlrse partici-
cxclusively <.rn tltc 'actrtnl' resttlts. (p. 234) pants rtntlertakc stlidccl,.joint analyses of scveral Restrlts sections. First, t|e
class.jointly exatnines t\'vo or tl-rree pre-selccted Restrlts sections in terrns of
At tlris stagc in tlrc rtrlit, it is appropriate fo revicrv cxistilrg t-csc:rrclt ott Rrctt's (1994) categorics ancl Sr,valcs anrl Feak's catesories (Srvales ancl
Rcs.lrs ,".ii,rr,, (Brctt, 1994; Williarns l{)91)) incltrcling t}rc increasius rolt' Feak, 1994, 2nrl ccln, p. ll6) ancl thcn present their vicrvs in a discussion
9l'graplric {at1 (Rcrkclk()tter l1rtl Iltrckett, l99l-r). Srvalcs alcl Feak (19{)1' about rvhiclr approach scelns to work best. Studcnts then per{brm tlrc
p. i:dl point ro c()rpus rcscarcli (ThornPson, l!.)93, r'r'htl cxlttrrinc<l 20 satttc atlall'sis otr the staging of content rvithin their sarnplc texts fiom
()r c()Illrrrcrr-
irirrchcrnistry ltaltcrs) rvlticlt slto'tvs tlre tvpcs of itrtcrprctlltivc their particular discipline ancl report their lindinqs.
sccti()rls ol'sotttc rcst::tt'< lt'
tirry statcltrcni. tjrat cnrr ltc Iotrrrrl irr the Rcstrlts
ltccllrtse ol- tlrc stttltllttcss ol
This rcsc:rrclr has to bc trclltccl rr'itlr cirtttiort
tlrc sarnplc (orrlr'20 ltaltcrs) atttl thc fact tlrlrt it rollrtcs to ortlv ottt'
()rr \\ril('l
<lisciplin! -bioclrenristry. Also,:rs n()tc(l irr tltc Pr-cYiorts sc<'tiort 7.3 Rcsrrlts scctions: cognitive genre focus
statlcc, Rrctt ( 1994) cxurrrirrr.rl tlrc rcstrlts st't'liotts lirrrrr 20 sot ioloqr
rcscarcltltrticl(lscrtrlllrtl,irrurvltlttlr<'<.ltIlsllttt'<.t'tlttttttttttit.ttlit|(1.(tl|!t'lil'\: 'I'lris s<'< liort t'<trrsisls o[' tr'vo parts. 'fhe first otrtlines a small stucly tllat
<l<'lirliliorrs ()l l):lr ls ol l{r'srrlls
'tntltt.ll,xttt.al.,
ltmttttrttirttt ;rvl rrttrttttr'rrl lllt'tt's provirlt's llr<' lrirsis firr t.he sclcction of the crignitive gerrre focus in the
sc( ti()tls irr< lrrrlc lllt' lirllotvirru: l{r'srrlts st't liott (()rrt'sc rrrrit.. Thc scc<.rn<l p:rrt orrtlirrcs t.he peclauosic Ibcus
,l I Irrit (i ott t otttiliv('q('nr('krorvlc'rlqr:, tlrt'lt tivilit's rcl:rtctl to tlris fitcr"rs,
.rlttrt/rlr.lirrcs lr,rrlsol llt(.t{'\l trlrr, lr rr'{r'r lo tlrI tl:t1.t ol lottlltr'l :rrrrl llrcir sl:rgirrg.
rrrill, u rr'r lirrtt". tl t, lr'\l .tlrottl !ltl llrl 1'lllilrlrl' llrt t' 'trlct llr rrlltt t
llr..r tllrt, lr t'lr;r'r ltrr'1t
1r,rt l , ol llt \\tt!t!ll' l,tt\t1lttlt,)tt r.tlr 1,i)tri , llr

I
160 \Nl) ()l,Nlilf
Analysis of cognitiue genres zaithin a santple of' Iltsttlts sectiotrs
Introd'uctiott
Existinp; senre :rn:rlyses (see llrctt, l!)-()4; Willi:rrrrs, 1999) propost: that
Results sections can involvc clifferenl litrtt tiorl:rl l)tlrposcs:
o prescrrting data;
o colnmenting on or explaininU clala;
o guidir-rq dre readcr (metatcxttr:tl irrlirr-rrration).
Thcrefore it scems likely that, in tcrms o1' tliscoltrsal resottrccs, Resrrll.s
sections r,vill clraw lrpon rnore than one cognitive gelrrc. Flor'vevcr, irt tlris
srnall study, it is prop<.rsed that the main cognitivc genre clnplo,vctl in
Resr.rlts scctions will bc Report - the prescrltation of non-scclttential data
(see Chapter 4, Tablc 4.5),lvhich relates to [he first of thesc t]rree tvpcs o1'
functional pllrpose, that of prese nting clata. Tlrtrs Results sections rvill tcncl
to consistently cxlribit rnany of tltc f-eattrres of this coclliti\re gcnrc
structure. In orcler to investi5l:rte tlris hypotlrcsis relatirlg lo tlle ttsc ol'
cognitive genres in Restrlts sections, a srnall-sczrle gerlrc sttldv r'r'as carriccl
otrt in rvhich a sarnple ol'Results sections lvas analysetl.
Mctltod,s
To select the texts for the sltnrplc, acaclernics in one univcrsity (in Ncrv
Zealancl) lvere asked to name thc three or f()ur.jollrnals ir-r tl-reir ficlcl tcr
which they rnost ficclttently reli:rrecl, :rncl Restrlts sections lrotn articles
publisl-recl in tlre year 1999 rvere sclcctecl fiorn Lhe nornitratecl jotrrnals.
Tlrc criteria lcrr the ir-rclusion of ir Rcsults scction in the satnplc r't':rs tltat
tlrc :rrticle liorn whiclt it was clrzrln must rePOrt an ncttlal rcsearclt
invcstigation and confitrm largel,v to tlrc IMRD (Introcluctiot-t, Mcthotl,
Resnlts, l)iscussion) strllctlrrc in repor[irru thc rcseirrch. Rcsttlts scctiotts
r,vere incluclccl from the fclllowir-rf{ sttbiect areas:
Table 7.3 Restrlts sections stucly
Strbiect Nrrmber of Resirlts sections
Aonlied Linquistics 2 to stlpport tllc earlier rcse:rrch ref'erred to that proposed Restrlts secti()ps
Education 2 will have a variety of functions, inclucling prcsenting clata, cornrnentin{r ()ll
Managernenl 2 daur, ancl guidins the rcader throush linsuistic ancl non-linguistic
Sociolclel' 2
Psvcholosv 2
l0 (totul)
TIC srnlll s:rtnpl<' <ottsisls ol 1,7(il rvt,trls. (llrt lt'lt tt'tttt lisl lirr tlrt
sltrrrlllr.issll,tvnirr,'\1,1rcttrlil5.)'llrclicsrrlts'.{(lloll\\\'tl( \t:tttltt'tlittl,,
lrlltitr lcrl lilr,s :rrtrl .rrr"rlt,,r.rl in lrrr) \\':l\'\. ltrrl llrr r \\r tl t.tl, t .ttt.tlrst rl itt
It.lltligl lp lltr lr',tlrtrr",,,1 llt, ttt,,,l,'l lot rr11'tttlt\. ,'r lllr \..lllll rr',,,tt,llt
I'I,]/\( ]I I IN(] C}ENRT: KNO\\'I,I.,I )( ;I N,\I )\r\N(
I JI.]I) WRITIN( } l6r
trsing corprrs solLware oxftrrcl Worrlsrrrirlr 'lirols 4.0 (Scott, 2004). This
involved <lcvt'loping a worcl-list [ir tlrt' s:rrrrplc arrcl perlbrnrins concor(l-
ance searchcs ol'f r-eqtrently ocrcrrrriIrg c.olrcsivc rlcvices.
Tlrc r:rtt.r' lrrrlrlysis
As the rater, t.llc r'vriter analysctl thc sirnrplc ol'l0 tcxts lor the occrlrrence
o{' stretches of cliscottrsc that conlirrnrccl to featurcs of' the cognitivc
senrcs proposed in the rnoclel (Chaptcr 4, Tablc 4.5). Analvscs of'the
three levels of knorvleclue (ecstalt stnrcturc, discoursc pattcrns alcl
interpropositionzrl relations) lvere han<lrvrittcn t.rrr cach script. This stlrl,v
clicl rrot attempt to grade thc d.egrce r{ coltforn,itl to the rnoclel in thc apal,vsis
of the texts. Thc benchrnark lbr clarssi{ication trsccl rvas: rvhe rc strctchcs oll
text aPpeared to conlbrrn mainll to tlrc feattrres o[ a particul:rr cosrritiyc
genrc, they were classifiecl in rerrns of tlrat clltegory.
Thc corpus analysis
The purpose of thc corpus analysis was to provirlc errrpirical (lat.l t()
compare with the findings of thc rater analysis. Spccifically, a conrprrrisorr
was rttade between thc analysis of intcrpropositic>nal rclations arrrl tlrc
corplls findings. using oxforcl Worclsrnith Tools 4.0 (Scott, 200.1), a rvor-<l-
list was generated for tl-re s:rnrplc of Results sections :rnrl tlre rrrost
frcqtrently occurring frtnctir.rrr rvorrls (that rclaterl to colrcsisl) rvcrc:
iclentifrecl. floncortlancc searches were perfcrrnrecl on tlrc salierrt lunctiorr
words, inclu<ling scnltiny of the contcxts in rvhiclr thcy occrrrrcd. Thc
freqtrcncies ancl particular uses ol thesc r,vords r,verc thcn corrrparc<l rvith
the rzrter analysis of irrterpropositional relations in tlrc rvlrolc sarnplc.
Fi'nd,ings: tlrc ratn' nnal4.sis
Using the cosnitivc gertre rnoclel as a basis for exanrinius tlrc c()rl)1s,
Results sectiorls were founcl to consist. of lr rangc ol tcxtual rcsotrrces in
terrns of the cognitivc Ffenre rnodel, btrt rnost r,vcre fbuncl to nrakc s()s)c
use of the report cognitivc genrc. This varicty ()I'textual re s()urces apl)cirrs
infirrrnirtion such zrs tablcs or uraphs. Table 7.4 following shorvs tlre usc
of cognitive genres in the santple of Rcsults sections.
Tlrc :rnalysis of the samplc sholvecl tllzrt a salicnt intcrpropositi<lnal
|r'lalion was wlrat (lrombie calls Arlplific:lrion, r,r4rich cornprisccl 23%, of'
tlrt' lot:rl Ittttttbcr of'interpropositional relalions identifled in the s:rrnple
ol lO t<'xls. ('flrc counitive gcnre rnoclel pr()[)()ses tlrat Arnplilic:rti()n is a
ficr;rrclll r<'lltliott irt lrrttlr r'('l)()r't lrrrl rccorrrrt r'ognilivc gt'rrrcs.) Talrlc 7.,1-r
loll.rvirrH lrrovirlcs :rrr t'rPl;rrlrriorr of rlrc Arrrlllilir:rtiorr rr.r:rriorr.
162 A(]ADEMIC WRITIN(] ANI) ( ;I.]NI{Ii I'I.],^( II IIN(] C}ENRE KNO\,\,ILEDGE IN ADVANCED WRITINC] 163

