TRAINING ON

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION AND UNIFIED LOAD DISPATCH & COMMUNICATION

AT POWERGID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED, EASTERN REGION-1 HEAD QUARTER- PATNA

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF SHRI.VISHAL INGH, DY. MANEGER (ULDC)

ACKNOLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank Shri Vishal singh sir, Dy.Manger(ULDC), of Powergrid Corporation of India Limited, Eastern Region-1 for working so hard with us to accomplish the training at POWERGRID. I express my gratitude to them for making us understand the working of POWERGRID, particularly the working principle and practical aspects of Unified Load Dispatch and Communication System along with Optical Fiber Communication System. Without their assistance and co-operation, our training would not have reached its goal.

POWERGRID
An IMS certified navratn company empowering the nation through national grid
POWERGRID: AT A GLANCE:
POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED is Govt. of India Enterprise which is engaged in the business of transmission of power across the country by establishing a national grid and has designated Central Transmission Utility by the Government of India. Towards this purpose, POWERGRID is involved in construction, operation & Maintenance of 765KV, 400KV, 220KV HVAC lines 400KV, 220KV and 132KV substations as well as HVDC Back to Back stations and HVDC transmission lines. The purpose of establishing National Grid is to transmit power from central generating stations to the beneficiaries states and facilitate inter-regional power transfer. POWERGRID is the largest transmission utility in the world. POWERGRID wheels about 45% of the total power generated in the country on its transmission network. POWERGRID has a pan India presence with around 71,500 Circuit Kms of Transmission network and 126 nos. of EHVAC & HVDC sub-stations with a total transformation capacity of 79,500 MVA.POWERGRID has also diversified into Telecom business and established a telecom network of more than 20,000 Kms across the country. POWERGRID has consistently maintained the transmission system availability over 99% which is at par with the International Utilities.

MISSION:
Establishment and operation of Regional and National Power Grids to facilitate transfer of electric power within and across the regions with Reliability, Security and Economy, on sound commercial principles.

AN OVERVIEW OF EASTERN REGION I

POWERGRID is administratively divided into 09 regions, viz Northern Region-I, Northern region-II, Southern region I , Southern Region-II, Eastern Region-I, Eastern Region-II, Western Region-I, Western Region-II & North Eastern Region. The Corporate office of POWERGRID is located in SAUDAMINI, PLOT NO. 2, SECTOR-23, GURGOAN, HARYANA. The regional office of Eastern region is located at 2nd, 5th& 6 floor, Alankar Place, Boring Road, Patna-1. The area under the region comprises of the states of Bihar & Jharkhand. This region is
th

operating 3314Ckt.Km of lines and 04 nos. of 400/220KV substations, 02 nos. 220/132KV substations and one No. HVDC Back to Back station. Eastern Region of POWERGRID has also been entrusted with gigantic task of Rural Electrification work under RAJIV GANDHI GRAMIN VIDUTIKARAN YOJANA by Govt. of India in the state of Bihar under ERTS-I and Sub-transmission and APDRP work by Govt. of Bihar. Under this scheme, out of 38 districts in Bihar 24 districts have been assigned to ERTS-I of POWERGRID for execution of Rural Electrification work. Under Sub-transmission Phase-II, 18 Nos. of grid substations and 22 nos. transmission lines are in the scope of POWERGRID, out of which mostly have been completed and balance works are under progress. Renovation and Modernization of distribution system of different circles of Bihar under APDRP scheme is also under progress.

Objectives
The Corporation has set following objectives in line with its mission and its status as "Central Transmission Utility":

Undertake

transmission

of

energy

through

Inter-State

Transmission System Discharge all functions of planning and coordination relating to Inter-State Transmission System withState Transmission Utilities; (ii) Central Government; (iii) State Government; (iv) Generating Companies; (v) Regional Electricity Boards; (vi) Authority; (vii) Licensees; (viii) Transmission Licensees; (ix) Any other person notified by the Central Government on this behalf.

