EXPERIMENT 6

TRANSIENT AND SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS: SINGLE-

MACHINE INFINITE BUS SYSTEM

6.1 AIM
To become familiar with various aspects of the transient and small signal stability
analysis of Single-Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
i. To understand modelling and analysis of transient and small signal stability of a
SMIB power system.

ii. To examine the transient stability of a SMIB and determine the critical clearing
time of the system through simulation by trial and error method and by direct
method.

iii. To determine transient stability margin (MW) for different fault conditions.

iv. To obtain linearised swing equation and to determine the roots of characteristics
equation, damped frequency of oscillation and undamped natural frequency.

6.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED

TRANSIENT / SS STABILITY-SMIB module of AU Powerlab or equivalent

6.4 THEORETICAL BACK GROUND

6.4.1. Stability:

Stability problem is concerned with the behaviour of power system when it is

subjected to disturbances and is classified into small signal stability problem if the
disturbances are small and transient stability problem when the disturbances are large.
The description of the problems are as follows.

Transient Stability
When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss equals to
the generation in the system. The generating units run at synchronous speed and
system frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large
disturbance such as three phase fault, loss of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the
power balance is upset and the generating units rotors experience either acceleration
or deceleration. The system may come back to a steady state condition maintaining
synchronism or it may break into subsystems or one or more machines may pull out of
synchronism. In the former case the system is said to be stable and in the later case it
is said to be unstable.

6-1
Small Signal Stability
When a power system is under steady state, normal operating condition, the system
may be subjected to small disturbances such as variation in load and generation,
change in field voltage, change in mechanical torque etc. The nature of system
response to small disturbances depends on the operating condition, the transmission
system strength, types of controllers etc. Instability that may result from small
disturbances may be of two forms

(i) Steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronising torque

(ii) Rotor oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of sufficient
damping torque.

Lack of sufficient synchronising torque results in instability through non-oscillatory

mode shown in fig. 6.1. Fig. 6.2. shows the instability of a synchronous machine
through oscillations of increasing amplitude.

Fig 6.1 Non-Oscillatory instability

Fig. 6.2. Oscillatory instability

For small disturbance, the non-linear equations characterising the dynamics of power
system may be linearised around an operating point for the purpose of analysis. Small
signal analysis using linear techniques provides valuable information about the
dynamic characteristics of the system and assists in its design. The location of the
roots of the characteristic equation of the linearised differential equation will reveal
the stability status of the system. We can also obtain the response of rotor angle and
frequency of the rotor of the synchronous machines.

6-2
6.4.2. Mathematical Modelling For Transient Stability
Consider a single machine connected to an infinite bus shown in fig. 6.3. An infinite
bus is a source of invariable frequency and voltage.
Line 1

G
Line 2 Infinite bus
Generator Et x
Transformer EB

Fig 6.3. Single machine connected to infinite bus system

The equivalent circuit with the generator represented by classical model and all
resistances neglected is shown in fig. 6.4.
jX1
EB o  
jX’d jXtr

It Et

E’    e jX2

Fig 6.4. Equivalent circuit

jX
E’   EB 
o

Pe

Fig. 6.5. Reduced Equivalent Circuit

E’ = E t + jX’ dIt
X = X’ d +XE where XE = Xtr + X1 || X2

Pe = |E’||E B    max  (6.1)

X
where

E’ = e.m.f behind machine transient reactance

  "!#$&% ')(+*-,/.102!4356,8769),;: !)!<176=$'): hronously rotating reference phaser E >@?
B
o
. E’
leads E A$B1C
B

6-3
D o = synchronous speed of rotor
Pe = electrical power output of generator in p.u

Computation of Initial Condition:

Consider that the generator output power and the terminal voltage magnitude |Et| are
specified.

