SMART SENSORS

SECTION 9
SMART SENSORS
Walt Kester, Bill Chestnut, Grayson King
4-20MA CONTROL LOOPS
Industrial process control systems make extensive use of 4-20mA control loops.
Many sensors and actuators are designed precisely for this mode of control. They are
popular because they are simple to understand, offer a method of standardizing the
sensor/control interface, and are relatively immune to noise. Figure 9.1 shows how a
remote actuator is controlled via such a loop from a centrally located control room.
Notice that the transmitter output to the actuator is controlled by a DAC, in this
case, the AD420. The entire process is under the control of a host computer which
interfaces to the microcontroller and the AD420. This diagram shows only one
actuator, however an actual industrial control system would have many actuators
and sensors. Notice that the "zero scale" output of the DAC is actually 4mA, and
"fullscale" is 20mA. The choice of a non-zero output current for "zero scale" allows
open circuit detection at the transmitter and allows the loop to actually power the
remote sensor if its current requirement is less than 4mA.

CONTROLLING A REMOTE ACTUATOR

USING A 4-20mA LOOP
CONTROL ROOM
LOOP
SUPPLY 12V TO 32V

4-20mA
REGULATOR
OUTPUT RSENSE

AD420

ACTUATOR
4-20mA HOST
µC
DAC COMPUTER

LOOP
RETURN

Figure 9.1

Many of the control room circuits are directly powered by the loop power supply
which can range from approximately 12V to 36V. In many cases, however, this
voltage must be regulated to supply such devices as amplifiers, ADCs, and
microcontrollers. The loop current is sensed by the RSENSE resistor which is
actually a part of the AD420. The internal DAC in the AD420 is a sigma-delta type

9.1
SMART SENSORS

with 16-bit resolution and monotonicity. The serial digital interface allows easy
interface to the microcontroller.

Figure 9.2 shows a 4-20mA output "smart" sensor which is completely powered by
the loop power supply. In order for this to work, the sum total of all the circuits
under loop power can be no more than 4mA. The heart of the circuit is the AD421
loop-powered 16-bit DAC. The internal 4-20mA DAC current as well as the rest of
the return current from the AD421 and the other circuits under loop power flows
through the RSENSE resistor. The sensing circuit compensates for the additional
return current and ensures that the actual loop return current corresponds to that
required by the digital code applied to the DAC through the microcontroller. The
sensor output is digitized by the AD7714/AD7715 sigma-delta ADC. Note that the
total current required by all the circuits under loop power is less than the required
4mA maximum. The AD421 contains a regulator circuit which controls the gate of
the external DMOS FET and regulates the loop voltage to either 3V, 3.3V, or 5V to
power the loop circuits. In this way the maximum loop supply voltage is limited only
by the breakdown voltage of the DMOS FET.

4-20mA LOOP POWERED SMART SENSOR

AD7714/AD7715 LOOP CONTROL ROOM
DMOS FET POWER
3.3V / 5V
LOOP
REGULATOR
SUPPLY
AD421
SENSOR

4-20mA
ADC µC
DAC
4-20mA
RSENSE RETURN
HOST
ADC µC
COMPUTER
ICOMMON RSENSE

IAD421 < 0.75mA

I AD7714/AD7715 < 0.50mA

I µC+SENSOR < 2.75mA

ICOMMON < 4.00mA

DMOS FET: Supertex DN2535
Siliconix ND2020L or ND2410L

Figure 9.2

The HART protocol uses a frequency shift keying (FSK) technique based on the Bell
202 Communications Standard which is one of several standards used to transmit
digital signals over the telephone lines. This technique is used to superimpose digital
communication on to the 4-20mA current loop connecting the control room to the
transmitter in the field. Two different frequencies, 1200Hz and 2200Hz, are used to
represent binary 1 and 0 respectively. These sinewave tones are superimposed on
the DC signal at a low level with the average value of the sinewave being zero. This
allows simultaneous analog and digital communications. Additionally, no DC
component is added to the existing 4-20mA signal regardless of the digital data

9.2
 SMART SENSORS

being sent over the line. The phase of the digital FSK signal is continuous, so there
are no high frequency components injected onto the 4-20mA loop. Consequently,
existing analog instruments continue to work in systems that implement HART, as
the lowpass filtering usually present effectively removes the digital signal. A single
pole 10Hz lowpass filter effectively reduces the communication signal to a ripple of
about ±0.01% of the fullscale signal. The HART protocol specifies that master
devices like a host control system transmit a voltage signal, whereas a slave or field
device transmits a current signal. The current signal is converted into a
corresponding voltage by the loop load resistor in the control room.

