NUTSHELL

Today mankind is facing many problems ranging from health

issues to the environmental hazards in which he lives. If there is one technology

which can rescue mankind, it is Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology by name itself

means going smaller into things. It tries to manipulate the basic element of matter –

atom. Nanotechnology takes its inspiration from nature. The philosophy of nature is to

start creating from building blocks. This is exactly what Nano - Technology is striving

to accomplish. Nanotechnology will have its own unique effect in every aspect of

mankind. Its specialties range from treating cancer to reversing the process of ageing,

from preventing global warming to blocking the ozone hole, from creating food to

creating diamond from carbon. This technology is all set to bring about a revolution in

the 21st century.

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 CONTENTS

• NUTSHELL

• INTRODUCTION

• HISTORY

• BASIC CONCEPT

• MANIPULATION OF ATOMS &

MOLECULES

• UNDERLYING TECHNIQUES

• RECENT PROGRESS

• ROAD AHEAD

• THE DOWNSIDE

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• CONCLUSION

NUTSHELL

Today mankind is facing many problems ranging from health

issues to the environmental hazards in which he lives. If there is one technology

which can rescue mankind, it is Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology by name itself

means going smaller into things. It tries to manipulate the basic element of matter –

atom. Nanotechnology takes its inspiration from nature. The philosophy of nature is to

start creating from building blocks. This is exactly what Nano - Technology is striving

to accomplish. Nanotechnology will have its own unique effect in every aspect of

mankind. Its specialties range from treating cancer to reversing the process of ageing,

from preventing global warming to blocking the ozone hole, from creating food to

creating diamond from carbon. This technology is all set to bring about a revolution in

the 21st century.

4
 INTRODUCTION
The invention of Germanium transistor way back in June 1946 was the starting
point that brought Microelectronics Technology to the masses. From the period 1904
till 1950’s, Thermionic valves were ruling the computational world occupying large
space. Even up to the beginning of 1960s, the scientists and the technological world
did not understand the full implication of the invention of Germanium and Silicon
transistors and the quiet revolution taking place in Silicon valley arising out of Dr.
William Shockley setting up a Shockley Semiconductors in 1955. In late 1960s a
persuasive thinking that Integrated Circuit can act as brain to different products
gained ground resulting in the birth of microprocessor 4004 in 1971. The late 90s saw
System on Chip at 0.18 microns –180 Nano meters
Hence the technology following now is semiconductor technology, Soon the
parts will become smaller and smaller until they are made up of only a handful of
atoms.This technology is known as nanotechnology.

Hence nanotechnology is a hybrid science composing of engineering, physics,

chemistry & biology. The word “Nano” which is referred to 10 -9 which was a very
small negligible value. Hence the name nanotechnology.Nanotechnology is molecular
manufacturing or, more simply, buildingthings one atom or molecule at a time with
programmed nanoscopic robotarms. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter (3 - 4
atoms wide). Utilizingthe well understood chemical properties of atoms and
molecules (how they"stick" together), nanotechnology proposes the construction
ofnovel molecular devices possessing extraordinary properties. The trickis to
manipulate atoms individually and place them exactly where neededto produce the
desired structure. This ability is almost in our grasp.

It is fully true that the technology needed to achieve this atomic level is very
complex. At present this technological level has not yet been achieved. So
Nanotechnology is still in its infancy. It is only conceptual stage. There are so many
predictions and possibilities. In today’s scenario, Nanotechnology is in its infancy the

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concepts discussed below are just the predominant proposals that are being made by
the scientists this day.