Table 7.6: Rcsrrlls corpus wordlist

Table 7.4: The r-rse of cosnitive genres in llcsrrlts sections
Itern Total No of texts
Texts Cogtritive ()enres nurnber occurrecl in
I Report (4) the 642 l0
2 Report (4)
of
3 Report (l) 380 l0
4 Report (i), ExPlanation (3) :urd 263 l0
5 Explirnation (4) in 243 I
6 Report (l), Discussion (l) to lBl l0
7 Report (l)
B Recortnt (l), Report (2), Discussion (l), Explanation (1) a 140 l0
9 Report (3) for 126 l0
I0 Report (l) were 104 l0
The number in parentheses shows nllnlber of occurrences of a cognitive rvith 82 l0
gcnrc willrin a Restrlts secliorl. that 79 t0
was ?4 10
Table 7.5: Defining the amplilication relation as 72 l0
by 6ir 9
terproposi tional
In Description Exarnples: LangtrapJe
Relatiorr l'eatures fi'om the corPr.rs t\.vo 5.t I
Arn,plili,cat,ion: 'This relation iuvolves explicit 'The fip;ures broadly sttPPort tirble 49 l0
or implicit repetition of the tlre rrrlbt mal charactet izetion is 47 7
plopositional content of one that softer disciplines tend to
in employ more citatiot"ts .. .' per 45 .)
menrber of the relatiort the
other nrenrber, together with a (Text 1) their 45 8
non-contrastive aclditioll to that (rrrt ictit,t an,l rrtlttt ul rtlttl it'r' celll. 43
propositional colltent' cl,u.uses)
(Cronrbie, 1985, p. 26). 'Tl're data fl-om tlre tlrree
grottps of leamers reveals that
the Inrperf'ect r,vas used acloss sllggest that these strlrctLlres are important in this type of writing ancl
all lexical classes.' (Text 2) shoulcl be included in any lingtristic focus in relation to Results secrions.
(nrnt'n t:lauses as lhe objecL of a
setllen.ce, reporti,ng uobs antl oLher
t'thts of rc.borti.ng sl,nu:lw"s)
Discussion
This small preliminary genre stlldy can only be considerecl indicative
Findings: the corpus ana\sis because of the smallness of the sample. But the rater analysis indicates, as
The ra-ter analyiis showecl that sr"rborclinate clause stmctures usinp; 'that' as suggested by earlier reviewed research, that Results sections use a range of
a cohesive device were important in this qpe of writing. To provicle ftrrthcr' cliscotrrsal resources to fulfil different types of rhetorical purpose.
data to support the rater analysis, a corplls analysis was perlbrmcd on tlrt' Iiowcver, the central prlrpose appears to be that of the presentation of
same sarnple. The softwarc tlsed was Oxforcl WordSrnith Tgols 4.0 (Scott, <laur or inlbrrnation, which is borne out by the regular use <,rf report
2004). T.atte 7.0 followins prescnts <lata aborrt tlrc lirst 20 wor<ls lrrrrrl tlrc cogrritivc scnre in all ten texts of the sample. This use of report appears
worcl-list ancl shows a rclativcly lriglr f rcr;rrcnty ol ()(( tlll('ll('(js o[
'tlrirl' irr to l>c suPp<)rtccl by the high frequency of cohesive elernents tl'rat are
the sample. <crrlr-irl t() rcport coenitive senre. Therefore, on the basis of these
ttltt'ttt ls ol "lltltl' lirrtrrtl tlrlrl lll'{ (irr<lirrgs it is
(lonr:<lr<lirrrcr: sr.ln lrt,s ol llrr' 71) or'< Pr.posed that for the purposes of a pedauogic foctrs on
irrlrorlrrtt,rl ()l)i(,( l il()lilt cl:rrrs|s, i17 irrl|rlrlrtr.r'rl trl.rtit't' r l:tttst's, ;tlttl rlttlv rlisr',rrlsll lirrowlc<lgc (suclr as opcrationalizccl hcrc by the cognitive
lirrr1 lr.t.rrr.r.r'lrr1s 11l 'll;ll' w(.t1 rrot r'ottjttttt liolt', ( llr',rrly tlrt'st' litrrlirrgs gt'tttt tttotlt'l) r't';lorl <ogrtilivt'1;crtrc is:r salicrrt <liscotrrsul stnlctrlrc to
sr'lt'r'l lot stttlt:t lir<tts. Sitclt lt lirtrrs corrlrl lt'l:rtr,lo llrr.irrurlysi5 111111
164 A()\I)ENII(l \\'RrflN( ),\Nl ) ( ;lr Nl{l
cre at.iotr ()l texts thaf lirctrs ()n tllc l't'pttst'rr l:ttiott of tlata allcl, in
pirrticular, tttttrtcrical da ta-
The teachingfoars on cogttitiue ganres in,lRe.rrr/r.s sctlions
Irr ()halttcr 6, the proposc<l strt<lcttt t'tttltritv (ltlesti()ns relatitls to
rrnco\rcrin!] uncl exirnrinirrg cogrrit.ivc {rcnr'(' krr<trvlcclge rvithirr n Pllrtictllar
socinl {cnrc rvere:
o WLat rnv Llte liJ.fittttt tn.icro-lrztcl connnrnir:al.iue rtittts oJ'scctiotts ol this texl?
o Ilotu i.s infintta.tiorl or' (r]'{!Ltttl?ttl sltt.r,r:lrttvd, ht nlatiott b tlu:sc a'in"s?
o t\rt' thnv ltatkans or tJl)(s oJ zuritittg ult:iclt, ralrttc tu tlnse a'ims?
Irr thc social gcnre lircus on schernatic structrlre, it rvas tliscovcred that
cxttutt rcscarch on Rcsults scctions 1-roints ttt tlrc thrcc f'lttrctious of Rcsults
scctiorts: trtctatextttirl scfltrtcnts that gtrirle tlte rcarlcr (callccl 'pointers" l>1'
Brctt, 1994), thc prcsetltati()n ()f (lata or findings, lrncl cxplatlaliotts of
aspccts of thc {'inclinus. Tlrc prop()rtions of tlrese types ol'textttal scglllcr}ts
Irpl)car to vary accorlins to clisciplincs, but gcnerally it seclns that
sc{fnlents of tcxt conce rncd r,vith tlrc acttlal prcsclrtation ol finclings ten<l
t() ()ccupy tlic largcst parr o['the Rcsults secti()lls. Clearly thc natttrc: o1'thc