Figure 9.3 shows a block diagram of a smart and intelligent transmitter. An

intelligent transmitter is a transmitter in which the function of the microprocessor
are shared between deriving the primary measurement signal, storing information
regarding the transmitter itself, its application data, and its location, and also
managing a communication system which enables two-way communication to be
superimposed on the same circuit that carries the measurement signal. A smart
transmitter incorporating the HART protocol is an example of a smart intelligent
transmitter.

HART INTELLIGENT REMOTE TRANSMITTER

USING AD421 LOOP-POWERED 4-20mA DAC
LOOP POWER
SENSOR

4-20mA
ADC µC DAC
AD421

LOOP RETURN

CC

WAVEFORM BANDPASS
HART SHAPER FILTER
MODEM
BELL 202

HT20C12 / 20C15 (Symbios Logic)

HART DIGITAL SIGNAL: 1200Hz, 2200Hz FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

Figure 9.3

The HART data transmitted on the loop shown in Figure 9.3 is received by the
transmitter using a bandpass filter and modem, and the HART data is transferred
to the microcontroller's UART or asynchronous serial port to the modem. It is then
waveshaped before being coupled onto the AD421's output through the coupling
capacitor CC. The block containing the Bell 202 Modem, waveshaper, and bandpass
filter come in a complete solution with the 20C15 from Symbios Logic, Inc., or
HT2012 from SMAR Research Corporation.

9.3
SMART SENSORS

INTERFACING SENSORS TO NETWORKS

Grayson King
The HART protocol is just one of many standards for industrial networking. Most
industrial networks run independently of analog 4-20mA lines, but many are
intended to interface (directly or indirectly) with smart sensors as shown in Figure
9.4.

INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

BRANCH FIELD NETWORK NODE NODE

SMART SENSOR
SMART SENSOR
DEVICE NETWORK

NODE

SMART SENSOR
NODE

SMART SENSOR

Figure 9.4

These industrial networks can take many forms. The “field network” in Figure 9.4
represents a wide bandwidth distributed network such as Ethernet or Lonwork. A
field network by this definition is not generally intended to interface directly with a
smart sensor. A “device network,” on the other hand, is intended specifically to
interface to smart sensors. Most “device networks” (such as ASI-bus, CAN-bus, and
HART) also provide power to smart sensors on the same lines that carry serial data.
Some of today’s more popular industrial network standards are listed in Figure 9.5.
Each offers its own advantages and disadvantages, and each has a unique hardware
implementation and serial protocol. This means that a smart sensor designed for one
industrial network is not necessarily compatible with another.

Since factories and many other networked environments often have multiple
networks and sub-networks, a far more flexible solution is one where sensors are
“plug and play” compatible with all different field and device networks. The goal of
the IEEE 1451.2 sensor interface standard is to make network independent sensors
a reality.

9.4
 SMART SENSORS

SOME OF THE STANDARDS

n Ethernet n CAN-Bus

n Foundation Fieldbus n Device-Net

n Lonwork n WorldFIP

n Profibus n P-NET

n Interbus-S n HART

n Universal Serial Bus (USB) n ASI

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6 shows the basic components of an IEEE 1451.2 compatible system. The
smart sensor (or smart actuator) is referred to as a “STIM” (Smart Transducer
Interface Module). It contains one or more sensors and/or actuators in addition to
any signal conditioning and A/D or D/A conversion required to interface the
sensors/actuators with the resident microcontroller. The microcontroller also has
access to nonvolatile memory that contains a “TEDS” field (or Transducer Electronic
Data Sheet) which stores sensor/actuator specifications that can be read via the
industrial network. The NCAP (Network Capable Application Processor) is basically
a node on the network to which a STIM can be connected. At the heart of the IEEE
1451.2 is the standardized 10-wire serial interface between the sensor and the
NCAP, called the TII (or Transducer Independent Interface). In an environment
with multiple networks, the TII allows any STIM to be plugged into any NCAP node
on any network as shown in Figure 9.7. When the STIM is first connected to the
new NCAP, the STIM’s digital information (including its TEDS) is made available to
the network. This identifies what type of sensor or actuator has just been connected
and indicates what input and output data are available, the units of input an output
data (cubic meters per second, degrees Kelvin, kilopascals, etc.), the specified
accuracy of the sensor (±2°C, etc.), and various other information about the sensor or
actuator. This effectively eliminates the software configuration steps involved in
replacing or adding a sensor, thereby allowing true “plug and play” performance
with network independence.

