Water

It can be quite correctly argued that life exists on Earth because of the abundant liquid water. Chemists say that the water molecule is polar. Although the entire water molecule is electrically neutral, the electrons in the shared orbits are not evenly distributed.This unequal sharing of the electrons results in a slightly positive and a slightly negative side of the molecule.

The polarity of water has a number of important consequences. The polar ends of the molecule have a strong attraction for each other, and they also have a strong attraction for other charged molecules. The polar water molecule forms weak bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of different molecules. This interaction, which is called a hydrogen bond, is not nearly as strong as a covalent bond, But it does cause water molecules to be attracted to each other.

Formation of a hydrogen bond between the hydrogen side of one water molecule and the oxygen side of another water molecule. Intermolecular attractions are attractions between one molecule and a neighbouring molecule. The forces of attraction which hold an individual molecule together. There are three types of intermolecular bonds:

Hydrogen Bonding (The Strongest) Dipole-dipole Forces London Dispersion Forces (The Weakest)

These intermolecular bonds are collectively called van der Waals forces. Two of the intermolecular forces are associated with POLAR structures.

Hydrogen Bonding Dipole-dipole Forces

London dispersion forces are associated with NONPOLAR structures. Water has been referred to as the universal solvent. The most soluble molecules are those that can interact strongly with polar water molecules. Ions dissolve very well, so that NaCl, which actually dissociates in solution to Na+ and Cl- , dissolves very quickly in water.

Materials that can interact with the water molecule are said to be hydrophilic ( water-loving) . Hydrophobic (water-hating) molecules are those that cannot interact with the polar water molecules. The Unique Properties of Water

Acids, Bases and Buffers Almost all chemical reactions occur in solution. Water is the most common solvent for these reactions. Water is also the universal solvent for all biological systems. Water molecules can dissociate (at a very low rate) to form:

hydronium ions (H30 +) and hydroxide ions (OH -)

Concentration of hydronium and hydroxide Ions Equal concentrations of H3O + and OH - are formed each time a water molecule dissociates. It can be shown experimentally that in pure water: [H3O +] = [OH -] = 10 -7 mol/l When the relative concentration of H3O + and OH - is equal in a solution it is described as neutral. Acids An acid is defined as a proton donor. If a substance capable of dissociating to yield H + is added to water, the H + will combine with water molecules to form more H3O +. The result will be that in this solution now: [H3O +] > [OH -] The substance added which donated the H + is termed an acid and the aqueous solution in which [H3O +] > [OH -] is termed acidic.

Bases A base is defined as a proton acceptor. If a substance dissociated to form OH - ions in water, they would combine with some of the H3O + ions present, reducing their concentration.

The added OH - has accepted a proton from the H3O +. This type of substance is termed a base, and a solution in which [H3O + ] <[OH -] is termed basic. Some bases accept a proton directly, rather than forming OH - .

The H3O + concentration has decreased. It can be shown that the PRODUCT of the [ H3O +] and [OH -] is constant in aqueous solutions and is always equal to 10-14 mole/litre. This means that the two components must change in opposite directions. i.e. as [ H3O +] increases, [OH - ] must decrease. This also means that if we know one concentration, we can calculate the other. The pH scale To avoid the problem of working with these unwieldy small numbers which express the concentration of [ H3O +] and [OH - ] a contracted scale is used to express the acidity or basicity of a solution.

This is termed the pH scale. It is based on the exponential of the mole/litre concentration of [ H3O +] : pH = - log 10 [ H3O +] Occasionally the term pOH is used: pOH = - log10 [OH - ] A low pH signifies an acidic solution. A high pH signifies a basic solution. Strengths of acids and bases Acids and bases vary in strength. The term "strength" is a measure of how easily they ionise in water. A strong acid or base ionises to a large extent and markedly changes the pH of the solution. As an example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid. It dissociates almost completely in water.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strong base.

This base ionises substantially contributing a large increase in OH ions to the solution and raising the pH to a large extent. On the other hand, a weak acid such as acetic acid ionises only slightly in water:

and a weak base such as ammonia accepts protons from the aqueous solution only to a small extent :

Neither changes the pH of the solution to any great extent. Conjugate acid/base pairs When an acid dissociates (donates a proton) the product is no longer an acid because it can no longer donate a proton. HA (acid) ---------------------------------> A- (Conjugate base) + H+ What is formed is a base. It can accept a proton and reform the acid. The product of the acid dissociation is the conjugate base of that acid. Similarly when a base ionises (accepts a proton) it forms a conjugate acid. These are called conjugate acid/base pairs. Buffers The solution inside cells, intracellular fluid (ICF), and the solution outside cells, extracellular fluid (ECF), are aqueous solutions and maintain a very narrow [ H3O +] or pH range. The body's metabolic processes function only within this narrow pH range.

Various metabolic and exogenous events can change the acid/base balance of the body. These changes are dealt with in various ways, one of which is the use of buffers. Buffers are solutions which resist pH change. A buffer consists of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The weak acid resists change from the addition of base (OH -). The weak base resists change from the addition of acid (H +). A mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate is a good buffer. When a strong base is added e.g. NaOH, the following reaction takes place:

The strong base has been converted to a weak base CH3COO - which will have very little effect on pH. When acid is added e.g. HCl, it also is neutralized.

The strong acid has been converted to a weak acid CH3COOH which will have very little affect on pH.