Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
MARCH – 2004
ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI – 600 025
CONTENTS
Page No
About this document (i)
Accompanying documents (i)
Preamble
(ii)
1. GETTING STARTED
2.0 Introduction 2 –1
2.1 Starting Data Preparation 2 –1
2.2 Saving the Data Entered 2 –6
3.0 Introduction 3 -1
3.1 The Editing Option 3 -1
View/Modify/Delete Option 3 –1
Add New Data Option 3 –1
4.0 Introduction 4 –1
4.1 Conventional Text Format Output 4 –1
4.2 Single Line Diagram 4 –1
5. ANALYSIS OPTIONS
This document takes the user on a guided tour of the user interface for creating
data, editing, saving, output options and archiving the results of execution for the
student-created case. It has been written specifically keeping in mind a student in
a laboratory environment. At the end of a lab session, the student should be able
to prepare the record for submission for evaluation by the instructor. The Load
Flow software itself is rich in context sensitive help in the form of tool tips and a
dedicated help menu. With a little bit of practice, the student can be at ease with
the Load flow and hopefully need not have to refer to this document often.
Conventions used in this document: menu items or button names are given in
italics.
Accompanying documents
Preamble
Power flow analysis is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities.
This analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady –state operating condition of a power
system under ‘normal’ mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and
line/transformer flows for a given load condition.
The power flow problem can be stated as follows: for a given power network with
known complex power loads and set of specifications on power generations and voltages,
solve for unknown bus voltages.
The power flow analysis enables simulation of the system performance under a wide
variety of projected operating conditions. It plays a key role in planning of expansions to
transmission system and generation facilities. In long term planning the power flow
analysis, helps in investigating the effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the
‘best’ plan for system expansion to meet the projected operating state. In operational
planning, it helps in choosing the ‘best’ unit commitment plan and generation schedules
to run the system efficiently for the next day’s load condition without violating the
operating limits. It is at the heart of contingency analysis and real-time monitoring of
system. Power flow solution provides the initial conditions for stability and other system
studies.
The program implementation here employs two popular methods, namely, Newton-
Raphson and Fast Decoupled. The choice between them is left to the user.
In this method, the complex non-linear algebraic power flow equations are linearised
around the starting values of the unknowns namely, voltage magnitudes and phase angles
specified by the user initially, and latest iterated values subsequently. The linearised
equations are then solved by Gaussian elimination (also known as LU factorisation)
method [3,4]. Optimal ordering and special storage techniques are implemented to
preserve and exploit sparsity of the bus admittance and Jacobian matrices and hence
minimise storage and speed up solution.
The solution to the non-linear power flow equations is obtained through iterative
procedures as in the case of Newton-Raphson. However, in this method the strong
coupling between the active power (P)-YROWDJHSKDVHDQJOH DQGUHDFWLYHSRZHU4 -
(iii)
voltage magnitude (V) is taken advantage of by ignoring the relatively weaker coupling
between P-V and Q-7KHSURJUDPXVHVWKHFRPSDFWO\VWRUHGELIDFWRUVRIWKHFRQVWDQW
matrices [B’] and [B”] in every iteration. Optimal ordering technique, compact storage of
sparse factors and exploitation of sparsity minimizes storage requirements and execution
time.
Sensitivity factors are used in adjusting the voltage magnitude of a P-V bus whenever the
reactive power limit of a voltage controlled bus is violated.
Features
• Detection of system trouble spots such as over- and under voltage buses
• Graphical output such as simple elegant line diagrams with animations for trouble
spots
• Context-sensitive help
CHAPTER 1
GETTING STARTED
1.0 Introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of the Load Flow Analysis software exposing
the student to the facilities available for creating and editing data, running the Load
Flow Analysis program and viewing results and finally archiving. The above tasks
are explained by taking an example from the list of “packaged” examples.
1. Click the AU Powerlab icon on the desktop. A window carrying Anna University
frontage will appear on the screen and will disappear within few seconds. Then
the student log-on Window will appear (Fig.1.1).