9.5
SMART SENSORS

THE IEEE 1451.2 SENSOR INTERFACE STANDARD

NCAP FIELD NETWORK - OR - DEVICE NETWORK

TII n NCAP = Network Capable Application

Processor
TEDS
n TII = Transducer Independent
Interface
STIM

n TEDS = Transducer Electronic Datasheet

Sensor
or
Actuator
n STIM = Smart Transducer Interface
Module

Figure 9.6

TRUE "PLUG AND PLAY"

Ethernet Field Network Lonwork Field Network

Ethernet Ethernet Lonwork Lonwork
NCAP NCAP NCAP NCAP
Flow Rate STIM

Pressure STIM
Temperature STIM

PC with
Web Browser
Figure 9.7

Most smart sensors (not limited to 1451.2 STIMs) contain the primary components
shown in Figure 9.8. The Analog Devices MicroConverterTM products are the first to
incorporate all of these components on a single chip (Figure 9.9).

9.6
 SMART SENSORS

THE SMART SENSOR

Pressure Sensor,
RTD,
Thermocouple,
Strain Gage,
etc.

Precision Amplifier
High Resolution ADC
Microcontroller Sensor
Figure 9.8

THE EVEN SMARTER SENSOR

Pressure Sensor,
RTD,
Thermocouple,
Strain Gage,
etc.

MicroConverterTM ! Sensor

Figure 9.9

The three primary functions of every MicroConverterTM product (Figure 9.10), are:
high resolution analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion, non-volatile
FLASH EEPROM for program and data storage, and a microcontroller. Of the first
three MicroConverterTM products to be introduced, all contain a 12-bit voltage
output DAC, a precision bandgap voltage reference, and an on-chip temperature

9.7
SMART SENSORS

sensor. Figure 9.11 lists the basic analog I/O functionality of each. All three have
exactly the same FLASH memory and microcontroller core, some features of which
are highlighted in Figures 9.12 and 9.13.

THE MicroConverter™

1 High Performance Analog I/O

2 On-Chip FLASH Memory

3 On-Chip Microcontroller

MicroConverter™

Figure 9.10

ANALOG I/O 1
ADuC816 ADuC812 ADuC810
n Dual Σ∆ ADC n 8 chan SAR ADC n 8 chan SAR ADC
u >16 bit u 12 bit, 5µs u 10 bit
u >100dB SNR (p-p) u < ½ LSB INL u < ½ LSB INL
u Differential Inputs u DMA mode
u Prog. Gain Amp u Self-Calibration
u Self-Calibration

n 12bit V-Out DAC n Dual 12bit V-Out DAC n 12bit V-Out DAC
u < ½ LSB DNL u < ½ LSB DNL u < ½ LSB DNL

n Voltage Reference n Voltage Reference n Voltage Reference

n Temperature Sensor n Temperature Sensor n Temperature Sensor

Figure 9.11

9.8
 SMART SENSORS

ON-CHIP FLASH MEMORY 2

ADuC816 ; ADuC812 ; ADuC810
n 8K bytes Nonvolatile FLASH Program Memory
u Stores Program and Fixed Lookup Tables
u In-Circuit Serial Programmable or External Parallel Programmable
u Read-Only to Microprocessor Core

n 640 bytes Nonvolatile FLASH Data Memory

u User “Scratch Pad” for Storing Data During Program Execution
u Simple Read / Write Access Through SFR Space

n Programming Voltage (VPP) Generated On-Chip

Figure 9.12

ON-CHIP MICROCONTROLLER 3
ADuC816 ; ADuC812 ; ADuC810

n Industry Standard 8052 Core

u 12 Clock Machine Cycle w/ up to 16MHz Clock
u 32 Digital I/O Pins
u Three 16bit Counter/Timers
u Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
(UART) Serial Port

n ...Plus Some Useful Extras

u SPI or I2C Compatible Serial Interface
u WatchDog Timer
u Power Supply Monitor
u Timer Interval Counter (ADuC816/810)