rlata rcportc<l in Rcstrlts scctiorrs rvill vary rviclely betrvcctr tlrtantitat.ive ancl
rlrralitative rescarclt, yct trsturlly at this Point ill the researclr rcllortilru
tircr-c is an attcrupt t() prescnt finrlings or restllts itt a ctlrnpnct nlld
prirrc:iplctl rv:rv lirr tltc rcaclcr. On tlle basis ol'the srnall study rcP()rtcd ilr
tlrt'ltrcviotrs scction, it is proposc(l tllat in tn:rny rctscarch art.iclcs th<:
l)r('s('rrt:rtiolt ol'rlatir can l)e tlrc cornrntttricativc :lirn lilr this pirrt
of tl-rcl
Itlsrrlts scctiou, atrtl that tlris locirl cotrttnttnicative purposc is olicrr
rt.:rlizt'rl ltl,the tcxt scglllcllts tha[ rcnlizc the f'eaturcs of'report cosnitiYt'
H('il r'('.
'Ilrc syllaltus relirtinu to the cosnitivc gcnrc ftrctrs in Unit 6 o{'the cottrst'
( l'rrlrlg7.2) otrtlir-rcs the le:rrtrer activitics thilt arc part ()1' the cognitivt'
gt.trr-c lirctts in tlrc trnit. FollorvinU:r ttlp-clown apProirch, sttrclertt.s rvill:
r consirler a gtrirlcd arlalysis of one of' the threc s:rtttple Rcstrlts
sections (alrcacly cxarninc<l in the social qenre analysis) itr tertrts ol
the highcr-lcvcl {'c:rturcs o1- rcport cognitive ge llrc - scltcttt:tti<
tliscottrsc [)ilttcrIl;
o un1llvsc tlrc Otlrc| fivo s:rrrr1>lc tcxts lbr ()c(]llrrellccs ol'tltcsc lti{.Ilrt^r'
l<'r't'l I-clrot'l li'lttrr-cs;
o :rrr:rlysg llrg l;rrrgrr:rut' ol llrt'slrnrlrlt' Rcsrrlls st'r'tiolts itt lt'l'ttts ol llrt
rrs<.s ol tlr<^rl<'(irritt':ltti(.1(.:rs:r tolrcsilr'<lcvicc rrst'<l to irr<lit:rtr'
spt't ili< itr,, trrrrl tlrc slu'< ilvirrg :itnr( lln1's ol tt'slrir tir'<' (rti'1rt'rlrlt'rrt)
:r'rr,l r,..lrr, r'rl rr.l:rtivt' r'l:tttst's, lr<licr tir:rl lrltt;trcs ;ttttl olrit't l ttotttt
r l;tttsls:
. lir. l.r"l
l)('rl,,rrrr lirtl',rtrrtir .ttl:rlvsis.rltrl 1rr,tr "
. (.1ty 611 .t lrrllt 1'r1..1t1( llrtt rrl t( l)otl lrl'tttlt\r l'. ltlt lcrl itrvrrlVitrl',
rl.rt.r.
I I. \( ]I IINc GENR!] KNO$TI,ED(]E IN AD\I\NCJI.]D WRTTIN(I l6r-r
. carl)' ()tll lltl irtrlivicltral constrttction ol'a sirnilar clata-reporting text.
Thesc ilctivili('s rrn' otttlined in firrther detail in the fbllowing sub-scctions.
11116lpl'gu'ful.cl, tttull,.si..e o.f a, text
Tlris irrvolvcs i<lcrrtilyinu a sc{rlnent of text in one of the tlrree Results
scctiorrs that is a rt'rrlization o{'report cognitive genre. This text segmcnt is
isolate<I, irn<l sturlcnts arc first asked to read it intensively ancl answer the
ftrllor,ving qucsti()ns :rborrt the staginu of tl-re content:
o Wtfi outzrn.ll infrntnation about tlLc research is irtclu,dcd in the introfl,uction?
o Wtat nre tlrc ktltics oJ'the subsequmtt prtragraplt.s?
o Wmt ru,k crtukl you mo,lte about informntion tlmt shoukl be inclutletl in the
opening .section of a sectiott oJ'texts tlml jnvsents rLata?
o Vrlt,at 'is thc orgnnizing princiltle for irtfonnation in tlte bodl .secrion of a da.ta
I resenl.ali ott t,c tio,n ?
.s
Fcerlback ancl discr.rssion of thcse prcparat.ory questions leacls to thcr
preserltation of an analysis of the text segment in terms of the three
knowlccl5;e irreirs of thc cosnitive {renre. Thcse include t}re gcstalt
stnlctrlre of icleas rcpresented within the text (whole-part, r.rp<lor,vn), thc
cliscoursc pattcrn of the written text (previcw cletails), and the principal
cohesive stnrct.Lrrcs, bcing those rclated to the most freqr,rently occurrinu
interpropositional relations. (The stucly in the previons section iclentifies
tlrcse as depcnclcrrt clattse st-nlctrlres, ancl to this will be aclclecl a relatecl
Iirctrs on clefinite article use us a cohcsive dcvice.)
S!,udent analy.si.s oJ' sa,rnple texts
Stttclcnts thcrt anirlyse thc othcr two sarnple texts thal have been previously
cncollntcre(l cltrrirrs the social uenre analysis for features of the report
coE;nitive senre rnodel. Thcy iclentify any stretch of text that confbrms to
the report cognitive genre strllcttrre, antl the extent to which the textual
segrnent exernplifies the fcattrres of the modcl. They also note thc overall
Itlnotlnt of tlre text in each of the tr,vo Results sections tl-rat is strtrctr-rrecl by
. rcport cognitive {rcnre.
A l,i.rtgtri.slic fot:trs on cohesiuc d,euices
Tlrc rrr:rin colrcsivc fcatures that prornote coherence, as exernplified in the
irrilial sunrplc rcport text, are then examinecl more intensively. The small
slrrrly ,l' Rcsrrlts sections rcportccl in the previous section revealed
(lrrrrrrlrir"s ArrrPlific:rt.ion rclation to be a frcqnent, lor,ver-lcvel organiza-
liorrltl tlt'r'it't'itt tr'pot'l lt'xts, irrrrl irr Rcsults sections where the cliscourse
ttsls lltis togrrilir'<'ll('ttl'('. 'l'lrrrs llrt' rolc ol'lrypotactic stnrctrlrcs, such as
rlr';rcrrrlcnt;rrrrl rcrlrr<r'rl lt'l:rtivr.<llrrst's rrrrrl olrjt'r.l rrorrrr <.l1rrscs, arc
ctltttlittlrl .tr t,,ltt':ivt'rlcvilcs. ,,\lso irr conittrrr'liotr rvillr lltr.sr.slrrtr.lrrrr.s, il
t
I (;(i ACAI)I.IN,II(l \\rRll'lN( ; /\Nl ) ( ;l, N lil 'l l,l,\(l ilNG (iENRE KN( )\,\'t,l, t )( ;1.. tN /\l)\',,\NCl,]) \\rRIt.IN() I {i7