2. Enter student information in the respective boxes. After entering all information,
click enter button. Then the Opening Window for AU Powerlab will appear (Fig.
1.2)
3. Click the button ‘Load Flow Analysis’ in the Opening Window. Then another
window containing the title of the modules in Load Flow Analysis will appear
(Fig 1.3)
4. Click the button ‘Newton Raphson / Fast Decoupled Method’ in the window.
Then the menu screen for these modules will appear. (Fig 1.4)
Lab manual option displays the Laboratory Manual for Load Flow analysis.
User manual option displays the User Reference Manual for Load Flow Analysis.
Examples option displays the packaged examples, i.e., data created for sample
systems.
To run the method of your choice just point the mouse and click. Assume that we
want to use the Newton-Raphson Method. Then we would have taken the
following route:
Tutorial => Examples => 4bus => RUN LOAD FLOW PROGRAM =>
Newton-Raphson.
A portion of the conventional text format output is shown in Fig. 1.10. View =>
Output causes the conventional text format output to be brought to Notepad. The
student can take the printout of the output and use it as a part of his lab record to
be submitted.
Results on Single Line Diagram is more appealing visually and it can be taken bus
wise. View => Line Diagram produces the display shown in Fig. 1.11. Clicking
on the down arrow of the combo box results in the display of the bus names as
shown in Fig.1.12 from which you can select a bus details around which you are
interested. Selecting the bus BUS1 results in display shown in Fig. 1.13
What we have so far seen are the basic features available. However, much more
analysis results that are useful from the student’s and instructor’s point of view
are available and they are described in detail in Chapter 5. View option is
described in detail in Chapter 4. It is suggested that the student first gets familiar
with the basic operations described above before proceeding further.
The changes you make in the 4bus are stored in the TEMPorary copy. Before you
exit the program you must save the changed TEMPorary copy as, say, my4bus.
Now, for making changes: Tutorial => Examples => 4bus takes you to the Edit
option window, Fig.1.7. Click on the MODIFY/DELETE option and it takes you
to the Input Editing Window shown in Fig.1.14. Let us say that you want to
change the active power load on BUS3 from 1500 MW to 1200 MW. Then, click
on the Load Bus Data and the window for editing load bus data shown in Fig.
1.15 is displayed.
Now select BUS3 from the drop down list that is displayed when clicked on the
down arrow of the combo box. Point to the box which contains 1500 and change
it to 1200. The resulting window is shown in Fig.1.16.
Press save to save the changed data and Quit which takes you to the Input Editing
Window, Fig.1.14 Go back to the Editing Option Window, Fig.1.7 by clicking the
Quit button of Input Editing Window. Press the SAVE PROJECT AS... button in
Editing Option Window and save it with a new project name as shown in Fig.1.17.
1-3
Fig 1.1 Student log-on window
1-6
Fig. 1.7 Editing Option Window
1-8
Fig.1.11 Single Line Diagram Option
1-11
Fig.1.17 Saving Edited Examples
1-12
CHAPTER 2
2.0 Introduction
In this Chapter, we will take you through data preparation step-by-step. You must
first ensure that you have all the data required to run the Load Flow, ready. They
are:
Bus data
- Active power generation, voltage magnitude for generator buses and reactive
power capabilities
- Active and Reactive power loads for load buses
- Specified voltage magnitude and reactive power limits for SVC buses
Branch data
- Positive sequence resistance, reactance and line charging susceptances, and
load ability limits for transmission lines
- Positive sequence resistance and leakage reactances and ratings for transformers
Compensation data
Susceptance or reactive power injected/absorbed at nominal voltage and rated
voltage for shunt capacitors/reactors. Most of the windows for data creation
contain default values for the data items and in case you are not sure about actual
values, just leave the default values on.
Case description
Any number of case description lines can be entered in the window box that
appears when the Case Description button is clicked. The window is shown in
Fig.2.5. After entering the case description lines, click OK to save them and to go
back to Input Data Preparation Window, Fig.2.2
General parameters
Fig.2.6 shows the window for General Parameters entry with default values. You
can override the default values by entering appropriate values and you must Save
before you Quit this window. The disabled buttons are for advanced users. Some
of the buttons require some explanation.
