CAPACITOR BANK

The demand for reactive power arises out of electromagnetic circuit of motor transformers and inductance of lines electric furnace uncorrected fluorescent lighting etc. Voltage drop per phase =I (RT cos +Xsin ) Where I =R.M.S. value of the phase current, A Cos =pf of the current Sin =value corresponding to pf R=phase resistance of the line X =phase reactance of the line t =temperature coefficient factor When pf of the load is 0.8, the contribution to the voltage drop by X sin will be 70% this contribution increases as the pf deteriorates. The problem of voltage regulation reduces considerably with the circulation of reactive power. However unlike active power, reactive power can be provided and transmitted at any point in the system. The static capacitor remain considerably cheaper then the synchronous condensers in spite of the fact that the synchronous condenser are much superior to the static capacitors; so static capacitor are now recommended more often now.

SHUNT CAPACITORS:
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The fundamental effects of shunt capacitor may be summed up as under: Reduction of line current. Increased voltage level at load. Reduced pf of source current. Reduced system losses. Reduced loading on source generators.

10.Reduced system investment per kW of load. Shunt capacitors draw almost fixed amount of leading current which is superimposed on the load current. This reduces the reactive component of the load current, thereby improving the load pf. Reduced current & improved pf reduce voltage drop in the various component of the system.

11.Electrodes. 12.Paper or propylene dielectric. 13.Liquid impregnate. 14.Container. 15.Insulating terminals. 16.Discharge resistor Fuses.

MATERIAL:

CONNECTION OF CAPACITOR BANK: The most common method of connection is shown. Advantages of ground star connected H.V. capacitor banks: 17.Reduced recovery voltage on circuit breaker for normal repetitive capacitor switching duty. 18.Better surge protection 19.Comparatively reduced over voltage phenomenon 20.lesser cost of installation in a solidly grounded system, the voltage of all 3 phase of capacitor bank are fixed & remain unchanged even during 2 phase operation period. The disadvantages are: 21.Necessity of recalculating zero sequence current of the system. 22.A grounded neutral of the bank in combination with a grounded system allows the triple harmonic to flow freely. This may be harmful to the capacitor unit if the total current exceed 1.30times the rated current of the bank. 23.In case of banks having only one unit in series per phase the flow of current in event of short circuit of any unit is very heavy. Every short circuit of any unit is very heavy. Every short circuit of a capacitor is a short ckt of the system. HRC fuses should be used for such purpose. Depending upon the system & unit voltage, 2 units or more in series per phase will be used. On distribution 1 feeder banks, the capacitor banks may be star connected with neutral grounded. Reasons of this preference are: 24.Since the neutral is grounded, the mounting

frame & capacitor bank can be grounded & installation is considered safer. 25.If a capacitor unit fails, high fault current result & +ve fuse operation occurs. 26.The installation is considered safe if an open conductor ahead of the bank since the load side of the open ckt will not be above ground potential. 27.Neutral inversion or resonant condition, due to single phase switching the source & the bank is less likely to occur.

POWER LINE COMMUNICATION

The main purpose of the system is to transmit message from one substation to another through transmission lines at high frequencies ranges from 35KHZ500KHZ. Before modulation, the speech is limited to 300-2400 Hz. The modulated signal are then filtered, amplified & then transmitted over transmission lines. At the receiving end, high frequency signal is separated from HV power frequency with the help of line trap coupling capacitor. Through line matching unit, the carrier signal is sent to PLC terminal where the speech signal is separated from the carrier signal and the separated carrier frequency is sent to the subscribers.

EQUIPMENT USED IN PLC:28.Wave trap 29.Coupling capacitor 30.Line matching unit 31.PLC terminal 32.Switching equipment Wave trap contains a main coil, lighting arrester

and arc tuning devices. All are connected in parallel. The main coil has an inductance of 0.2 mh-2mh. The inductance offers high impedance to high frequency blocks it there & doesnt allow it to enter power system equipment. So it acts as an insulator for high frequency & conductor for low frequency. Since the main coil is in series with the lines so its current rating is as high as 400A. The lighting arrester is used to protect the main coil from high voltage surges whereas the tuning devices are used to block the signal of narrow band carrier frequency. All the components of wave trap are immersed in oil & enclosed in drums. These wave traps may be hanging or foundation mounted type.

AUXILLARIES
33.D.C.SUPPLY. 34.COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY. 35.A.C. SUPPLY. 36.SWITCHYARD LIGHTING etc.