sccnrs to be salient to cxaminc tlrc lolc ol tlrc rl<'lirrit.c articlc us a ccntral
c<;lrcsive clcvice lbr this particulitr c(){rr)iti\'(' e('nr1'. I'lrc [irllor'virtg firrrctiotrs
o['the def]nite article hin'e been Iirurrrl lo Prolirlt'lt trscl'ttl ]tasis to exal]lillc
lurticlc use in lextual Segnre ntS strllctttr(t(l lrt tr'pot t cogttitive g('llre:
r Previous mention, c.g. tr qut'.slionn(tin t0(t.\ rttt.pkryed to
d,ata,. T-hc questionn(t'ire consisLcd, of . . .
o Uniqucncss, only one of its kilrtl, c.g. tlu' rnost sigti,/it:ant Jhding. . .
o f)cfined by another nor"rn:
befbre Llre rrottrt, c.g. the suntry Jinrl,httts . . .
after tlre notrn, joinccl lty'<f/ol thc', cr.g. thr fLndirtgs tl tlt,c stnztel: ...
o Definccl Iry zr phrase, e.g. tltc rcsltott,sr.s Jrom the initia,l, srtntpla a'nrup
ind.icol,cd, . . . rneans to clevclop zr groun<lecl knowleclge of its conventionalizcrl firrrrrs
o Definecl by a relative clattser, t'..g. tlu ttpo'nses
initial qucstion; in,d,icatcd . . .
[ . in gui s ti r: an, a, l,y s i s a,n d. ltr a c t'i c e t a,.s k s
Stuclents tlren lr.ork tlrrough practice tasks clesigned to ittcreasc their
llwareness itnd accuracy of trsc of fhe target cohesive devices. Wrerc
l)()ssible, sucl'r tasks arc designecl to llave a discottrsal focrts, sttch as ttsitlq lr
t:lozc or textllal {brrnat so t}raL the coherencc role o{' the clcvice lvitlrin
<liscourse is not lost; it is inrportant that the languagc f-eatttrc is seert :rs
1>ult of a functioning, operzrtiotral whole rirt.lter tltatt a cliscrcte piecc o1-
lirrgrristic knowleclge. (Focr-rsing on linguistic I'e:rtttrcs at this stirge irr ther
gcrrlr'based teaching ancl lcaruing cycle is intcndecl lo stlpPort this idca.)
ga,tltt prcliminary:
tho.t etnn'gcd frc'n, the
inclividtral rt'lrlizrtt.ions oL a rcport r'ourritivc {-tcrlre tcxt. TIrc trsk shoulcl
provicle tlrt'olrllortttnity f'or writcls 1o c'rrrplov thc rlilfcrent aspccts ol'thct
proceclttrirl krrowlctlge that has bccrr lrrcscntc<l at llris ph:rse ir-r thc unit.
Ntl'rouglr tlrc social g;enre firctrs arrrl t.lre cognitirte qcnre lbctrs arc
separirtecl att<l scqtrential in the or{rirrrization of' this syllabus rrrrit, tlrcr
underlyinu i<k:a of ther design of tlrc trnit is that both aspects are closcl,v
inter-relaterl, :urd th:rt knorvleclge of botlr areas is necessary irr orclcr lirr-
rtot'ice writers to clerrelop thcir discotrrse colnpetcncer in rclatirln t() the
sttb-serrre of Rcsults scctions. By initiall;, acl<lressirrs tlre soci:rl scrrrc
aspccts of Rcstrlts scctions, it is possible to eshltlish thc clisciJrlin:trr ancl
discoursal contcxts in which thc' part-ucnre occurs, ancl to provirlc tlrc
and fttnctions in cliflcrent <lisciplincs, strch :rs thc cliffercnt rliscipliners rcr
which the novicc writcrs belons. Against thc socialll'c()nstructc(l contcxt
of the gcnre ancl the rclatecl arcas ol'knowlc<lec, thc coetritivc genre fircus
considcrs more absr rar:t procednral knorvlcclge (as rvcll as linsuistic
knowledue) that cnablcs the writer to deal rvith tlrc isstrc of tlrc tcxttral
representation of finclirtqs itt tcrttrs o['rlata, irncl in particular ntrrtrcriclrl
clata. Altltotrgh tlrcse two arcals arc closcly intcr-r-elat.c<l they arc corrccrrrcrl
with different objects of enrltriry arrcl rrecrl to bc rlcscribcrl arrrl irrtr-orlur.grl
in difl'crent ways ancl possibly at rlill-crcnt stases irr thc learnins pr.()ccss.
This dtral foctts in thc thcorizing arrtl rnorlcl tcsting o1'prcvious chaJrtcrs
whiclr has formed thc b:rsis frlr <lcvelopins thc particrrlar :rclvarrce<l-krr,cl
academic r,vriting coursc cxerrnplified in this firral clrapter.

!'.,tttttritta,tion of a,ctuctl llesul|s sectiotts Jbr or:cuntlt.ces o[ r(tott

,\lrt'r'practice tasks th:rt Ibcus on tlrc salicrrt lingtristic Ic:rtrrres tlrrtt 7.4 Conclusion
r orrt|illtrte to cohCSitttr, tlre tlther tWo exarnple Restrlts Sectirrtts :trt'
:rrr:rlyscrl by stuclents for thcir ttse of tlre:sc lirtguistic I'catures' This book began by notine thc rnultiplicity ol'approaches anrl rerrrrinolt>
gies that ltavc bee n proposed to rclate <liscoursc classificirtion (in tcrrns of
.frtitrt t:on..stru,ctio'n oJ' a. rcporl constrllcts like ge nre or text type ) to pedauog,v. Irr relation t() tllis
tltal occttrs r'vithin a hypothcticirl
Strr<lcnts arc then providerl rvith cl:rta situation, the:rirns of this book lrave becn tr,volblcl: first to prescnt a critical
l{r'strlts section and jointly constnrct a small cl:rta-rcportins lexl llrrtl revicw of ge nre theory as it is currcntly appliecl to pedauogl,, irnrl secorrclly
crrrploys the gcstalt stnlctrlre, cliscotrrse pattcrn irncl cohesivc {ilalltrcs ()l to prcsent ancl exernplily a fianrcwork Ibr systclnatizins approachcs t()
llrt'rcporl cognitivc gc'lrrc. Tlris task c:ur bc c:rn-ictl otlt. ill :t tlltttlll<:t'rll senrc arrrl thcir irpplication to tlrc teaclrirrg Of rvritirru. onc of tlrc
lvlrys, strch as a partial c:lozc corrrltlcliort or rnurtiptillrtitrg tllc s()lltcllt't'lttttl signific:rnt problerns with the pcdauouic :rpproachcs to gcnrc that rvcrc
llrr-:rgr:r1;lr clcrrrt'rrts ol'a rrro<lcl tcxl rcsl)()llsc tltltt ltltvc ltt'c:tt pt'ittlt'tl rcvicwcrl in chapter 2 is tlrc nurrorvness of thc typcs ol' knorvlcrlge
orr
< lrrrl, t rrl rrp lrr<l scr':rnrlrlr'<1. \\/llrlcvt't- Iirrttrtl is sclt'< l<'tl Iirl tlrt' .ioirrl itrtcsratccl rvithin existing pedagogic {rcrlre collstnrcts, altlrotrsh it lras tt)
sllrrrlrl lrrorrrol<' lt.joirrl <list ttssiott ;trr<l lr.irtitll Iirt tts otl
t orrslr rr< liorr llrsli. lrt' cortccrlccl tlrat the Englislr fbr Spccific Purposcs approach has r,viclcncrl
llrc li'ltlrrlcs ol llrt' r oqttilivc ut'tttt' tttotlt'1. tlrt'vit'rv ()['c()ntcxtual knor,vlcclse (Bhatia, 2004; Srvalcs, lggS) and the
rrillttll' :tttrl rolc ttl' corntttunicativc prlrl)osc (Askehar,c artrl Srv:rles, 2001).
Itttltt,trltt,tl r tttttlt trt lto)l uf tt tt
f\ttl llorvt'vr.r', llrc krrowle<lsc dornain tlrat has becn largell, lackirrg in b<ttlr
'llrclrrr.rlolllr(rtrtr'l,trl,.llltt r,,t',ltilrl, l'(lll{ 1rlr,r"r t"l("lr.llrlirtt'lrt;tl;lsl' lrlrlrrrr:r< lrcs l() gcllrc has been the coglritive org:rnizati<tnal clinrcrrsion
llt.rl rr',rrrrrl,1 lrr tlrl t.r,,l. ,,1 llt{ l(}tttl ((rtl',llrr ltlrt 1rlt.t,r'. lrttl ottl llt,tl (.;r'r;rri.rurliz<'rl lr<'r-t'bv cognitivc rrcrrrcs), arrrl it is tlris krrorvlc<lgc arcu
;rt,,tt,l, . l, tlr,rt r,'rt'ir.rl <,rrsirlcrrlrl. lirrrrs irr rlrc t.:rlli<'r' <lr:r1rt<'r's lrs it is

t
168 ACADEMIC \AIRITIN(; ANI) ( ;I.]N I{I.: l'l'lr\(IHINC] GENRE KN()WLlllX ;l.l IN Al)VAN(lUD WRITIN(] 169

founclational in fhe development of a discoltl's(: (:()lllpetence and genre
knowletlge by novicc writers.
Chapter I of this book begarr by cxatttitrirrg it range of pedagogic
clefinitions of the tlpes of knowledge that <lilli:rcnt theorists propose for
the concept of cliscourse competence . This {irral t:otrclttsion retllrns to that
concept, but in the form of the more reccnt l)r()P()sal of Bhatia (2004) for
rliscur.siue cornpetence, which he sees as esscnl.ial for appropriate rrse of
professional and acaclemic genres. Bhatia proposes that discursive
cornpetence includes the ttrree subsurning areas of textual com.petence,
generic competence and soc'inl competence:
Textual competence represents not only an ability to rnaster the
lirrguistic cocle, but also an ability to use textual, contextual and
pragmatic knowledge to constrllct and interPret contextlrally appropri-
ate texts . . . Generic competence lneAlts the ability to identify, construct,
interpret and successfully exploit a specific repertoire of professional,
disciplinary or workplace genres to participate in the daily activities and
to achieve the goals of a specific prof'essional commllnity . . - Social
competence . . . incorporates an ability to tlse language more widely to
participate effectively in a variety of social ancl institutional contexts to
give expression to one's social identity, in thc context of constraining
social structures ancl social processes. (pp. 144-5)
stlldents rv<trtl<l prefer such a solutiorr). Ncvcrtlreless, what teachers can clo
is to assist t-lrcir stuclents to devcl()p tlrcir ou,n capacity to deconstrtrct,
exarninc an<l practise salient. discourse I'catures, and to reconstruct
discotrrses within their own particular clisciplines. The development of
such a capacity rcquires frameworks, tools ancl types of expertise that go
far beyoncl what has been conventionally presentecl in acadernic writing or
study skills textbooks.
In a small way, this book has been an attempt to identify ancl consider
how to clevelop novice writers' discursive competence by the use of such
fiameworks, tools and types of expertise. Achieving a discursive corrpe-
tence, in efl'ect, is the ability to deconstruct, Llnderstand and reconstruct
cliscourses in ways that are linguistically correct ancl socially appropriate,
but also in ways in which writers as individuals are able to achieve their
own conlmllnicative prlrposes through their own authorial voices. Thus, it
is the airrr of the teacher of academic writing to assist novice writers tcr
achieve this ultimate measure of success, which is the exercise of their own
authorial voice witl'rin the clisciplinary community to which tl-rey are
biclcling lbr entry.