2-2
Intermediate Results
A nonzero value will enable, admittance, Jacobian/B’ and B” mat rices, system
summaries and convergence characteristics to be viewed through View option.
Bus data
The next group of data to be entered is the bus data and it consists of the
following four subgroups, namely, (i) Slack bus data, (ii) Generator bus data, (iii)
SVC bus data and (iv) Load bus data.
The window for entering data for slack bus with built-in default values is shown
in Fig.2.7 and it is displayed once the Slack Bus Data button is clicked in the
Input Data Preparation Window. As mentioned earlier, you can override the
default values. Make sure you click the Save button before you Quit the window
even if you retain all the default values. Note that only the required buttons are
highlighted.
The window for load bus data entry is shown in Fig.2.11. In this case voltage
magnitude and angle are the starting values. Through default option “flat” start
(all load bus voltage magnitudes =1.0 pu and angles = 0.0) is made possible. All
other the items are self-explanatory. Data entry, Next>>, END…DATA etc are
similar to generators.
Shunt data
The compensation, inductive for 400 KV and above and capacitive for 220 kV
and below should be entered in this group. The programs treats the shunt
compensation as constant impedance / admittance. The data can be given in either
conductance-susceptance form or rated real /reactive power absorbed – voltage
form. The real power absorbed should be in MW if the nominal voltage is
nonzero and conductance is in p.u if the nominal voltage is not specified (default
option). Similarly, the reactive power absorbed is in MVAR if the nominal
voltage is nonzero and susceptance in p.u if the nominal voltage is not specified.
If the data is in conductance-susceptance form then, it should be positive for
capacitive susceptance and negative for inductive susceptance. If the data is in
rated real/reactive power voltage form then it should be positive for reactive
power absorbed (shunt reactor) and negative for reactive power injected (shunt
capacitor), if the nominal voltage of the shunt in KV. If left blank the program
assumes that values entered conductance and susceptance computed at nominal
voltage and base MVA specified earlier.
Note: The rated voltage of the shunt compensators need not be the same as the
nominal system voltage. For example, shunt reactors employed on 400 KV
system are rated at 420KV.
The form for shunt data entry is shown in Fig.2.12. Data entry, Next>>,
END…DATA etc are similar to generators.
Note that the From Bus Name and To Bus Name are to be chosen from the combo
box which contains names of all buses. The data for all buses is presumed to have
been given prior to shunt data.
The window for transmission line data entry is shown in Fig.2.13. The data items
are self-explanatory. Note that the From Bus Name and To Bus Name are to be
2-4
chosen from the combo box which contains all the bus names.
The Power Carrying Capacity is the loadability of the line and it is used to
compute percentage line loading after Load Flow has converged. The loadability
of short lines (length < or = 80 km) is the thermal rating. For medium lines
(length between 80 km and 150 km) voltage drop consideration determines the
loadability and for long lines (length > 150 km), stability, i.e, angular separation
determines the loadability. The data items are self-explanatory. Data entry,
Next>>, END…DATA etc are similar to generators.
Transformer Data
The form for data entry for two winding transformer with fixed tap is shown in
Fig.2.14
The data items are self-explanatory. Note that the From Bus Name and To Bus
Name are to be chosen from the combo box which contains all the bus names.
The Load Flow program assumes that the tapped winding is connected to From
Bus and the untapped winding is connected to To Bus. The rated voltage of a
winding need not be same as that of the nominal voltage of the bus to which it is
connected. The nominal voltage of the bus is usually the base voltage. If the
nominal bus voltage of the bus and the rated voltage of the transformer winding to
which it is connected are different, an off-nominal ratio will be introduced which
is given by
where we have assumed that the tapped winding is the primary winding connected
to From Bus and the untapped winding is the secondary winding connected to To
Bus.
If the nominal bus voltage and rated winding voltage are identical on both sides of
the transformer, toff = 1.0. For unity tap between the primary and secondary
winding, set tap number or DV/Dtapstep to zero.