Figure 9.13

9.9
SMART SENSORS

The highest resolution MicroConverterTM product is the ADuC816. Its analog front
end consists of two separate Σ∆ ADC converters with a flexible multiplexing scheme
to access its two differential input channels as illustrated in the functional block
diagram of Figure 9.14. The “primary channel” ADC is a 24-bit Σ∆ converter that
offers better than 16-bit signal-to-noise ratio. This primary channel also features a
programmable gain amplifier (PGA), allowing direct conversion of low-level signals
such as thermocouples, RTDs, strain gages, etc. Two “burn out” current sources can
be configured to force a very small current through the sensor to detect open circuit
conditions when the sensor may have been disconnected or “burned out”. The
primary channel ADC can be multiplexed to convert both of the differential input
channels, or the second differential input can be routed to the “auxiliary channel”
ADC which is a 16-bit Σ∆ converter with better than 14-bits of signal-to-noise ratio.
This auxiliary channel can also be used to read the on-chip temperature sensor. A
pair of 200µA current sources (IEXC1 & IEXC2) can be used to provide excitation for
sensors such as RTDs. Both ADCs as well as the DAC can be operated with the
internal 2.5V bandgap reference, or with an external reference.

ADuC816 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

P3.0
P3.1
P3.2
P3.3
P3.4
P3.5
P3.6
P3.7
P0.0
P0.1
P0.2
P0.3
P0.4
P0.5
P0.6
P0.7
P1.0
P1.1
P1.2
P1.3
P1.4
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
P2.0
P2.1
P2.2
P2.3
P2.4
P2.5
P2.6
P2.7

17

19

23

25
10
11
12
28
29
30
31
36
37
38
39

16

18

22

24
43
44
45
46
49
50
51
52

4
1

(primary channel)
AIN1 9 ADC
AIN2 10 AIN control
ADuC816
MUX
buf pga Σ∆ ADC and
calibration

(auxilliary channel)
AIN3 11 ADC DAC
AIN4 12 AIN DAC1 buf 10 DAC
control control
buf Σ∆ ADC
MUX and
calibration

8K x 8 256 x 8 22 T0
TEMP 2.5V
user RAM 16 bit
sensor bandgap program 23
reference counter T1
FLASH
–3.5mV/°C timers 1 T2
EEPROM watchdog
VREF IN+ 8 8052 timer 2 T2EX
VREF
640 x 8 micro-
VREFIN– 7 detect
controller power supply timer
user FLASH core monitor interval
counter 18 INT0
synchronous
asynchronous 19 INT1
IEXC1 3 serial interface
serial port OSC &
IEXC2 (SPI or I2C)
4 (UART) PLL
RxD 16
SCLK 26

SDATA/ 27
20
34
47

21
35
48

MISO 14
SS 13

ALE 42
PSEN 41
EA 40
RESET 15

TxD 17

XTAL1 32
XTAL2 33
AVDD 5
AGND 6

MOSI
DGND
DVDD

Figure 9.14

9.10
 SMART SENSORS

The primary performance specifications of the ADuC816 are given in Figure 9.15.
All ADC specifications here refer to the “primary channel” ADC. Exceptionally low
power dissipation can be achieved in low bandwidth applications by keeping the
ADuC816 in the power down mode for much of the time. By using an internal PLL,
the chip derives its 12MHz clock from a 32kHz watch crystal. When in power down
mode, the 12MHz clock is disabled, but the 32kHz crystal continues to drive a real-
time counter which can be set to wake the chip up at predefined intervals. The
ADuC816 can also be configured to wake up upon receiving an external interrupt.