D.C.SUPPLY (BATTERY BANK)

In H.V. switchgear installations independent sources of supply such as fixed storage batteries are necessary for signaling, remote indication & similar purposes. These are particularly important for switch tripping circuits. Lead acid type batteries are more common at substations because of high cell voltage & low costs. Storage battery: - Rated voltages are 24V,220V. In general the choice depends upon the voltage drop in the leads at max. Specified load & for a known cross section. The voltage drop may be calculated as under: E= 2*R*I or 2* L* I K*q Where E = voltage drop in volts R = resistance in ohms of lead one way I = line current in amperes L = length of lead on one way q = conductor cross-section in mm2 K = conductivity For medium sized switchgear installation like 220 kv substation, a battery voltage of 220V is used.

FACTORS DETERMINING BATTERY BANK: 37.NO. OF CELL: - Is determined from the ratio of

rated voltage to minimum cell voltage, which for lead acid cell may be taken as 1.75 to 1.85V. In order to control the discharge voltage of the battery when the cells are fully or partially charged end cell switches are used. It consist of a series of contact plates connected to different points in a group of end cells over which a laminated contact brush is moved for varying the no. of cells in Ckt on the bus. Auxiliary high resistance contact are connected to one or both side of the contact brush to avoid complete opening of the CT bus & the same time preventing short circuiting of the cell while the brush is moving from point to point. *suppose an 110V battery is to be formed; max no. of cells required 110/1.85 = 60. In the beginning, voltage of charged cell is 2.15V, so no. of cell are 110/2.15 = 52. Therefore, 8 cells have to be disconnected. The usual step of variation is one cell i.e. 2V. Thus the end switch should have 8 steps or 9 contacts. 38.AMP-HOUR CAPACITY: - Is that quantity of electricity which can be withdrawn from a charged accumulator before the final voltage is reached. It is determined by the product of the discharge current & the time of discharge. The capacity should be sufficient to supply the continuous load when the trickle charger is temporarily out of service. The max. Permissible discharge current should be at least adequate

to deal with heavy short time load.

CHARGING EQUIPMENT: The charging equipment is required for: 39.Initial charging: - the starting current is kept higher; it should be reduced gradually until finishing rate is reached. The voltage rating of the charging equipment should be about 1.15 times the product of no. of cells & 2.75 when final stage is reached. 40.Quick charging: the battery remains connected simultaneously to the load ckt & the charging device. The charging rate is dependent on the requirements of the load ckt. This method is used for prompt recharging. 41.Trickle charging: - the battery is connected constantly to the load ckt. A constant current, equal to average load requirement plus a small surplus to compensate for local action. The charging equipment consists of either a motor generator set & a trickle charger or a 2-rate charger. Compressed air supply: for arc extinguishing medium in ABCB & for opening & closing of ckt breakers & isolators.

CONTROL & RELAY PANELS

PROECTIVE SCHEME FOR POWER TRANSFORMER
42.Buchholz relay. 43.Over current & earth fault (unrestricted). 44. Restricted earth fault. 45. Differential. Over current &unrestricted earth fault protection: Over current & earth fault protection is applied against external short circuits & excessive overloads. These relay may be IDMT (inverse definite min. type) or definite type. Current and time setting & the characteristic curve of the relay primarily govern the operation of these relays. It is necessary to set the relays at about 125-150% of the full load current of the transformer but below the min. short ckt current. Thus these relays serve only as a backup protection both for transformer internal & external faults. These relays are provided on the in feed side of the transformer & are made to trip both H.V. & L.V. breakers. The over current relay has 3 element - one for each phase & earth fault has a single element. The normal range of current settings available on over current relays is 50-2005 &on earth fault element 20-80%. Balanced (restricted) earth fault protection: For star connected winding, 3 lines C.T.s will have the same C.T. ratio & magnetization

characteristics. In case of delta connected winding, 3 lines C.T.s are paralleled & connected across an earth fault relay. An external fault on star side will result in current flowing in the line current transformer of the affected phase & a balancing current in the neutral C.T., the resultant current in the relay is hence zero. During an internal fault the neutral C.T. carries current & operation results. In this protection is for earth faults only. Differential protection: Differential protection is provided for transformers above 5MVA. Also 46.The Bucholz relay detects faults caused by oil only. The differential relay detect fault at the bushing as well as on the leads b/w the C.T. (separately mounted, not on bushings) & power transformer. 47.The Differential protection responds to phase to phase fault. 48.It also offers protection against turn to turn faults. A transformer differential relay operates on circulating current principle by comparing current in the various windings of the transformer through the media of C.T. the ratios & connection of the C.T.s on various transformer windings are so chosen that their secondary current are equal in magnitude & phase under normal operating conditions or for faults external to protective zone. The polarity of the C.T. is such that the relay receives the vector sum of the 2 currents, which should be zero for normal conditions & external fault conditions. However, if a fault occurs b/w phases or a fault to earth in the transformer protective zone, the balance b/w