Exercise

supervision

and

control

over

the

Inter-State

Transmission System Efficient Operation and Maintenance of Transmission Systems Establish/augment and operate all Regional Load Despatch Centres and Communication facilities 4

To facilitate private sector participation on Transmission system through Ventures Independent Private Transmission Company, Joint

To assist various SEBs and other utilities in upgradation of skills & sharing of expertise by organising regular conferences, tailormade training workshops directed towards specific technological and O&M areas and extending laboratory facilities for testing purposes etc

Restoring power in quickest possible time in the event of any natural disasters like super-cyclone, flood etc. through deployment of Emergency Restoration Systems

To provide consultancy services at national and international levels in transmission sector based on the in-house expertise developed by the organization.

To

participate

in

long

distance

Trunk

Telecommunication

business ventures.

POWERGRID TELECOM NETWORK:

POWERGRID Corporation Of India Ltd. diversified into the telecommunication business by creating a telecommunication network principally using their overhead transmission infrastructure. They own and operate a fibre-optic cable network that as on March 31, 2007 consisted of over 19,000 kilometres and connected over 60 Indian cities, including all major metros and all the main territories of India POWERGRID has been leasing bandwidth on this network to more than 60 customers, including major telecom operators such as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, Tata Teleservices Limited, Reliance Communications Limited and Bharti Airtel Limited. POWERGRID is one of the few telecommunications network providers that has a presence in remote areas of India, such as Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the North Eastern region (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura). The total capital expenditure approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) for the establishment of the 5

telecommunications network is Rs. 9,342.3 million. Beyond this, further capital expenditure will be governed by market requirements. POWERGRID has been granted the Infrastructure Provider-I (IP-I) and Internet Service Provider Category-A (ISP-A) licences. In July 2006 POWERGRID acquired a National Long Distance (NLD) License, which increases our target market by enabling it to offer our services to nonlicensed service providers such as entities in the corporate, government and defence sectors. Since then, POWERGRID has added customers such as the Indian Army, Indian Intelligence Bureau, Central Reserve Police Force, National Informatics Centre, Infosys Technologies Ltd. and Ericsson India Pvt. Ltd. POWERGRIDs telecom network provides a robust telecom highway at affordable cost with ultra modern and eco-friendly implementation techniques. POWERGRID telecommunication network benefits from the extensive geographic reach of our power transmission network, which covers all the main territories of India including remote areas of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the North Eastern region (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura). POWERGRID has a nation wide backbone network to provide broad band capacity to various telecom service providers like ISPs, Cellular operators, Basic service providers, NLDOs, ILDs, Paging operators, Call centres, tele-medicine, Government Departments, Broadcasters, Corporates for voice, data and video and also other higher value added telecom services. Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd., the Central Transmission Utility of the country, a leading Public Sector Undertaking owns, operates and maintains one of the largest power transmission (~68,500 ckt. kms) network in the world. POWERGRID has diversified into telecommunications and has:

National Long Distance Licence Internet Service ProviderISP (Category A) Licence

UNIQUE FEATURES OF POWERGRIDS TELECOM NETWORK Most of the POWERGRIDs optic fibre backbone network is laid overhead on the extra high voltage power transmission lines and therefore offers a distinct advantage over the underground optic fibre network in terms of robustness, vandalism proof, rodent and termite proof, thus offering high reliability.

Instant bandwidth allocation on POWERGRIDs Telecom route End to end connectivity Instant up gradation to higher capacity Better Service Level Services catering to the specific needs of the customers High reliability, high quality service in a cost effective manner

What is ULDC?
In Indian power sector is now experiencing a manifold growth in generation, transmission and distribution. Power sector is targeting augmentation of generation and transmission to 1, 80,000 MW in next 15 years. To supervise and control this complex power network the planning, operation and control in India is divided into five regional grids. Each regional grid comprises of several generators and power system operators viz. SEBs and other power utilities. Operation and management of integrated power system comprising national and regional grid is a challenging task. It requires co-ordination among central and state sector generation and transmission utilities on real time basis. Grid operation on real time basis is required to ensure. 1) Customers power demand is met at all times from off peak to peak hours. 2) Energy is supplied at minimal cost through optimal utilization of recourses and promoting merit order operation. 3) Quality of power with regard to frequency, voltage and reliability. To meet all these Government of India entrusted POWERGRID in 1992 to implement Unified Load Dispatch & Communication in the country. In line with GOI mandate POWERGRID planned establishment of ULDC scheme in all regions in a phased manner. 7

Eastern Region ULDC is a part of that. This scheme is expected to be completed by December, 2004. The ER-ULDC scheme will establish three level hierarchical Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) along with Energy Management System (EMS). Scheme involves establishment of 11 control centers ( 1 RSCC, 5 SLDC, 4 SubLDCs),197 Remote Terminal Units, 1400 km of Optical Fiber Cable and 1850 km of Microwave communication network. Estimated cost of the project is 290 Crores.