HISTORY

In December, 1959, a physicist named Richard P. Feynman gave a talk at Caltech

about the problem of manipulating and controlling things on a small scale, called
"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom". HEwas the first to suggest that atoms might
be manipulated to build perfect small circuits of 7 atoms or so that would replicate
themselves. His talk started the ball rolling on the concept of creating molecular
devices that could compute, replicate, and manufacture.But there was no
advancements for two to three decades..only in In 1986, K. Eric Drexler published a
book named "Engines of Creation", . In this Drexler asks, "What could we build with
those atom-stacking mechanisms?" For one thing, we could manufacture assembly
machines much smaller even than living cells, and make materials stronger and lighter
than any available today. Drexler gained quite a following from his book, and
nanotechnology was "legitimized". It was an uphill battle, however. He was the first
to receive a PHD in Nanotechnology iDrexler and his colleagues undoubtedly will be
looked upon in the future as heroes of the definitive technology of the 21st century.
History will read - Newton, Einstein, Drexler.

BASIC CONCEPT
Nanotechnology broadly refers to the manipulation of matter on the atomic
and molecular scales, i.e., where the objects of interest are 0.1 – 100 nanometre in
size. Albert Einstein first proved that each and every atom measures about a
nanometer in diameter. In 1959 Richard P. Feynman predicted a technological world
composed of self replicating molecules whose purpose would be the production of
nano – sized objects.

o Get essentially every atom in the right place.

o Make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics and
chemistry that we can specify in atomic detail.

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 o Have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the
required raw materials and energy.
There are two more concepts commonly associated with nanotechnology:
o Positional assembly.

o Self replication.

Clearly, we would be happy with any method that simultaneously achieved the
first three objectives. However, this seems difficult without using some form of
positional assembly (to get the right molecular parts in the right places) and some
form of self replication (to keep the costs down).

The need for positional assembly implies an interest in molecular robotics,

e.g., robotic devices that are molecular both in their size and precision. These
molecular scale positional devices are likely to resemble very small versions of their
everyday macroscopic counterparts. Positional assembly is frequently used in normal
macroscopic manufacturing today, and provides tremendous advantages. Imagine
trying to build a bicycle with both hands tied behind your back! The idea of
manipulating and positioning individual atoms and molecules is still new and takes
some getting used to. However, as Feynman said in a classic talk in 1959: "The
principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of
maneuvering things atom by atom." We need to apply at the molecular scale the
concept that has demonstrated its effectiveness at the macroscopic scale: making parts
go where we want by putting them where we want!
The requirement for low cost creates an interest in self replicating
manufacturing systems, studied by von Neumann in the 1940's. These systems are
able both to make copies of themselves and to manufacture useful products. If we can
design and build one such system the manufacturing costs for more such systems and
the products they make (assuming they can make copies of themselves in some
reasonably inexpensive environment) will be very low.
As we go deeper into learning about atoms &molecules different laws come
into play as every element / material as its own unique properties such as surface
tension, fertility, malleability & so on. Atoms come together to form molecules, and
molecules come together to form inherent macro – scale whose properties are

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determined by controlling molecular structure in material synthesis, mankind has
gained unprecedented control over the basic material properties, such as conductivity,
strength, capacity, ductility and reactivity, yielding innovative applications ranging
from batteries to automotive materials.
Passive nano technique that primarily focuses on tuning the properties of
resulting bulk materials.
Active nano technique facilitates creation of functional electronic and
ultimately mechanical devices at the nanoscale.

MANIPULATION OF ATOMS & MOLECULES

Tools capable of imaging and manipulating individual atoms or molecules
have ushered in the nano age.
The icons of this revolution are scanning probe microscopes
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
Atomic Force Microscope(AFM)
capable of creating pictures of individual atoms or moving them from place to place.

SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE:

IBM first invented the STM. The instruments key element is a fine metal
needle or tip. The metal is usually tungsten, nickel, or gold. When this tip is moved
very close to the surface of the object being scanned and a tiny voltage is applied, the
odd rules of quantum mechanics allow electrons to jump or “tunnel” across the
remaining gap. Though very small, this flow of electrons can easily be detected
experiments have demonstrated that the STM can be used to “etch” surfaces by
blatting out single clumps of them with short busts of current. In some cases STM can
be used to “herd” atoms across the sample surface.