As Bhatia proposes, the exercise of a cliscursive competence involves

textual, generic ancl social knowledge, all of which are drawn upon and
convcrge in the langr-rage user's daily output and their participation in a
specific academic or prof-essional context. Thus, for peclagogy that aims at
teaching novicc writers and preparin€i them to be able to function ancl
transact in such contexts, what is require cl is an approach to thc
specification and organization of syllabus, materials and methodology
that integrates multiple knowledge areas, which, as proposecl in earlier
chapters, can be achieved by tl-re ttse of a genre-based approach. Flowever,
to achieve this integration, it is important to establish systematic, analytical
approaches to genre constrlrcts and the rnr.lltiple areas of knor'vleclge that
they draw upon.
Bhatia's proposal for discursive competence in effect relates to high
levels of writer and speaker competence within specific acaclcrnic :rrt<l
professional communities - levcls of competence tlrett arc th(: cndptlint or'
goal for many of the EAl, sludcnts whottr lvt: t<.'at'll. Tlrtrs, tllt' lask o['
currictrlurn clesigners, rn?rtcrials writcrs rtn<l tt'itt ltt't s is to f ircilitltlt: lcltt'tt<'l's
to movc as closcly us lrossil>lc lo tlrc cxctrist'ol llt<' lrrll lirrrfi; sliills lrrrtl
krrowlc<lg<l (llll( l1'llll(' l. lt tlist tttsivt' I ,ttt;rt'lt'tlr r'" I l,w<'t't't ' l<'ltt ltt't.s
llrcrrrsclvt's ( ilnll()l rlccorrsllrrll lrnrl rlclivcr lltt' ttt't lssltty litttttvlt'rlgc lrrr<l
skills tlr;rt ( ()lnlltisr. :r rlisr rrrsit,<' r'ottrl)('l('ll( (' ,l\ plt'rlilicstrrl, rllrrlily
:rlrsorlrr.rl rrrorlrrlt's ot ttnilr llt;tl ;tlt'splt ilir lo i',lr l! ,lil rl,litr,' (t't'r'tt il ottt
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Ventcrla, E. (1987), Tln Stntcture of Sodal Intera,ction: A Systenic Approach to the
Semiotics oJ' Seruice Encounta' Internc Li on. I-ondon: Pinter. l'roccss lklation l)r'fi rr itir

Virtanen,J. (1992),'Issues of text typology: narrative - a "basic" type of text?' Associativc Sinrplc Contrast II)voh('s tllc orrrrltaris<tn of tutt tlrirrgs, ('\'cuts of irllstrtrr tiorrs
irr ttrrrrs ofsornt'ltarti<rrlar in r('slx(t ol ulriclr tlr<'1'rlifli'r.
Text, 12,292-310. (irnrpirntivc Sirnilarit In\ol\,('s thc rornparison ()f hto tl)inf{s, cvcnts of al)stt il( ti()ns
Wenden, A. L. (2001), 'Metacognitive knowledge in S[-A: the ncglected (Sinrpl< Oomparisorr ) in tcrnrs of s<lnrc Jlarti<:rrlar in rcspc(t of rvlriclr tlrcv nr<'
sirttilar.
variable', in M. P. Breen (ed.), Learner Contributions to LangLtqe Leatning.
Sfafcnr('nt - 'I'lre trtrtb of a statcrrrt.rrt is allirrnc.<l
Harlow, Essex: Pearson Eclttcation, pp. 44-64. Affinnation
Wenger, E. (1993), Comtnunities oJ'Practice. Cambriclge: Canrbridge University Statcmcnt - Irrroh'cs n stat('rr('nt an(l aI ('x(cptioD to tlllt statcln('Dt
Press. Lxct ptiorr

Werlich, E. (1974) , Tlpologie der Texte. Heidelberg: Qr.relle and Meyer. Statcrncrrt - l'lrc fint nrcrrrlrr 1tr<tvitlcs ir gcrrcnl stat<'tnt'rrt arrrl tlrc
Excrnplificatiorr sccorrd atl<ls a ltro1t<tsitiorr 14ri< lr is ltrcscrrtrrl as atr cxcln-
Werlich, E. (1976), A T'ext ()ram'ntar rf English. Heidelberg: Qtrelle and Meyer'. p)ifitatiorr o1-tlrc gt.rrcrnl stat('lt(llt irr tlrc lirst rrr<'trrllr.r.
\A/hately, R. (1826/1975), El,ernents of Logc. Scholars Facsimiles ar.rd Reprir.rts. Statcnrcnt - L)t'rritrl Irtvolvcs tlrc tk rrial of tltc trrrtlr of a statctn('l)t or virli<lin ol n
Widclowson, H. C. (1983) , I.earnittg P'urNtose and I'angutge Use. Oxford: Oxfirr-cl 1;ro;rositiorr.
l)crtial - (irrrc< tiorr Irtvolvt's a 11)rrc( ti\'( l()n-ilnt()lllnti( srrltstitrrlt. firr :r tlt'rriirl
University Pless.
(lorrtcssiorr * Irrvoh'cs <lirt t t ()r iD(lir(.ct rlt nial
Widdowson, H. G. (1989), 'Knowleclge of language ar-rd ability fbr ttse' . AppLied ol thc trrrtlr 01 arr irrli.rcrr< t
Contra-cxDt ctation
Linguistics, 10, 128-37.
Slrpl)l('nr('ntall' Altt'rrratiorr In\r)l\'(s ts() ()r lt()rc non-antitltt'tir':rl <lroirc
Widrlcrwson, H. G. (1990), Aspects oJ Language T'eaching. Oxfbrd: Oxfrrrrl (lor)lnsti\,c Altcrnatiorr lrrrtrhcs a < Iroicc lrctrvt.<'n arrtitlrr.scs
University Press. Paralrlr rasc Itl'oh,cs tlrc sarrrt' ltropositiorr cxltrtssr.rl irr <lifli.r<'rrt rrars.
Widdowson, H. G. (2004), Text, (ktntex|, Pretext: C'ritica,l Discottrse itt Discoursr Amplifi<:rtiorr Irrrrrlves inrltlicil or t'x1tli<:it rcltctitiorr ol tlrr' prop<tsitional
An a\ si,s. Oxfcrrd: Blackwell. c()nt('nt of()n(' rrrt'rnltcr of tlrt' rt'l:rtiorr irr tllc otl)('r, l()g('llt('r
u,illt:t rton-corrtrastivc trl<litiorr t() tlllt l)r()t)()sitiollill (.()nt('lrl.
Wilkins, D. (1976) , Notional Syllabuses: A Tnxonoml a,nd its Releuance to Foreigtt
l,ogicrr Cortrlitior - (irrrst'qrrcrrc<' Irtvolrt's:r c()ns((lllcn(c rvlrir'lr <lt'1t<'rrrls rrltotr ur rt'ulizlrltlc r
LangtLage Ins tntcti.on. London : Oxfbrd University Press. <lt:drrctivc tutrcalizitblc rrrnclitiorr or lt\l)otl)cti( al contiugcrrcr'.
Williams, I. (1996), 'A contextr"ral sttrdy of lexical verbs in two types of nte<lit ll N{r:arts - I)rrrposc Irrvoh,t's arr ircti{ll tll:rt is/was/rvill lx. urr(lcrtirk(.r) rl,i/, //r,
research reports: clir.rical and experimental'. EngleiltJbr SpeciJic PtLrposes, lit. itll(nlion ol ar.l)i'clirrg ir lrarticrrlar rcsrrll.
t75-97. Rcasou - I{r'srrlt l rrr)lvcs tlr(' provisiorr of a rcasorr rr,/r) n partit:rrl;rr clli'< t t.arnt,
nborrt ol rrill <orrrc alxrrrt.
Williams, I. (1999), 'Restrlts sections of meclical resezrrch zuticles: anirlysis ol Mt:arrs - I{t'srrlt Irrvolvcs a stiltcDrcnt of hoar a partictrlnr rcsrrlt is/rvls/u'ill lx
rhetorical categories for peclagogical ptrrposes' . Englislt' Jbr Spet:ifi,c l\r'tlttt';r't, aclr i<:r,crl.
18, 347-66. (irottnds - Condtrsiorr Ittvoh'<'s a <lcclrr< tiorr rlralrr orr thc l>asis of an olts<.tlatiorr.
Winograd, T. (1975), 'Frame representations and the dcclarativc/ptrrccrlrtlrtl 1't'rrr ltcr<l Oltronologir al I)rovi<l<'s tltc scrnarrti< link l)ch\!cl) r'r'r'Dt llroPositi<tDs oDc of
rlrir lr lirllrrts Ilrl rrtlrt.r irr tirrr<..
controversy', in D. G. Brobrow irrlcl A. Collins (cds), 1lr!r'.it'rtltt.!,ittrt rrtrrl <rrrrligrr:rl Scq trcrr t c
'l-crrrporal Ovcrlup 'I-hc rclatior ol tcnrPoral orcrlalt lirrks llvo ('\'cDts \\'lli(.ll
(Jnderstanding. Londor.r: Acaclcmic l)ress, pp. lll5-2 10. ,'rctla1r. r'itlrt r rrlr,llr ,,r parrlv, irr tirrrr..
Winogracl, T. (1977),'Rcpt'cscttt:ttiort: firrrttitlisttts lirt lirrttrv,lc'<lgt", irr A llorrrl i rr g '['lris is a ttort-ck'ctiVt., rrOri-st'<lrrcltial rt.latiOrr bctrvccrr lrrtr
Zampolli (t:d.), l'\t.ntl.rt,ttt.trtlll.,\trtrli.t.r irr (lttnltttltt ,\titttr'r', Vrtlrrrttt'l', cort joirr<:tl or.jrrxtaltosc<l proltositions. l'lrc sccourl rrrt'rnlrt'r
rrlrls:rt lt'irst (nrc !r('\v Jrroltositiorr to tltc first an(l tll('
Lin,gtr,i..sl,i.t: ,\!,nrrlrtrt'.t l'ttrrt.s.sirtg. n lnsl('rlllur: Nor llr I l,rlllttrrl l'rrlrlislrirr1.l. rrrcrrrlr<,ts itr( n()l (()nr)('(-t('rl irr arr clcctit't', coruqtarativc <it
pp. I51)-7'l). scr;trcrrlial rvat,
Wittgr.rrst<.i1, 1,. ( l1)1'r:l) , I'ltihxttltltittrl ltrt,r'tlr!,(tltrttt t ( )tlolrl llltrr lirvr'll. l1)87, p. 102)
186 A(]ADEN{IU \VRI-I'IN(} ANI ) ( ;I,:NIII' API'ENDIT]I]S r87