ADuC816 - PRIMARY SPECIFICATIONS

n ADC : INL - ± 30ppm
SNR (p-p) - >102dB (17 Noise Free Bits)
Input Range - ± 20mV to ± 2.56V
Conv. Rate - 5.4Hz to 105Hz

n DAC : DNL - ± ½LSB

Output Range - 0 to VREF -or- 0 to VDD
Settling Time - <4µs

n Power : Specified for 3V or 5V Operation

5V 3V
Normal 7mA 3mA
Idle 4.5mA 1.5mA
Powerdown <20µA <20µA

Figure 9.15

The ADuC812 offers a fast (5µs) 12-bit 8-channel successive approximation ADC
with many of the same peripheral features of the ADuC816. The functional block
diagram (Figure 9.16) illustrates its primary components. Since the 8-bit × 1MIPS
microcontroller core cannot generally keep up with the 12-bit 200kSPS ADC output
data, a DMA (direct memory access) controller is included on the ADuC812 to
automatically write ADC results to external memory, thus freeing the
microcontroller core for other tasks. Whether in DMA mode or in normal mode, the
ADuC812 conversions can be triggered by several means. Conversions can be
triggered in software, or a timer can be set to automatically initiate a conversion
each time it overflows, thereby allowing precise control of sampling rate. A
hardware convert-start can also be utilized for applications requiring critical timing.

9.11
SMART SENSORS

The ADuC812 contains two 12-bit DACs that can be powered on or off
independently of each other, and can be updated either simultaneously or
independently. The DACs can be configured for an output range of 0 to VDD or 0 to
VREF, where VREF can be either the internal 2.5V bandgap reference or an externally
applied reference voltage. The internal reference, if used, can also be buffered to
drive external circuitry.

ADuC812 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

P3.0
P3.1
P3.2
P3.3
P3.4
P3.5
P3.6
P3.7
P0.0
P0.1
P0.2
P0.3
P0.4
P0.5
P0.6
P0.7
P1.0
P1.1
P1.2
P1.3
P1.4
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
P2.0
P2.1
P2.2
P2.3
P2.4
P2.5
P2.6
P2.7

17

19

23

25
12

14

29

31

37

39

16

18

22

24
43
44
45
46
49
50
51
52

11

13

28

30

36

38
1
2
3
4
hardware
CONVST 23
ADuC812
ADC0 1
ADC1 2 ADC DAC0 buf 9 DAC0
control
ADC2 3 T/H 12-bit ADC and DAC
ADC3 4 calibration control
AIN
ADC4 11 MUX DAC1 buf 10 DAC1
ADC5 12
ADC6 13
ADC7 14
8K x 8 256 x 8 22 T0
user RAM 16 bit
program 23 T1
TEMP FLASH counter
–3.5mV/°C timers 1 T2
sensor EEPROM watchdog
8052 timer 2 T2EX
2.5V micro-
640 x 8
bandgap controller power supply
reference user FLASH core monitor 18 INT0

synchronous
VREF 8 asynchronous 19 INT1
buf serial interface
serial port
(SPI or I2C) OSC
(UART)
CREF 7
RxD 16
20
34
47
21
35
48

SCLK 26
27

MISO 19
SS 12

ALE 42
PSEN 41
EA 40
RESET 15

TxD 17

XTAL1 32
XTAL2 33
AVDD 5
AGND 6

SDATA/
DGND

MOSI
DVDD

Figure 9.16

Figure 9.17 lists some primary performance specifications of the ADuC812. The
power specifications are given assuming a 12MHz crystal. Since all on-chip logic is
static, the clock can be slowed to any frequency, allowing exceptionally low power
dissipation in low bandwidth applications. For applications requiring greater speed,
the clock can be increased to as much as 16MHz to achieve slightly faster
microcontroller operation (1.33MIPS).

Because MicroConverterTM products are based on an industry standard 8052 core,

developers can draw from a wealth of software, reference material, and third party
tools that already exist for 8051/8052 MCUs. The MicroConverterTM web site
provides links to many sources of such material, in addition to offering downloads of
internally generated tools, data sheets, and example software.