Benefits of ULDC
Real time monitoring, supervision and control Power System. Improved system security, reliability and reduction of undelivered energy. Savings in the operating cost. Avoidance/minimization of grid disturbances/failures. Quick restoration during grid disturbances/failures. Capital investment saving. Better management information. Better system operation and control. Real time Environment for operator training. Optimal utilization of resources and economic dispatch of power

FEATURES OF ULDC SCHEMES SCADA functions Operation Scheduling Functions Real Time Generation Functions Network Function Historical Information Management System Despatcher Training Simulator Protocols IEC , ICCP Communication systems NECESSISITY Automatic Meter Reading Reduce O&M costs Computerized Billing & Collection system Computerized Customer Care System SCADA/DMS System Dedicated Communication Network

ABOUT SCADA
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SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. It generally refers to an industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The process can be industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:

Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes. Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems. Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and energy consumption.

A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:

A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator, monitors and controls the process. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system. Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs. Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the Remote Terminal Units

There is, in several industries, considerable confusion over the differences between SCADA systems and Distributed control systems (DCS). Generally speaking, a SCADA system usually refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control processes in real time. The discussion on real-time control is muddied somewhat by newer telecommunications technology, enabling reliable, low latency, high speed communications over wide areas. Most differences between SCADA and DCS are culturally determined and can usually be ignored. As communication infrastructures with higher capacity become available, the difference between SCADA and DCS will fade.

Systems concepts
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large 9

areas (anything between an industrial plant and a country). Most control actions are performed automatically by remote terminal units ("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the set points for the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the loop. Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing. SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input or output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft point results from logic and math operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression, which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the time stamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the history of that point. It's also common to store additional metadata with tags, such as the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm information.

Hardware solutions
SCADA solutions often have Distributed Control System (DCS) components. Use of "smart" RTUs or PLCs, which are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the master computer, is increasing. A functional block programming language, IEC 61131-3 (Ladder Logic), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the C programming language or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC. A Programmable automation controller 10

(PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, "distributed RTUs" use information processors or station computers to communicate with protective relays, PACS, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU. Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA systems, many of them using open and nonproprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized thirdparty HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software developer.

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

w

21 slots available per rack Up to 32 racks Communication links on the front face The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.

S900 : MA Data Acquisition Digital inputs including SOE 11

Analogs inputs Pulse counts Digital outputs (controls) Tap changer positions Time Tagging 1 ms internal time tagging Synchronization by control center SCADA Data logging Local control Process control (automatic functions)

S900 : MAIN FEATURES Powerful Distributed architecture (hardware and software) Open ended Compliance with international standards Modularity Flexibility (hardware is customized through software) Low power consumption

S900 : MAIN TECHNOLOGY 68020 Microprocessors in each CPU VME bus FIP Field Bus Real time Multitask Operating System : VRTX32 Data Base Management using ORACLE Generalization of PCs for customer's tools

S 0 R UT p 9 0 T y ic

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Supervisory Station
The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the servers and software responsible for communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include multiple servers, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dualredundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server failure. Initially, more "open" platforms such as Linux were not as widely used due to the highly dynamic development environment and because a SCADA customer that was able to afford the field hardware and devices to be controlled could usually also purchase UNIX or OpenVMS licenses. Today, all major operating systems are used for both master station servers and HMI workstations. Optical Fiber communication In recent years it has become apparent that fiber-optics are steadily replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of communication signal transmission. They span the long distances between local phone systems as well as providing the backbone for many network systems. Other system users include cable television services, university campuses, office buildings, industrial plants, and electric utility companies. A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiberoptics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based systems. At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for information coming on to fiber-optic lines. The transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse information coming from copper wire. It then processes and translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the light pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are funneled into the fiber-optic medium where they travel down the cable. The light (near infrared) is most often 850nm for shorter distances and 1,300nm for longer distances on Multi-mode fiber and 1300nm for single-mode fiber and 1,500nm is used for for longer distances. 13