ltr Po1lrllrliorr Neu 7nt,lm.d 1997), 23, 'Errglish lan- Annc M.

Appendix 2: Corpus study: selection methotl, population and sample
(
Strrrl i<'s l'olukil iott l/2, pp. l9- grragc rcqrrire Hcndcrsorr,
(Gcogr lphy) Reuint 41 rncnts and Anclrct'D.
The airn of the stllcly \,vas to gather a srnull (()rl)us of 20 academic texts innrigratiorr
policv irr Ncw
Trilin, Rceina
from a range of academic clisciplines attd cxalrtitlc them for instances of
Pcrnic ancl
Zt:zrland'- Nicola North
the cognitive genres. (i Applicd Attpliad. ( I 999), 20, ,1, 'llcttt vcrstu Rod Ellis
ReqJrests wclre rnade (personally ancl by crrrail) to 15 acadernic staff, I-inqristics Lingui.slit:.s pp.4{i0-480 systcln lcarn-

eaclr teaching in a different acaclemic tliscipline at a New 7'ealarrd

ing'.
Biological Scjann (1999),28.+, 'Nct prirnitry
lniversity. Staff we.. askecl to name the for.tr 9r fir'e academicjournals that
E. H. Dclrrcia,
Scicnt r:s 5,417, pp. protlrrction of .f. G. Hanrilton,
they were most likely to refer to. Reponses werc received from I I saff I li-7*7ll a forcst cco- S. L. Haidn, R.
fiorn the sr.rbject areas o1: appliecl linguistics, biology, complrter science, svstcm tvith
cxpcrimcntal
B. 'I'horn:Ls
anrl.f . A.
education, English, general lingnistics, history, law, business management, CO2 cnrich- Arrcln:l,s
psychology ancl sociology. mcn t'.
' From ihe journal titlei (or other periodical publications) named by staff ti English 'l'h.a lbtiqu oJ ( 1 999), 50, 'Frcnch and .f orrathon
Li(crlturc l)t.gli.sh Studics pp. l5!> Italian soru ccs
members, rwo or three articles (or book chapters) were gathered fiom
198, Ciibsor r
t65 lor Ralcgh's
each of the journals named, frrtrn issues for the year 1999 or years closest "Fax:rrcll lalsc
to that y.uriAt,og.ther the titles for nine articles were gatherecl for each lovc"'.
(r999),62, 'Writing ancl
of the eleven subjlct areas, making a total populatioll of 99 articles whicll
!) Bt rsin css R u..sitt tss I NIt:lirrrlr
Managcrncnt Oonnnun.ittliorL pp. l0-28 othcr cornrltl I(rriglr t
rvere numbered 1 to 99. Using the randorn nLrmber function of a scientific (lonr rn rrnicat.i- ()urr.r|cr\ nication stancl-
calclrlator, articles from the population were selected as the corptrs. These
()n arcls irr
ttndcrgradrratt:
articles are listed in the table following. bttsincss crlrl
caliolr'.
l0 Erlrrc;rtiorr Rcscunl in (r 999), 'Eclucating sci- I(t:rrrrt'tlr
Scient:e 21), l, pp.69- ctrcc tcacht:rs 'fobin, Oalt'
Study 1: Randomly selected corQus litl.ttcaliort 88 lor thc soci<> Scilt:r arrrl
crrltrrral divcr- Milckt:nzi<: W,
Corprrsitcm Subjcct .fotrrnal or Vohtttrc,issrtc, Artidc titlc Arrthor sitv oI rrrban Snrith
ntrnrbcr cclitcd book ll:tgcs sch ools'.

Psl,chologY (1999),25,4 'ln[:rnl.s':rnd Sanclra E. ll Edrrcation In l.crnaliottttl (1999),21, ll 'Ernpirical

I Jouma.l oJ Fr:rnz X.
Expetinrnl.t.l. pp. 965*75. adrrlts' pcrcr:p- Trchrr, E.
Jou.mtLl oJ pp. I 169-85 cvaltrati<tn of Bogrrcr
Psycholng' tion of scalc Glcnn Stirnrt an cclrrcational
stntcttrrc'. Schcllcnbcrg Etltrcn.lirtr ioll
coltscra'al
ancl S(rrart B. pfogfanrllc
Karncnctsky introdrrccd in
2 Appliccl R. Hasan and ( 199{i) 'Tcchnologv Ann Crannl. Srviss scconcl-
G. Williarns turd /or Francis ara sclrools'.
l,ingrristics
(ccls), ,l,i1azc1 rvcapon: tht: t2 Applicrl Alpli.d. (199e),20,2, 'Snrall Aclri:rn
i.n Social.t disciplinc of Lin{,lrsitics Lingdslits oo.237-64 Crrltrrrcs'. Flollidav
rcacling itr tht: l3
s<:conclaty
Appliccl EL'I'-lounrnl (1998),52,2 'ELT projcct Alastair Sharp
Linsrristics pp. 140-145 planning and
English t:latss-
toottt'. srrstainaltili trj
l4 Larr' Ha.nta,rd. (1999),23, I 'Rcgrrlating Randal C.
3 Contprttct (innnutt.i.cul.ion (1999),42,2 Rolrcrt I
( llirss .lourn.al rl Ltut p. 1ir9 trclrvork indrrs- Pi< kcr
Scicn ct: s oJ l.ltc t\OM pp. 7,1-71)
an.tl. Publi.c trics: a look at
I'ol.i.t:1 I n tt:l'.

'l hr (2(XX)), rt5, lllu'1rr lcrrLitrs

.lotrt nrrl of
nglisl I
4 Iii r t5 l,lrrv Htunrnt. Rigltls (r999),21,2, 'Thc Alrican Makarr Mrrtrra
l,ilclrrtrrr r ( itnuontrwtllh 111r. l'Jl lllll (!rurtcrll' pp. 3.12-ti3 Hrrrran Rights
Corrrt: a trro-
lcusccl stool'.
r88 A(IADIIMIC) \VRfflN( ; AN l) ( ;l':Nl{l' APPENDICES 189

(2(XX)),30,1r, 'Arr irrrlt:x allr> Il. Bt:rtirr. B.