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ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE:

IBM laboratory has mounted sharp, nano – scale tips used in atomic force
microscopes on to microscopic cantilevers on a microchip. These tips touches the
surface of the sample. The force of contact is very small. As with the STM the
instrument is scanned across the sample surface to generate an image. Since the AFM
senses the surface by “touch” it can write digital bits on a polymer sheet and offers a
way to examine nonconducting materials such as biological molecules, plastics,
ceramics and insulating materials like glass or diamond

UNDERLYING TECHNIQUES
The basic technique is to build nanoscopic assemblers, which can create
molecules from atoms and then device a method so that self replication of the
assemblers is possible and it is discussed in the following sub-titles:


UNIVERSAL ASSEMBLER

A universal assembler is a microscopic factory that can manufacture necessary

products molecule by molecule. Universal assemblers will have nanoscopic arms,
conveyor belts and a nanoscopic computing system. The concept of universal
assemblers is still in its infancy.
Universal assemblers are said to be Active Cell Aggregate(ACA) which
consists of a range of polygonal faced cells which can slide over each other and can
form different shapes to suit the necessity. ACA works atom – by – atom and
molecule – by – molecule. So to create a material consisting of billions of atoms. It

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takes a lot of time. So to speed up this process a technique has been formulated called
self – replication

SELF – REPLICATION

`Self – replication is a process by which assemblers create many other

assemblers like themselves. This process speeds up the creation of a new material as
the number of assemblers increases exponentially with time. Simultaneous processing
of the desired material by millions of assemblers is possible. Replicators may be
assumed to be factories shrunk to the size to a cell. Information about replication can
be provided to the replicators by means of chains of polymerized molecules(data
tapes) with some codes in the form of some irregularity.
Speed of replication will depend on the size of the unit and the structure.
Replication is an exponential growth in number of assemblers. There must also be
some means of controlling replication either by the use of data tapes (synthetic
polymers carrying information ) or by some external means such as electromagnetic
waves. Without such effective measures of controlling replication, it can prove to be
disastrous.

DISSEMBLERS

Dissemblers are also microscopic factories like the assemblers. But they are
the opposite of the assemblers. The job of the dissemblers is to dissemble the
assemblers once its job is over. The assemblers assemble the product and the
replicators replicate more and more assemblers to quicken the time of production..
The dissemblers will break the bonds between the atoms of the assemblers and hence
they will be dissembled to junk atoms.

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CONTROL UNIT

In operations so nanoscopic as this co – ordination between the different

assemblers, replicators and dissemblers must be robust. There are many proposals for
the control unit. One proposal suggests that there has to be macroscopic control unit
outside the working environment to co – ordinate the actions of the assemblers,
dissemblers and replicators. The communication medium between the control unit and
the constituents could be electromagnetic waves. Another proposal suggests the
presence of nanoscopic control units inside each and every constituent so that the
constituents can be programmed to perform the particular task. In this case
communication between the individual units may be some form of polypeptide chains
with some irregularities which carry coded information.

MATERIALS USED

Materials used for the manufacture of the individual units may differ
depending on the requirements. For example if an enzyme has to be created from the
assemblers, dissemblers and replicators may be made of proteins, amino acids,
tissues, mitochondria, vessels and other bio – chemical materials. The proteins could
serve as building blocks, the mitochondria could serve as energy producing elements
and the vessels could serve as conveyor belts etc.. on the other hand if a nanoscopic
transistor has to be created, the building blocks of the individual units will be totally
different.

RECENT PROGESS

SCREENING AT AIRPORTS

After the september11disaster,sirports all over the world heave gone for the
highest security check-ins. secret cameras, sniffer dogs and round the clock patrolling
have added more beef to the security.But still the terrorists manage to give the slip.
Hence Tim Delong , the GM of the Regional Airport Authority of Louisville
and Jefferson County is banking on nanotechnology to counter any overt terrorist
strike.According to him,new devices for baggage screening will be tiny enough to be

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embedded in the floors of the baggage wells between ticket counter position to scan
each bag as the passenger checks it in. These machines are expected to be available
within three years.