9.12
 SMART SENSORS

ADuC812 - PRIMARY SPECIFICATIONS

n ADC : INL - ± ½LSB

SNR (p-p) - >70dB
Input Range - 0 to VREF
Conv. Time - <5µs (200kSPS)

n DAC : DNL - ± ½LSB

Output Range - 0 to VREF -or- 0 to VDD
Settling Time - <4µs

n Power : Specified for 3V or 5V Operation

5V 3V
Normal 18mA 12mA
Idle 10mA 6mA
Powerdown <50µA <50µA

Figure 9.17

MicroConverter™ DESIGN SUPPORT

MicroConverterTM
Web Site

1 QuickStartTM
Development Kit

2 Third Party
Development Tools

3
Figure 9.18

9.13
SMART SENSORS

MicroConverter™ WEB SITE

1
n Data Sheets www.analog.com
n Application Notes

n 8051 Reference Material

n Free Windows MicroConverterTM Simulator

n Free Keil ‘C’ Compiler (2K limited version)

Figure 9.19

To get any designer or developer started with a MicroConverter product, Analog

Devices offers a QuickStartTM Development Kit which contains all of the necessary
features for many designers to complete a design without the added expense of
additional simulation or in-circuit emulation packages.

MicroConverter™ - QuickStart™ DEVELOPMENT KIT

n Documentation
2
u User’s Guide QuickStartTM
u Datasheet
u Tools Tutorial
u Quick Reference Guide
n Software
n Evaluation Board
u Metalink Assembler
u RS-232 Serial Comms
u ‘C’ Compiler (Limited 2K)
u 32K External SRAM
u Windows Simulator
u Buffered Analog I/O
u Serial Downloader
n Regulated Power Supply u Windows Debugger
n Serial Port Cable u Example Code

Figure 9.20

9.14
 SMART SENSORS

For designs that require the added power of full in-circuit emulation, or the added
ease of C coding with mixed-mode debugging, Keil and Metalink offer the first of
many third party tools to be endorsed by Analog Devices. These tools are fully
compatible with the MicroConverterTM products, and other third party developers
will soon offer additional MicroConverterTM-specific tools to further expand the
options available to designers.

MicroConverter™ - THIRD PARTY DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

The First Two of Many Third

3
Party Tools to Fully Support
MicroConverterTM Products:
Power Tools
n Keil Compiler
u A full function windows based ‘C’ compiler environment featuring
a simulator for source and assembly level debugging.

n MetaLink Emulator
u A high end in circuit emulation system offering a complete
windows based environment for in-system debug sessions.

All tools will fully integrate with each MicroConverter product

Figure 9.21

While the ADuC812, ADuC816, and ADuC810 offer a mix of features and
performance not previously available in a single chip, future MicroConverterTM
products will offer even greater levels of integration and functionality. Larger
FLASH memory versions will be offered to compliment one or more of the existing
products. Additional hardware communications may also be added to future
MicroConverterTM products to allow direct communication with industrial networks
or PC platforms. Eventually, there will be MicroConverterTM products with greater
MCU processing bandwidth. However, comparing these devices to basic
microcontrollers is a mistake. The performance level of MicroConverterTM analog I/O
is far superior to that available in microcontrollers with analog I/O ports.

9.15
SMART SENSORS

MicroConverter™ PRODUCT ROADMAP

TIME
1 2 3
ADuC812 ADuC816 ADuC810 . . . .
- - -
8 Channel Dual 16 bit + Low Cost
12 bit ADC Σ∆ ADC -
- - 10 bit ADC,
Dual DAC Single DAC Dual DAC

n Larger FLASH Memory Capacity

(Data and Program)
n Hardware Communications
. . . . Future Products May Include:
Interface Enhancements
(CAN Bus, USB Bus)
n Increased Microcontroller
Horsepower

Figure 9.22

9.16
 SMART SENSORS

REFERENCES
1. Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process
Instruments, ANSI/ISA-S50.1-1982 (Rev. 1992), http://www.isa.org.

2. Dave Harrold, 4-20mA Transmitters Alive and Kicking, Control

Engineering, October, 1998, p.109.

3. Paul Brokaw, Versatile Transmitter Chip Links Strain Gages and

RTDs to Current Loop, Application Note AN-275, Analog Devices, Inc.,
http://www.analog.com.

4. Albert O'Grady, Adding HART Capability to the AD421, Loop Powered

4-20mA DAC Using the 20C15 HART Modem, Application Note 534,
Analog Devices, Inc., http://www.analog.com.

5. Editors, Fieldbuses: Look Before You Leap, EDN, November 5, 1998,

p. 197.

6. MicroConverter Technology Backgrounder, Whitepaper, Analog Devices,

Inc., http://www.analog.com.

7. I. Scott MacKenzie, The 8051 Microcontroller, Second Edition,

Prentice-Hall, 1995.

9.17