Iri ( irrrrllrtc r SoJiuarr: Appendix 4: Example of an analysed script from Study 2
S<:iurcr: I\'trt'ticr: und pp. 1)7ii l{){)? ( ali()il t(nl for Catarri:r arrd A,
lixpoictt tc oIrjcr:t-ori- Filipponc
('iltc(l databasc Tash J (Relating to Discnssion Rhetorical Type):
stsl r:ttts'.
The New Zealanrl governmcnt shoulcl restrict the number of admissions of
ll Applit:rl EL'l'.lottmal (19()l{), l-r2,3, "l'otv:trcls rttotc .fanc Artroltl
lrrrrnanislic
New Zealanclcrs to Llniversity degree programmes as there are insufficient
[,ingu istics pp. 2li5-'12
Errglish tcach- ernplolment opportunitics for Llniversity graduates in New Zealancl today.
ing'.
t8 Brrsi ncss il.sia I'ariJic (2000), l?,62, 'Itct lonnirnct: G. Qian Ana,lyscrl Script:
i\'l:rn agt: nr cD t .lournnl ol P. 83 ol US l'DI in
I'luno.g(\n?nI diffcrcnt rrrrltl i----'
'
Se-"^r'. P."r, '':
rcsiotts'. *;;*l#J3-=-o=I--
" G-^l,s,t;..] lllcrc are
$-^1,s.r,.{-Tl"tc nu.bii of arguffi
o.e a numbcr arguntm-fq
for boti .cffitmg *r"-ffi bot-h rc*rictrng
l9 Brrsirr css Aradttry oJ (2(xx)), ,13, .+ 'Marr;rgt:rial S. Shirrnra ---+;J,Ll" rurnber of idmisiroa ofT;;i-Zatailde6 ro unrvesny di
N{anilgcrncrr lI(n(g?il1?il1 pp. ti8l-(i87 in t(irPrctat i()lls
lJ
''':':"'Tl
1
t
alttl orgatriza-
f. C,"".ll
p.ogrammes becarrsc
progrcmrncs tle lack of sunable
becausc of r}c suirabte.1ot
iua-rtabte. and for attouing fre admrssim
opp"'runii"'l.i)'i'iii
iob opponrrt l(?ll-.*i,".^
qr"finffffiiAt-'""1
.
tional c()r(cxt I L students to tlore san'e degree progranuncs."t'r"i"ilia"tp,r" .e-4C-t",S l\
'-Xgjg! rf

as prcclictors l- , - -appareot lacl, of errrplormer[ oppondr!;s.

lLYa- p \ aJ- (^r. I

of r:orporatc -^ j r-\ ma'n reason rlar resr rcrions shorrld be rmposed is that of li Q..r""
^,- ._ . , ] I I
<:hoicc of ""'" -- I I I riipiG--"mmurrons ro rtre consrderable e*p"nt" ofi\ pl.. +
:
t:ttt,iron nrcrt t:tl I I I educatint a \erv
educating Nes'Terhnrl dldcnr lo
Zeahnd student r^ degre
dFor* level. M".."c ilre=a----n
lo.pl Whereas rhd=:..-..--*
s tral t:qti. ' strrdent\is requrred to conrnbure a sub-ffirial amounr of dre ll - L
cost of ic(iary eduetrorr. rt rs onl\ ur the ucurrlv of 20oo offlj\Lo{as''^
(irnprrtcr Inlent.ulioilal (r999), l l, I 'Cogrritivt: Andrr:rr Scatr 'l
r4
20 1 rne tord cos rncurred. The bilance filnded bv d,JltJ'tU \crJ''r'pr'a't
p.185 lalkth rottghs: antl Davicl 's
gone.n'{''tdlredl-\fromh\pi}'ercontributlonsThrswoul#i
govemn{rttdlredl\fromh\pi)'ercontributlonsThrswoulffi'|
Scit:nt c .lourna.l ol
.
.f
IIu.nu.n- rr n rlcrsl:ur d i ng FIcss appcar to be a radrer rnappropriare rrse of tle mrmtr'sJ / .:^a,i.,|. i{
t.lrc cllcct of n,rmg11I tlere are rrot rrkell to be sufficimt enrplorrnenr ll c"^.-"[^* l]
CoDtlul?r oppottmitles avarlable at tie ornpletron ofsuch rud1. 7
,l \ a:^,.1 ]
task clt:scrip-
tion (lctail 0n
(:\'ahr?rt()r l)or'-
S,-.1. !Hi, A dWry* ;t#fu- ror.dncti,s *,.y inro
for rdndrng entn in,o degree
a"g,"" progr.mes_
f I' s-fidiift-Aumry of surtable lobs rs absilt, rs tl,. uicrosng Qe*^ II
I

lotnrarrt c'. I rcc,rmulation of fudmt dcbt from ycars of tcdiary fudy- ind a.,"1{ l/
I t}e subsequent cssequeilces utrrch t}ris ls brmgmg to a r,nv.) l',Sot

Appendix 3:
,q
-,,
xl
| | Seneration of\e\! Zqlanders n rlerr future lrves Therr lack of
| | abrlrl to borrow to blr) houses busmes*s and cats, as sell as
I I the sress engendered b\ ther rndebtcdncss o\.er i lrfe trn)e,
I lwill undoubtedh euse a nunrber of scral problems for a
ilr\
ti.iL.3+ I

Irrstructions for the administration of the four writing tasks , I I eillre qeneratton
eillregeneratton
-,J - -1--

lnslntctions for supentisors of the utriting tasks

l'!rur,sc is,suc th,e suiltts, and thnt rrud tlrc follotuing instru,ctions .R.*.
Rcs.ll
o You will have 30 mirrutes to r'vrite an essay resPollsc to the task yotl aich,"3
l invotd.)

have in front of you.

o Pleirse write your response to the task on the linecl paper attachc(I. 5,6i(.rJ
o If yotr conrplete the writing task carly, please in<licate by raisirru yotrr Cheoolooir ol
hand and both papers rvill be collcctecl. d
. Yorlr essay will rcnrain anonylnous, but ilyotr wish to claitn yortr css:ty
back in thc ltrturc, plcase detach an(l kcep thc fol<l-otrt tlrrrnlxrr tal)
()n thc lincd ansrvcr J)apcr wlrich yotr will ncc<l to sltow tltt'
rcscarcltcr to cltrinr lr:rck yotrr script. IIc will rcttrit) :t plro1otopy lirr'
lris lrralysis.
o I)lt':rst' sl:lll lr()\v, ]'()ll llll\'(' liO Irrirtttt<'s. Co^l.as{ (x r } Q*."^ Ra"r+ (r 5)
Ch.o'oro3."t S.o-^. .5 (r r) $o.-1,.:.q (r6z
'lO ltt:li, ltlt'trtr'trt1'' ( X)
<b,r:+ 6 C"-s".r"*.. (x ( .) l-l-)eoni Res*li * a
,lflrt rrlltnrirtt! trtitrtrlt't lrt ln'rfrtrtrt llrr'tr,titittg ^
(X '.l

r I'llrrsr'\top \\titirt;1.rrrrl lill itr lltt'r1rt<'sliolllr,lilr'. \{'ltctt vrttt lt:trl'

v C.^r.qsJ'J< 41t.,-'l
CL^c.s h C6"1rae.,f:.{J
lrttislrr',1 llr rltlt'\llollll,lil('lrllltsc ll;tttrl ilr \lrlll lt,lltll\'
190 AC]ADEMIC WRITIN(} ANI) ( iI.]NI{I.:

Appendix 5: Results sections corpus Index

Corprts Sr rbj cct fournal Volttrnr:, issttt Articlc titlc Arrthor
itcm lllrgcs abductiveinferences 49
nrrmbct
(1999),20,3, 'Acaclcmic attri- Kor Hylancl aczrdemic literacies fflovelnellt 133, 146
I Appliccl Aplilicd
Linguistics 34 r -67 bution: citation accommodationisl sez also assimil:rtive or pra€lnatic peclirgogy 2, 9-10
Linguistics
rnrl lh<: con- Askelrave I 30, 33, 89, 95, 132,167
5lrlrctior] ()f dis-
ciplinatl knolr" Bachman L 3
lccl sc'. Bakhtin M 8l
2 Applir:cl AWl,ied, (1999),20, 2, '-flrc dcvclop M. R. Salabcrt-r' Bereit.er C 82
Linguistics LinEti.sl.ics I5 l-78 rlrcr)l- of pzrst Berkenkotter C 134-5, 158
torsr: r'crbal
Blratia V K 7 13,29,33-4, 36, ll7, 130-2, 139, 144, 153, 167-8
nrorphology in
L2 Spanish'. Biber D 7, 35-36, 77, B3-5,91-4, 96, 106, 130,140
'Global cnviron- Nlichacl
Braine G 87-9
Inktn aLiotrtl. (1999),21,,.r
3 Edrrcation
nrcntal pilor- Robinsorr atrtl Bush D 87
Journal oJ Scicnt:e 499-5 I 4
Iitl,rrt:alion itics of Piotr I{llta
sccondal) sl.tL Canale M 3
dcnts in Zlbrzc, Canseco G 88,90
Poland'. Carrell P 20, 3l-2, 34, 51
Educa{.ion (1999),326,4, 'Factors associ- Malcohn IJ. categories
4 Journ.al. oJ
Rt.sertrch, in. irtcd $'it.h sttL Brrtlcr basic level categories 44-47, 56, 67, 70, 72, 75
Scienu 'l'utdtittg clcnl.s' intcn-
subordir)ate categories 45-47, 50, 62, 67, 75
tions to cngagc
in scicncc superordinate categories 43-7, 50,56, 67, 70, 73, 75-6
lcarning actir" Celce-Murcia M 3
itics'. Christie F l3
Managcnrcnt In lemali.on.a.l. (1999),23,3, 'Cornrnttnica- I{an Zao Li cogrritive processes 97, 100, IO3,127
.founrul oJ 387-.109 tinu in(ornra- coherence 3-4,36,60, l2l, 125, 140, 144, 149-50, 165-6
In I ercu.l.l.tua.l, tion in col)vcr' coherence relations 98
Rcltt,lions sations: a cross- cohesion 3-4, 13, 36, lll, I21,125,140,144,149-50, 16l, 166
crrltrrral com-
parison'. Common European Frarnework of Reference for Langrrirges 4, B
communicirtive competeltce 2-5, t09-10
Mana5Jcmcnt Asia I'aciJic (2000), r7, (l) 'Pcrlorrntrncc ol G. Oian
community of practice 30-l
67-83 US FDI in clit-
.lotunal
Ma.n.agun,ntl
oJ
fcrcnt rvorlcl Conracl S 28
rcqions'. content schemata s?.e schelnata
999), 25, 'Action plan- (lijsbcrt St0crl criterial attribute 23, 26
7 Psychologv Jortrnal of (l 6,
critical pedagogy l0
h)xfcri.nun La.l. I 625*40 ning and tht: and Bcrnharcl
P\ch.olnql tcmporal bind- Hornmcl Crornbie W H 28,97-8, 103, 125, 137, 16l-2
ing of rcsponsc Crorvhurst M 85
coclcs'. cue validity model 41
ll Psychology Pslclnlagica,l (1999), 106,3 'Phonology, Michacl W.
Rniau 49 I -528 rcacling acquisi- IJarm antl Mat k Derervianka B l3-14, 86-7
tion ancl d,vs- S. Sci<lt:nbcrg
Devine.J II l-I2
lcxia: insight.s
lrrrl ctlttrtcc discourse communities 30-3, 35, 76, 95
tion ist place discourse communities 3l
rn rlrlt:ls'. discorrrse competence I-6, 9-10, 4-D, 47,80,94
1) Sociology Soriul I'rilitt (l eee) 13. ll5 'l It'irltlr< rtt t' R. ;\. l'krtt, N. cliscorrrse pattenrs 7,95,97-8,100, 103, 118, 120-1, 127,110,161
lortnrul of Nnt t5 rrr'<ls lirt olrlct' Itirzrrrrtsis, N. I{. D6myei Z 3
'/,ut ltt n rl ;ttltrlts'. Long, M.
Millu
A.
rrttrl (1.
Drrclley-Evans T 13-14,27,29, 32-3, 127, 138

ll'
!!ii!!- liggirrs S 13, 16-18, 20,24-b, 132
lo i;;;i;"*;;, T,,,;,-';,;i;,;,;;;" (l'J1"D :tl '( .rrltrrr.rl N, \A'lrtts rtrrrl r\ Bnglislr fbr Specific Purposes 14, 24, 26-7, ll3, 130, 138, 167
IIt trrrrtttrrr,'l l lil
Strrrlils
Illiltl!,,t,rlrl!,lllll
r
o[)istern()l()f{y 36, l3l-5, l4l, lirS-4, 156-7
Itlr rrt,rllrrll,tl
lilr1iIr !r ltt Nt \\ l;ttttily t'st'ntlrl:rrr<r's 40*2, ,14, {) I
/, rl.rrrrl l,':rrr<orrrricr (i (il (i,7l
t92 ACADEMIC WRITIN(i ANI) ( ;t.,NI{I.] INI)I.:X I93

field sea also fielcl tenor mode l-D, l7-2I, 24, 82 Moore T 88-91
fielcl tenor mode 16, 23 Morton.J 8B-9I
Flowerderv.f I 12
foregrounded ancl backgrottlrd informatiort 8() narrow angle cotrrses 113
Fowler A 7, 23
frame semantics 52,56,7I,7 4 Oller.f 20, 49-50,75-6, Bl
franre theory 39, 56, 63-4,76
frames 52 56-64,74-6 Paltridge B 6, 21-2, 24-6, 35-6, 77, 86, llb, 130, 139
Frandsen F 7-8, 35-6,91, 94, 129 Pearson Casanave C 87
Pilegaarcl M 7-8, 35-6, 91,94, 129
Garrod S 20,31, 52,5+6,66,75-6, B0-l pl:rrrs se.e also scripts and goals it2-4, 75
gestalts 68, 73, 76,97-8 pragrnatic functions 65
goafs srz clso scripts and plans 39,52-4,75 procedural knowledge 11, 36, 56, 64, 76-7,79-81, 96, 104, 109, ll2, ll4,
1 16-lB,l2l-2, r25, 127, 143, r66_7

t{alliclayMAK 15-6,24 process genre approach lt2

Hasan R 7, 13, 16-9,2l-4, l3l prototype theory 37, 42
frierarclry 39-40, 45-6, 54, 58, 61,75,82-3,147 prototypes 42, 44=5,59-60, 64, 71, 73-4,79, 86, 94, l4t-2
Hoey M 7,97-8, 123, 125
Hopkins A 14, 29, 33, 138 reasoning
Hrrtchinson T 26-7 abductive 49
Hylarrd K 7, 29, 37, Bl, 98, 127, l3l, 134, 136-7, 157 decluctive 49*50, 100
Hyon S 29, I38 inductive 49
Reppen R 28
iconic and non-iconic clistinction 2I rl-retorical functions 7, 89-91
ID principle 65 rhetorical moves 3l-2
idealizecl cognitive models 39, 64,71-3,75 Rosclr E 23, 37, 42-lt, 60, 74-5,80, 103, 140
irrterpropositional relations 97-100,103, I06, lll, ll8, l2l-7,137,I44,L54,L61, Rurnell'rart D 4B-9, 52, 68, 75-o
165, lB5
Sarrford A 20, 31, 52, 54-6,66, 75-6, B0-l
.johrrs A 10, 13, 89, 90, 146, 152 Sczrrdamalia M 82
.folrrrsorr M 20, 37, 39, 51, 67-73, 75, Bl, 97, 123 scerrarios 3I, 39, 52, 54-6, 63, 74-5
.forclan R R 7 schema tlreory 37, 39, 47-8, 51-2, 74-5
schernat:r
I{aplanR 82-3, 85 abstract schernata 49-50, 52
Ihapp P 13-14, lB, 24, 86 content schemara 31, 34, 49, 5l-2,76, l3l, l39, 157
Ikoll B Bl, 87 fornral schernata 3I-2, 34,49-51, 76
inrage scl'rernata 39, 64, 67-8, 70-3,97-8, 100
Lakoff G 20, 39, 46,70-3,75, 98, 123 rlretorical schernata 49, 52
Ltrke A 35, 130 transcenclental schemata 68
schematic structure 13, l6-17, 19, 2l-2, 24,26, 36,77, ll4, 120, 122,130-2, IgB,
macrofunctior-rs 8 t4r,153-4, l5B, 164
macro-propositions 60 scripts see ako goals and plar.rs 31, 39, 52-3, 5b, 61, 74-b,l0Z
macrostnrctr.rres 7, 22, 60-1, 64 Skehan P Il0
Malir.rolski B 14 social-semiotic 15, l9
Martirr-f 7, 13, 15-18,21-2,26,82,85-6, 132 space btrilclers 65
mental space theory 64 spatialization of form hypotl.resis 7l-3, 98
melrtal spaces 39, 64-5,7I Swales.f 3l-3, 36, 89-90, 95, i30-2, 138, 143, Ibg-4, Ib8-9, 167
Mer-vis C 23, 42, 44-5,74-5 syllabus
metadiscourse 36,98, l3l, 137-8, l4l, 146, 157 arralytic syllabus 115, 147
mela-genrcs B5 rel:rtional syllabus I l6
rnetaphor 64-5, 67, 69-72 syndrctic syllabus ll4-15
metonyrny 7 | syslcrrric {rrnctional lingtristics 9, 14, I8-lg, 21,2b,82, 130, 132, l38
Mcycr l) 50, ft5
Millcr (l fl2-:i, 121) t('n()r l5-16, l9-20, 23, 25
nrorl<' ,rrr ai.ro liclrl lcttrtt tttrttlt' l5' l(i, ll"l '10, 2lt, itl, l{:l l('xl lyl)(' 7-{), 3ir-6, B4-5, 96, 167
tttootl ?,1 5 llrcrnt' ,rrr rrl.rrr llrt'tnc rhcrnr' 24-5,28, 92
194 ACADEMIC WRITING AND C}ENRE

tlreme rherne 25,92

transitions 137
transitivity tralrsitivity systern 20,24=6
see a,lso
trarrsitivity system 24-26

Vart Dijk T 7, 22, 56,60-1, 63-4, 66, 73, 75-6,97

Ventola E 13-14

Waters A 26-7
Watkins M 13-14, 18, 24, 86
Wenden A lll
Werlich E 7
Wicldowson H 109-10, 112-17, 122, l3l-2
rvide ar-rgle corlrses see also narrow angle courses
Wittgerrstein L 23, 40-2,73-4
rvriter stance 136, l4l, 144, 153, 157-8