Local area network

Local area network scheme

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic area,
like a home, office, or group of buildings. The defining characteristics of LANs, in
contrast to Wide area networks (WANs), include their much higher data transfer rates,
smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.

Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the most common two
technologies currently, but ARCNET, Token Ring and many others have been used in the
past.

History
In the days before personal computers, a site might have just one central computer, with
users accessing this via computer terminals over simple low-speed cabling. Networks
such as IBM's SNA (Systems Network Architecture) were aimed at linking terminals or
other mainframes at remote sites over leased lines—hence these were wide area
networks.

The first LANs were created in the late 1970s and used to create high-speed links
between several large central computers at one site. Of many competing systems created
at this time, Ethernet and ARCNET were the most popular.

The development and proliferation of CP/M and then DOS-based personal computers
meant that a single site began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial
attraction of networking these was generally to share disk space and laser printers, which
were both very expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for
several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly
declare the coming year to be “the year of the LAN”.

In reality, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical layer and
network protocol implementations, and confusion over how best to share resources.
Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and
network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which
provided even-handed support for the 40 or so competing card/cable types, and a much
more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. Netware dominated[1]
the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the
mid 1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server and Windows for
Workgroups.

Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths,
but Banyan never gained a secure base. Microsoft and 3Com worked together to create a
simple network operating system which formed the base of 3Com's 3+Share, Microsoft's
LAN Manager and IBM's LAN Server. None of these were particularly successful.

In this same timeframe, Unix computer workstations from vendors such as Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, Silicon Graphics, Intergraph, NeXT and Apollo were
using TCP/IP based networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the
technologies developed in this area continue to be influential on the Internet and in both
Linux and Apple Mac OS X networking—and the TCP/IP protocol has now almost
completely replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF and other protocols used by the early PC
LANs.

Technical aspects
Although switched Ethernet is now the most common data link layer protocol and IP as a
network layer protocol, many different options have been used, and some continue to be
popular in niche areas. Smaller LANs generally consist of a one or more switches linked
to each other - often with one connected to a router, cable modem, or DSL modem for
Internet access.

Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the
spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via
quality of service, and to segregate traffic via VLANing.

LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by
'tunneling' across the Internet using VPN technologies.
Local area network
- A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that
share a common communications line or wireless link. Typically, connected devices share
the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example,
within an office building). Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are
shared in common by multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as
two or three users (for example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users (for
example, in an FDDI network).

Major local area network technologies are:

Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI

Ethernet is by far the most commonly used LAN technology. A number of corporations
use the Token Ring technology. FDDI is sometimes used as a backbone LAN
interconnecting Ethernet or Token Ring LANs. Another LAN technology, ARCNET,
once the most commonly installed LAN technology, is still used in the industrial
automation industry.

Typically, a suite of application programs can be kept on the LAN server. Users who need
an application frequently can download it once and then run it from their local hard disk.
Users can order printing and other services as needed through applications run on the
LAN server. A user can share files with others at the LAN server; read and write access is
maintained by a LAN administrator. A LAN server may also be used as a Web server if
safeguards are taken to secure internal applications and data from outside access.

In some situations, a wireless LAN may be preferable to a wired LAN because it is

cheaper to install and maintain.

Setting up a Local Area

Network
Using Red Hat Linux to connect two or more computers
Level: Introductory

Darrick Addison (dtadd95@bellatlantic.net), Senior Software Engineer/Consultant, ASC Technologies

01 Feb 2001

This article describes how to build a Local Area Network (LAN) consisting of two or more computers running the Red Hat
Linux operating system. The article begins with the basics: an overview of the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet protocol) suite, and an explanation of assigning IP addresses in a LAN. Then the article covers the LAN
hardware and configuration using a tool called LinuxConf in the Red Hat Linux operating system environment. Lastly, the
article walks you through the critical steps of testing and troubleshooting your LAN.