the C.T.s will flow trough the relay causing operation of ckt breakers. Factor distributing the balance: 49.C.T. characteristics 50.Ratio change as a result of change in tapings: the ratio b/w 1 & 2 sides of the C.T. are made to match with at any one point of tap-changing range. As tap is changed, balance is disturbed. So taping on protective C.T.s which correspond to tapings on power transformer, should be reconnected each time the tapping on power transformer are changed. 51.Magnetizing inrush current: - when transformer is switched on, heavy inrush current flows in 1 & decay slowly. There is no corresponding current on the other side of the transformer. This current reaches instantaneous value several times that of the full load current & causes the relay to operate. Percentage differential relay should be used for this purpose. 52.C.T. connection: in case of 3 winding transformer, 2 winding are connected in star & the 3rd in delta. So a phase difference of 30 appears b/w the current on delta connected windings. To compensate this, the C.T. secondary should be connected in delta on star & star on delta connected sides. If the opposite is done then there will be no balancing current from circulating through the relay winding.

EARTHING
The subject of earthing may be divided into: neutral earthing general earthing the object of neutral earthing are : To reduce the voltage stress due to switching & lighting surges To control the fault current to satisfactory values amongst the various method of neutral earthing, solid earthing is highly preferred because: 53.The neutral point is held at earth potential under all operating condition. Therefore the voltage of any conductor to earth, under fault condition, will not exceed the normal phase voltage of the system. 54.Protection of the system is simplified by virtue of the fact that the ground fault current compare in magnitude with interphase fault currents. 55.The expense of the earth current limiting device such as resistor, reactors, neutralizers etc. are eliminated. 56.Lightning arrester can be applied. 57.On system 132kv & above additional savings are available because transformer winding with graded insulation can be used. But there are certain disadvantages also : 58.On overhead transmission lines, majority of the system faults consist of faults to ground. Thus the no. of shock to the system is greater than the other methods. 59.The resulting ground faults current are generally lower than the phase fault currents. But near generating station the current may exceed 3 short ckt current. In such cases ckt breaker with high rupturing capacity may be required. 60.The increased ground fault current result in

greater influence on the neighboring communication ckt. 61.The increased ground fault current result in lower +ve sequence voltage with a tendency toward a lower stability limit for line to ground fault. 62.any 3rd harmonic current that may circulate b/w neutrals tend to be excessive

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
INTRODUCTION: A current transformer is intended to operate normally with the rated current of the network flowing through the primary winding which is inserted in series in the network. The secondary winding of the current transformer, connected to measuring instrument &relays supplies a current which is proportional to &in phase with the current circulating in the primary except for the difference cue to current error & phase displacement. THEORY: The current I1 of the supply flows fully through the primary winding. A part of this current, called no load current, is consumed to produce the required flux. The primary ampere turns I0N1 produce a magnetic flux in the iron core which in turn induces an EMF in the secondary winding; this causes a current I2 to flow through the burden connected to the secondary & to the impedance of the secondary winding Z2 + Zi. At the same time, the amp turns produced by the secondary current oppose the primary amp

turns, thus balancing the 2 amp turns systems. (I1-I0) N1 =I2N2 Where N1 =turns in the primary winding N2 = turns in the secondary winding I1 = primary current I2 = secondary current Thus current I0 is responsible for difference in actual ratio I1/I2 & the displacement in the vector N1I1 &-N2I2. These are called current error and phase error. The secondary terminal voltage V2 is controlled by the burden of the transformer i.e. V2 = I2Z2 DIFFERENT TYPE OF C.T.s: Instrument transformer: - Is required to maintain accuracy class within 5 to 125% of rated current & small measuring error within the range. Beyond this value the core connected instruments are not are burnt out. Protection transformer: - It is not the function of the protection transformer to maintain great precision over the normal operating range. Rather it should maintain the current error &phase difference within a reasonable limit in fault range. It is necessary that the protection C.T. does not saturate up to the value of the current necessary to operate the relays. Bar type C.T.: - for large primary current this C.T. is ideal because it can meet with the burden & accuracy requirements. Generally employed on bushing of power transformers or bulk oil circuit breakers. Wound type C.T.: - where primary current are

low or the burden & accuracy requirement are high, this type of C.T. is used. Multi ratio C.T.: - In bar type C.T.s, taps for obtaining different ratio, can be fixed only on the secondary side. However, the secondary output depends on the square of the amp turns; the output at half the ratio will be 1/4th only. In case of wound type C.T. taping can be provided on the primary side. Multi core C.T.:- The bushing type C.T.s (a type of bar type C.T.), which consist of a core and a secondary winding, there is a need for separate instrument & protection transformers; therefore C.T.s can be provided with 2 more core carries its 2 winding. The primary is common to all of them.