2-5
Illustration
Assume that 220 kV/ 34.5 kV transformer is connected between two buses whose
nominal voltages are 220 kV and 33 kV and these are taken as the base voltages
for per unit representation. The 220 kV side of the transformer contains the tap-
changing gear and it is set at tap no.2 (boost). The p.u change in voltage per
change in tap (DV/Dtapstep) = 0.0125. Compute the effective tap/ transformation
ratio between the 220 kV and 33 kV sides.
Solution
(220.0 /220.0)
toff = = 0.9565
(34.5 / 33.0)
2-6
Fig.2.1 Load Flow Opening Window
2-9
Fig.2.7 Window for Slack Bus Data Entry
2-11
Fig.2.11 Window for Load Bus Data Entry
Fig.2.14 Window for Data Entry of a Two-winding Transformer with Fixed Tap
2-13
Fig.2.15 Saving the Data Entered
2-14
CHAPTER 3
EDITING SYSTEM DATA CREATED BY YOU
3.0 Introduction
It may not be possible to get all the data entered correctly in a single attempt,
especially, if the system is large. In some caeses, you might want to run the Load
Flow program with data for some groups changed. This can be accomplished by
the Edit Option. Note that if you have saved the project then you must specify the
saved project name. If you are editing after a fresh data entry without saving the
project, the Editing Option changes are done to TEMP and you must save it if
you want the changes to be retained.
View/modify/delete option
+Selecting this option results in the Input Editing Window, Fig. 1.11. Now you
can choose any group of data and the appropriate window will appear for you to
change the data.
To overwrite do the following: Quit the Editing Option menu and then Project
=> Save.
To save it under a new name : In the Editing Option menu select Save Project
As… When the appropriate window appears store it under a different file name.
Note that you can also run the Load Flow program from the Editing Option.
3-1
Fig.3.1 Selecting a Project to Edit
3-3
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Introduction
The Load Flow results are presented in basically two forms, namely, a
conventional form which is the normal print out and a graphical form. Both forms
are useful in archiving as a lab record by the student.
You can now select a bus from the combo box around which the results are of
interest. For the 9bus tutorial example, selecting BUS4 results in the line diagram
display shown in Fig.4.2
• Active powers are written in MW, reactive power in MVAR, voltage magnitude
in pu and voltage phase angle in degrees enclosed within angle brackets <>.
• Generations are shown as complex power injections into the bus, i.e by arrows
pointing towards the bus. The active power (P) in MW is written above the
reactive power (Q) in MVAR. The reactive power value is enclosed within
parentheses.
• Loads are shown as complex power drawn out of the buses, i.e, by arrows
pointing away from the bus. The active and reactive powers are written in the
form P + Q j
Note that you don’t have to go through combo box every time to select various
buses in the system for Single line diagram display. You can use the up/down
arrow key to navigate through the system bus wise.
4-2
Fig.4.2 A Single Line Diagram Display for 9bus Example
Fig.4.3 A Single Line Diagram Display for 4bus Example Showing Power
Injected by Shunt Capacitor at BUS4
4-3
CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS OPTIONS
5.0 Introduction
There are two Analysis options and both are available on the Tool Bar. These
options are packed with features full of educational value to the students. They
help the student t understand the system being analysed better and appreciate the
algorithms on which the program is based. The features provide helpful validation
checks for hand computation exercise by the student.
Optimal Ordering
Optimal Ordering is a strategy to preserve sparsity in the Load Flow equations
and the associated matrices, e.g. the bus admittance matrix. Sparse matrices are
those in which only 20-30% elements are nonzero. Sparsity occurs in the bus
admittance matrix because for practical systems number of outgoing feeders from
a substation to other substations is limited. Sparse matrix techniques take
advantage of the zero elements by not allotting storage for them and avoiding
known results of multiplication by zero elements. Impressive savings in storage
and execution time can be realised through these techniques. Most of the
algorithms use one of the implementations of Gaussian elimination method to
solve the set of linearised equations for the correction vector.