Linux is increasingly popular in the computer networking/telecommunications industry. Acquiring the Linux operating
system is a relatively simple and inexpensive task since virtually all of the source code can be downloaded from several
different FTP or HTTP sites on the Internet. In addition, the most recent version of Red Hat Linux can be purchased from
computer retail stores for between $25 and $50, depending on whether you purchase the standard or full version. The retail
brand is indeed a worthwhile investment (vs. the free FTP or HTTP versions) since valuable technical support is included
directly from the Red Hat Linux engineers for at least a year. This can be very helpful if, for instance, you can not resolve an
installation/configuration problem after consulting the Red Hat Linux manuals.

This article describes how to put together a Local Area Network (LAN) consisting of two or more computers using the Red
Hat Linux 6.2 operating system. A LAN is a communications network that interconnects a variety of devices and provides a
means for exchanging information among those devices. The size and scope of a LAN is usually small, covering a single
building or group of buildings. In a LAN, modems and phone lines are not required, and the computers should be close
enough to run a network cable between them.

For each computer that will participate in the LAN, you'll need a network interface card (NIC) to which the network cable
will be attached. You will also need to assign a unique hostname and IP address to each computer in the LAN (described
later in this article), but this requires a basic understanding of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

Introduction to TCP/IP

TCP/IP is the suite of protocols used by the Internet and most LANs throughout the world. In TCP/IP, every host (computer
or other communications device) that is connected to the network has a unique IP address. An IP address is composed of
four octets (numbers in the range of 0 to 255) separated by decimal points. The IP address is used to uniquely identify a host
or computer on the LAN. For example, a computer with the hostname Morpheus could have an IP address of 192.168.7.127.
You should avoid giving two or more computers the same IP address by using the range of IP addresses that are reserved for
private, local area networks; this range of IP addresses usually begins with the octets 192.168.

LAN network address The first three octets of an IP address should be the same for all computers in the LAN. For
example, if a total of 128 hosts exist in a single LAN, the IP addresses could be assigned starting with 192.168.1.x, where x
represents a number in the range of 1 to 128. You could create consecutive LANs within the same company in a similar
manner consisting of up to another 128 computers. Of course, you are not limited to 128 computers, as there are other ranges
of IP addresses that allow you to build even larger networks.

There are different classes of networks that determine the size and total possible unique IP addresses of any given LAN. For
example, a class A LAN can have over 16 million unique IP addresses. A class B LAN can have over 65,000 unique IP
addresses. The size of your LAN depends on which reserved address range you use and the subnet mask (explained later in
the article) associated with that range (see Table 1.).

Table 1. Address ranges and LAN sizes

Address range Subnet mask Provides Addresses per LAN

10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 1 class A LAN 16,777,216
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 255.255.0.0 16 class B LANs 65,536
Local-Area Network (Lan)

The term "local-area network" (or LAN) describes a group of computers connected by
usually no more than 1,000 feet of cable that allows these computers to share data. LANs
can be created using different types of cables, configurations, and protocols, and still
remain within the requirements of a network system specification.

Networks consist of four basic components:

• Network Operating System (NOS). The NOS consists of several computer

programs that run in the networked computers. Some of these computers share
files, printers, and other peripherals over a network and are called servers. Other
computers that use these shared resources are called clients.
• Network Peripherals. Printers and scanners with their own network connections
are examples of network peripherals. These components use specialized
processors to operate networking server software without having to be connected
to a computer.
• Network Interface Card (NIC). NICs are also called LAN adapters. NICs have
several functions inside a computer. They convert the low-power signals from
inside a computer into stronger signals that can propagate across a network cable.
The NIC also prepares data for transmission by including important messaging or
packaging information that is used by other computers on the LAN. The NIC also
controls access to the network cable that is shared by other computers on the
network.
• Network Cabling. Network data can be sent as 1) electrical pulses over different
types of copper cable, 2) pulses of light over fiber optic cable, 3) through the air
as radio or light waves, or 4) data can be sent via a combination of these.