NANO SCALE DIGITAL CHIP DESIGN

Computer chips will get smaller, more powerful, connectedand pervasive,”
They will bring digital intelligence into all kinds of objects and spaces”
Cadence is heavily into nanoscale design.According to its acting country
manager for IndiaHimansha singh”Cadence is breaking new ground in digital
design,SoC functional verification,custom/analog design,design for manufacturability
and silicon design-in.
The company heas recently launched the Encounter platform,the RTL- TO-
GDSIIarchitecture for nanometer scale design implementation. The Encounter system
combines silicon virtual prototyping and detailed IC implementation into a unified
architecture with a single in memeory data model and user interface.What’s more , the
latest version of Encounter platform supports both Sun and Linux, and was recently
voted the EDN Innovation of the Year of the Award.

NANO MEDICINE
Nanocomputers are small enough that several hundred of them could fit inside
the space of a biological cell. Medical nanites could patrol your body, and armed with
knowledge of your DNA, repel any foriegn invaders by forming an artificial immune
system. The common cold would no longer exist, nor would threats of any biological
or viral infection. Biological warfare would then cease to be a threat, also. These
nanites, composed of smart materials, could take over from the plastic surgeons and
people would be able to remake their bodies, even change their sex if that was what
they wanted to do. There would be no pain, no bruises, and the results would be
overnight. Additionally, imagine your body and bones woven with invisible diamond
fabric. This body "reinforcement" could increase your tolerance to "G" forces, enable
you to fall from a 10 story building and walk away, replace the oxygen in your blood
in case of fire or chemical spill, and allow you to walk away from normally fatal
accidents. Life consists of molecular machines controlled by a program (DNA).
Aging is a disease and is the real number one killer of humans. With the new genetic
therapies it is hoped that the aging process can be reversed within the next 12 to 20

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years. With medical nanites,we can not only extend our lives but stop completely the
aging process.

IMAGING

MAGNETIC RESONANCE FORCE MICROSCOPE

About a year ago, J.A. Sidles of the University of Washington proposed a

method for using magnetic resonance to detect and locate single protons on a surface.
Now he and D. Rugar and C.C. Yannoni of IBM have built a device to prove the
validity of the basic concept. In this initial effort their goals were modest: to detect
electrons rather than protons, and to measure position with low resolution in only one
dimension. These goals were were achieved last fall.
In the device, a few grains of a crystalline sample are glued to a small
cantilever. The cantilever is then subjected to the combined effects of three different
magnetic fields: a field A varying strongly in space, a field B oscillating at the
resonant frequency of the cantilever, and a field C to excite the electron spins in the
sample. The forces generated by these fields cause the cantilever to vibrate at its
resonant frequency. The strength of the field B is systematically varied while the
vibrational amplitude of the cantilever is measured optically. In a plot of the
amplitude versus field strength, peaks occur where there is resonance with the
electron spins. Because the field A is spatially inhomogeneous, different parts of the
sample may be subject to different field strengths and may resonate at different values
of field B. Thus, the peaks in the resonance curve can be interpreted as images of
these different parts of the sample.
The researchers believe that these techniques can be used to build magnetic
resonance microscopes capable of forming images of molecules in three dimensions
at atomic resolution.

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AFM IMAGING OF ACT IN MOLECULES IN LIVING CELLS

E. Henderson, et al., at Iowa State University have imaged actin filaments in

living cells with an atomic force microscope (AFM). Glial cells adhering to a coated
glass surface have thin flat borders in which actin filaments lie close to the cell
membrane. It unclear whether the AFM was detecting bulges in the membrane caused
by the underlying actin filaments or was penetrating the surface and imaging the
filaments directly.