Memory Requirement
The Load Flow program has been dimensioned to handle practical systems that
are of academic interest. However, the systems given for lab experiments will be
smaller. In order to provide information on the memory required for lab
experiment problems, this feature has been provided. Selecting this option results
in the memory information displayed as a WordPad file as shown in Fig.5.3. This
feature is available only with Newton-Raphson method.
5-1
Convergence Characteristics
This option allows the student to visualise how the algorithm “marches” towards
the final solution. It also educates on the comparitive computational efficiency of
the two popular methods of load flow analysis, Newton-Raphson and Fast
Decoupled.
You have a choice of plotting for four variables against number of iterations.
They are: (i) maxmimum absolute value of active power mismatch, (ii) maximum
absolute value of reactive power mismatch, (iii) Max absolute value of voltage
magnitude correction and (iv) maximum absolute value of voltage phase angle
correction. These options are listed in the combo box that appears when
Convergence Plot option is selected, i.e, Problem Analysis => Convergence
Characteristics => Convergence Plot. This results in the display shown in Fig.
5.5. You can navigate through Convergence Plot by using the up/down arrow key.
A sample active power mismatch convergence plot for the 4bus example is shown
in Fig.5.6. Note that the plot also shows the bus at which the maximum absolute
mismatch occurred during the iteration.
Matrices option allows you to display the admittance and Jacobian / B’ and B”
matrices as a WordPad file. Problem Analysis => Matrices => Admittance results
in the display shown in Fig.5.8 for 4bus system. Similarly Problem Analysis =>
Matrices => Jacobian => Del P/Del delta results in the display of the partial
Jacobian [3/@DVVKRZQLQ)LJIRUWKH 4bus system.
5-6
Fig.5.9 Display of the Partial Jacobian [3/@IRUWKH 4bus System
5-7
Fig.5.11 Display of Over and Under Voltages for 4bus System
5-8
Fig.5.13 Output Summary
5-9
Reference
[1] WF Tinney, CE Hart, “ Power Flow Solution by Newton’s Method.”, Trans IEEE,
PAS-86, 1449-1456, 1967.
[5] B.Stott, O Alsac, “ Fast Decoupled Load Flow.”, Trans.IEEE, PAS -93, 859-869,
1974.
Appendix-A: Error Messages
8.NR: ??? BUS NAME NOT IN THE BUS LIST OR INSUFFICIENT MAX
PARAMETERS busname
You must give all the bus names while entering bus data.
If you give a bus name after the end of bus data this error
will occur.
A.1
17.NR: ??? XFRMR transformer name FROM & TO BUSES ARE SAME busname
This error is self-explanatory
18.NR: ??? LINE line name FROM & TO BUSES ARE SAME busname
This error is self-explanatory
A.2
Appendix-B: Sample Problem and Results
BUS2 BUS3
BUS5 BUS6
BUS4
BUS1
Branch Data
All Parameters On System Base MVA = 100 MVA; X and B/2 frequency = 60 Hz
From To R X B/2 Remarks
BUS1 BUS4 0.0 0.0576 0.0 Transformer
BUS2 BUS7 0.0 0.0625 0.0 with nominal
BUS3 BUS9 0.0 0.0586 0.0 taps
BUS4 BUS5 0.010 0.085 0.088
BUS4 BUS6 0.017 0.092 0.079
BUS5 BUS7 0.032 0.161 0.153
BUS6 BUS9 0.039 0.170 0.179
BUS7 BUS8 0.0085 0.072 0.0745
BUS8 BUS9 0.0119 0.1008 0.1045
Generation Schedule
Bus name Volt.mag (pu) Volt.angle (deg) P(MW) Remarks
BUS1 1.040 0.0 - Slack bus
BUS2 1.025 - 163.0 P-V bus
BUS3 1.025 - 85.0 P-V bus
B.1
Loads
Bus name P(MW) Q(MVAR)
BUS5 125.0 50.0
BUS6 90.0 30.0
BUS8 100.0 35.0
B.2