Major Types of LAN Technology

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a connection-based type of networking that can

be used in LANs and wide-area networks (WANs). ATM is what is responsible for high-
speed data switching, often at gigabit rates. However, most computers have a difficult
time being able to absorb data at gigabit speeds. ATM networks, therefore, handle traffic
from many other computers and are more expensive to build and maintain.

ATM networks use optical fibers for connections because optical fibers transfer data at a
higher rate than does copper (ATMs can operate at speeds between 1.544 Mbps to 1.2
Gbps). The lowest levels of an ATM network use fixed-size data packets called cells. The
one-size cells allows ATM switch hardware to process them quickly.
Because ATM networks carry voice and data, many telephone system networks use ATM
technology.

Bridge

A bridge is a computer that connects two or more networks and forwards data packets
among them. A bridge can also link the faster portion of a LAN to slower links, such as
networks of leased telephone lines. Bridges help extend the network and help isolate
network traffic. Bridges send packets (small blocks of data sent across packet-switching
networks) and frames (packages of data) between different types of media, but they can
only forward information that is addressed to devices on another network system.

Local bridges connect fast cable segments on one LAN (this usually requires one "local"
bridge). Remote bridges connect fast local cables to slower, longer-distance cables in
order to connect physically separated networks (this usually requires two "remote"
bridges).

Broadcasting

In LAN context, a broadcast is a packet-delivery system that delivers a copy of a

particular packet to all hosts that are attached to it, much the way a television signal is
broadcast to all the television stations tuned to it. Broadcasting is a technique used by the
most popular network connection technology, Ethernet.

With a broadcast-network system, a single node on the network will transmit information
to all other nodes at the same time. However, not all of the nodes will receive the
message; only those nodes that have been addressed in the message will be able to
receive it. This is similar to the television signal analogy where, for example, only those
televisions able to receive an HBO or pay-per-view signal (because a signal blocking
filter has been removed) can receive the broadcast. In the LAN world, once the signal has
been received, the receiving stations will send an acknowledgement to the sending
station.

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a method used in Ethernet networks to

transmit data only during breaks in the network traffic. This method is typically used by
network interface cards that share a common cable. CSMA with collision detection, also
known as CSMA/CD, is a technique used if two transmit stations begin transmission at
the same time, they can detect a collision, stop, and retry after a predefined period of
time. Ethernet networks use a binary exponential backoff policy, which is simply an
algorithm that helps avoid massive data collisions in the unlikely event many transmitting
stations try to transmit simultaneously.

Ethernet
In the late 1970s IBM and Digital Equipment Corporation developed methods for
several large computers to operate over local networks. Later, Xerox Corporation
developed a method that allowed many computers to be connected over a LAN. This
method later developed into a set of standards (minimum performance requirements) and
protocols (rules for how different elements interact) called Ethernet, which today is the
most popular type of LAN.

Today's Ethernet LANs allow for mixing and matching of various hardware and software,
network cables, and configurations, and still remain within the boundaries of the Ethernet
specification, also known as IEEE 802.3. Today the Ethernet can achieve data-transfer
rates in excess of one Gigabit (one Gigabit = 1,000 Megabits).

In thin Ethernet networks, the cable configuration uses a T-shaped coaxial connector at
each network interface card (NIC). The more common Ethernet configuration uses
unshielded twisted-pair wire available in three configurations: 10Base-T (10 megabits per
second, or Mbps, signal speed), 100Base-T (100 Mbps, also known as fast Ethernet), and
1000Base-T (1000 Mbps, also known as Gigabit Ethernet). Unshielded twisted pair wire
uses a small plastic connector known as an RJ-45 connector at each end of the wire,
which plugs into the back of a computer, wiring hub, or NIC.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a type of high-speed LAN that uses optical
fiber to carry signals that contain data encoded in pulses of light. Another similar
technology called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) works similar to FDDI, but
uses copper cables to carry signals.