AFM IMAGING OF SOFT SAMPLES

AFMs are routinely used to image hard samples with atomic resolution, but
soft samples are often problematic.The mechanism of soft sample imaging has been
studied by M. Radmacher, and others, at the Technische Universität München. Their
analysis helps to explain why AFM images of soft materials have lower resolution and
spurious contrast. For example, when an AFM tip crosses a region of higher friction,
the resulting deflection of the AFM cantilever will produce an erroneous value for the
height of the region. However, the authors show that these effects give AFMs the
ability to measure local properties of surfaces,such as viscosity & elasticity.

THE ROAD AHEAD

Nanotechnology, though mostly confined to laboratory set-ups at present,

promises to revolutionize electronics in the coming decades . It finds applications in
several fields, including mechanical engineering, biology, process technologies,
medical sciences and so on. Any advanced research carries inherent risks. But
nanotechnology bears a special burden. The field's bid for respectability is colored by
the association of the word with a cabal of futurists who foresee nano as a pathway to
a techno-utopia: unparalleled prosperity, pollution-free industry, even something
resembling eternal life. If the nano concept holds together, it could, in fact, lay the
groundwork for a new industrial revolution. The nano future is emerging through the
haze of hype: the road to terabit memory and cheap flat-screen displays will be paved
with carbon nanotubes. Nantero is developing NRAM™, a high-density nonvolatile

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random access memory chip, using nanotechnology. The company's objective is to
deliver a product that will replace all existing forms of memory, such as DRAM,
SRAM and flash memory, with NRAM serving as universal memory.

THE DOWNSIDE
In additions to the changes our society will have to make to cope with this new
technology, there will come the most ominous spectre of all: war more dangerous and
devastating than it has ever been. This new technology will also make war between
states more likely in our present world system. The weapons of MNT (Molecular
Nano Techmology) will be on such a small scale that they will be invisible, smaller by
far than their biological and chemical counterparts, and more precise because they
will be programmable. This means that they can evade defenses and strike
predetermined targets much as cruise missiles do, though invisibly. Even worse, with
the new technology it becomes useless to strike traditional targets such as weapons
and factories because they could be restored overnight by the the advanced
manufacturing of nanotechnology. Raze a factory one day, it will grow back soon
thereafter. So the target will become the ultimate target: people. Military planners will
seek a target that cannot be easily replaced and that is large enought to find and hit,
and that only leaves the civilian population. MNT also makes war between states
inevitable because by it's very nature it creates a general equality in destructive
capacity. As MNT spreads, so does the ability to create powerful and deadly weapons
and the ability to rebuild an industrial base in a very short time. So each state becomes
more of a threat to it's neighbors by making it more deadly due to the weapons and
more difficult to defeat due the the rebuilding capabilities. MNT promises to be a
destabilizing influence on the world system as we know it.

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 CONCLUSION

All this proves beyond doubt that Nanotechnology has the potential to
revolutionize the way of life. Taking into account the obstacles in the path of
realization of the goal, It is supposed that Nanotechnology will be in a definite and
commercial form only by 2030. Many of the concepts that Nanotechnology presents
may look impossible now, but they may not be so far away after all. Could any one
who have been through 1970s have predicted that the computers of 2003 would have
been so powerful? Or would even have thought of something like a television in the
1960s? Likewise, Nanotechnology is nearer than what we can think. Nanotechnology
will have its unique effect in every part of man’s life. Nanotechnology will no doubt
be the most promising of all technologies of the 21st century and will make a
tremendous impact on our lives. Nanotechnology is likely to be adopted to
miniaturize human being to counter the huge population by the next century. In 1995
there was a $100 bet made to create the impossible within 16 years, the world's first
nanometer supercomputer. This resulted in the NanoComputer Dream Team, and
utilizes the internet to gather talent from every scientific field and from all over the
world, amateur and professional. Their deadline: November 1, 2011. Watch for it! Are
you ready for a computer that is billions of times faster than our present PC's?

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BIBILIOGRAPHY:

ELECTRONICS FOR YOU – MAY 2002

ELECTRONICS FOR YOU – JUNE 2003

WEBSITES:
www.zyvex.com.
www.londoncentrefornanotechnology.com
www.lucida.com
www.nanotechnology.com

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