Model of "simple" fiber optic data link

Propagation of a light ray down a fiber optic cable Think of a fiber cable in terms of very long cardboard roll (from the inside roll of paper towel) that is coated with a mirror on the inside. If you shine a flashlight in one end you can see light come out at the far end - even if it's been bent around a corner. Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known as total internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear and pure material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm and 1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are made from glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica, but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications. There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber (POF). Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.

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The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signal. Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain applications. While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time -an equivalent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper counterparts. Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber. Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-frequency (WDM Wave-Division-Multiplexing) so only one cable is needed - (single-mode on one single fiber) Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Singlemode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable type. Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm. Multi-Mode cable has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (in the US the most common size is 62.5um). Most applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used, 2 fibers are used (WDM is not normally used on multi-mode fiber). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.

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Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS - Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission so designers now call for single mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and beyond.

The use of fiber-optics was generally not available until 1970 when Corning Glass Works was able to produce a fiber with a loss of 20dB/km. It was recognized that optical fiber would be feasible for telecommunication transmission only if glass could be developed so pure that attenuation would be 20dB/km or less. That is, 1% of the light would remain after traveling 1 km. 16

Today's optical fiber attenuation ranges from 0.5dB/km to 1000dB/km depending on the optical fiber used. Attenuation limits are based on intended application. The applications of optical fiber communications have increased at a rapid rate, since the first commercial installation of a fiber-optic system in 1977. Telephone companies began early on, replacing their old copper wire systems with optical fiber lines. Today's telephone companies use optical fiber throughout their system as the backbone architecture and as the long-distance connection between city phone systems. Cable television companies have also began integrating fiber-optics into their cable systems. The trunk lines that connect central offices have generally been replaced with optical fiber. Some providers have begun experimenting with fiber to the curb using a fiber/coaxial hybrid. Such a hybrid allows for the integration of fiber and coaxial at a neighborhood location. This location, called a node, would provide the optical receiver that converts the light impulses back to electronic signals. The signals could then be fed to individual homes via coaxial cable. Local Area Networks (LAN) is a collective group of computers, or computer systems, connected to each other allowing for shared program software or data bases. Colleges, universities, office buildings, and industrial plants, just to name a few, all make use of optical fiber within their LAN systems. Power companies are an emerging group that has begun to utilize fiber-optics in their communication systems. Most power utilities already have fiber-optic communication systems in use for monitoring their power grid systems.

Optical Fiber cable

Some 10 billion digital bits can be transmitted per second along an optical fiber link in a commercial network, enough to carry tens of thousands of telephone calls. Hair-thin fibers consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath. Light rays modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode move along the core without penetrating the cladding. The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive indexa measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second. Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to looking down a mirror made in the shape of a long paper towel tube). Because the cladding has a lower refractive index, light rays reflect back into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle (red lines). A ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber (yellow line). 17

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion. SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

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BASIC CABLE DESIGN 1 - Two basic cable designs are: Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations in North America, and tight-buffered cable, primarily used inside buildings. The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds up to 12 fibers per buffer tube with a maximum per cable fiber count of more than 200 fibers. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The modular buffer-tube design permits easy drop-off of groups of fibers at intermediate points, without interfering with other protected buffer tubes being routed to other locations. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibers in the system. Single-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and passive components. Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings.

2 - Loose-Tube Cable
In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-buckling element. The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armor. Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried applications.

3 - Tight-Buffered Cable
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Multi-fiber, tight-buffered cables often are used for intra-building, risers, general building and plenum applications.

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The tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber. As with loose-tube cables, optical specifications for tight-buffered cables also should include the maximum performance of all fibers over the operating temperature range and life of the cable. Averages should not be acceptable.

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