Unlike other copper-based networks, optical fiber is immune from electrical interference,
and because optical fiber uses light, it can transmit much higher data rates than copper
cables carrying electrical signals (per unit time). FDDI is known as a "ring" because the
network configuration starts and ends at the same source. The most unusual fact about
FDDI is its ability to detect and diagnose problems; in fact, because the network
hardware can automatically accommodate a network failure, it is sometimes called a self-
healing network.

IBM Token-Ring

Token-Ring network interface cards use a complex network cable-access control

methodology. While Ethernet NICs contend for cable access, Token-Ring NICs require
permission to transmit into a cable that forms a completed loop. The active Token-Ring
NICs "negotiate" (using their serial numbers) to determine which card is the master NIC.
The master NIC transmits a special message called a "free token." When a data-loaded
NIC receives a free token, it converts the free token into a message and forwards it to the
next station on the loop for relay. After the addressed NIC receives the message, and the
message returns to the originating NIC, that master NIC generates another free token and
the process repeats.

A Token-Ring network has two physically separate wiring hubs that are connected by
fiber optic cable that can be thousands of feet apart. However, the devices attached to the
Token-Ring network (connected by unshielded twisted pair, or UTP, wires) must be no
farther than 100 feet from the wiring hub. The wiring configuration more resembles a
star-shape, whereas the actual "ring" in the Token-Ring network is contained within the
wiring hubs.

Multicasting

Broadcasting involves the delivery of a packet to all computers on a specific network.

Unicasting involves sending a packet to a single device. Multicasting involves the
delivery of a packet to a specific subset of hosts. Unlike broadcasting, multicasting
allows each system the choice of participating in a particular multicast.

Large numbers of addresses are reserved in a hardware device that will later be used in
the multicast. When a collection of devices wants to communicate, one specific multicast
address is selected for use. All connected devices will receive a copy of any packet sent
to the multicast address, once the NICs have been configured to recognize the selected
multicast address.

A type of multicasting that was popular for a short time in the late 1990s was called Push.
Push (or "server-push") is the delivery of information on a network (in this case, the
World Wide Web) that is initiated by the information server rather than by the
information user or client, as it usually is. An early Web service that specialized in
"pushing" information rather than having it "pulled" as the result of requests for Web
pages was Pointcast, a site that provided late-breaking news and other information
customized to a previously defined user profile. Marimba was another similar site (and
product) that pushed information to the user on a predefined schedule.

The information pushed from a server to a user actually arrives as the result of a
programmed request from the client in a computer. Any information pusher on the Web
requires the download of a client program. This program captures a user profile and then
occasionally initiates requests for information on the user's behalf from the server.

LAN Topologies

Topology is simply the physical layout and configuration of the devices on a network, or
the "network architecture." There are four fundamental LAN topologies.
• Star Topology. The star topology is the oldest type of network architecture. It is
similar to a telephone system in which calls from one person to another are
handled through a central switching station. With star LANs, all messages are
routed through a central hub. Adding nodes to a star topology is simple and easy:
just add a NIC and cable to connect to the central hub. This configuration allows
certain nodes to be given higher priority over others. The central hub simply
searches for signals from these higher priority nodes before acknowledging the
others.
• Clustered Star Topology. A clustered star topology is simply several star
topologies linked together. In this configuration, if one star malfunctions or fails,
the entire network does not fail.
• Bus Topology. In this simple configuration, a bus (single master cable carrying all
traffic) serves as the focal point for the LAN, where the nodes connect along the
length of the bus. Devices on the network need to be sufficiently spaced apart to
avoid electrical interference. The problem with such a configuration is that one
malfunctioning node on the bus can shut down the LAN.
• Mesh Topology. A mesh topology is exactly what it sounds like. It is a network
without a defined network architecture or topology. Such topologies tend to be
extremely complex and have all types of built-in redundancies to minimize
network downtime or failures.