jX1
It

|Et| jXtr
EH jX2 EB

Xd ’ Xtr jX3
|Et|

|E’| E F EB E
G o

Fig. 6.6. Equivalent circuit

Assume Et = |Et| E
G o
as reference

It = S* = P jQ = IR +jII |Et| = Et since it is reference (6.2)

Et* |Et| |Et|

Let X4 = Xtr + X3 where X1 x X2

X3 =
X1 + X2

P
IR =
Et
-Q
II =
Et
EB = Et – jX4 (IR + jII)

= (|Et| + X4 II) – jX4 IR

= (|Et| - QX4) - j(X4 P)

|Et| |Et|

EB = |EB| - H IKJ)LNMPO
6-4
 Q = tan -1
X4P / Et
QX 4
( Et − )
Et
(6.4)
Angle of EB with respect to Et R Q
Let E’ = |E’| S T UWV5XY4Z1[ \^]`_\;abY)Y<ced t = |Et| f
g o

E’ = E t + jX’ d It = Et + j (IR + jII) X’ d

= (Et – X’ d II )+ jIRX’ d

=(|Et| + QX’ d ) + j PX’ d since Et = |Et| f@g o

|Et| |Et|

= E’ R + jE’ I

where
ER = |Et| + QX’ d
|Et|

EI = PX’ d
|Et|
h
UijY#kml -1
(E’ I / E’ R)
(6.5)
|E’| = (E 2R + E2 I) ½

Now changing reference to EB = |EB| f

g o

n/opq;rts$ujq8vxwzy n{o|yb}~ €-ƒ‚"„…‡†ˆ€‰

ŠŒ‹mŽ6Œ‘j’#“;” -1
(E’ I/E’ R) + tan-1 (Eq/Ed)

Swing Equation
During any disturbance in the system, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate with
respect to synchronously rotating axis and the relative motion begins. The equation
describing the relative motion is called as swing equation.

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of swing equation

1. Machine represented by classical model
2. Controllers are not considered
3. Loads are constants
4. Voltage and currents are sinusoids

The fundamental equation of motion of the rotor of the synchronous machine is given
by

6-5
2H . d2 • –‡— – Pmax ˜š™› • (6.6)
œo dt
m

where
Pm = mechanical power input in p.u
Pmax = max. electrical power out in p.u
H = Inertial constant in seconds
• ‡ž ŸP <Ÿ$ž¢¡;£¤¥§¦©¨£1¦^¥-¦tªb «ž6¨§ª8¡t¥Wž ¡;¬¨§¡ £5­¦ asured from synchronous by rotating reference
frame.
®
o = Synchronous angular velocity rad/sec

Rewriting equation (6.6) in state variable form

¬1¯ °²± r) ³
´ µ ¶¸·e¹4º¼»¢½<¾ m - Pmax ¿ÀÁÃÂ^»
dt
Ä Â ÅÇÆ (6.7)
r- Æ ÅƒÈ²Æ
o r
dt

Changing rotor speed in to per unit and introducing damping torque, equation (6.7)
become
Ä ½<È²Æ r ) = 1 (Pm - Pmax ¿ÀÉÁ - KD È²Æ r )
dt 2H
Ä Â ÅÇÆ ÈÊÆ o r
(6.8)

dt

where
ÈÊÆr = rotor speed deviation in p.u
Pm = mechanical input in p.u
KD = damping co-efficient in p.u
Numerical Integration Techniques
The differential equations (6.8) are to be solved using numerical techniques. There
are several techniques available and two of them are given below.

I. Modified Euler Method

Consists of the following steps

(i) Compute the derivative at t: PX(t) = f[X(t), t]

(ii) ËÌ<̓·Ï5Ы̫͢ÑÒÓÏ5Ы̫Í&Ë¢Ì
Compute first estimate : X1(t+
(iii) Compute the derivative : PX (t+ÔÕ<ÖØ×ÚÙÛÉÜ (t+Ý¢Þ#ß à"Þ«áØÝ¢Þ#â 1

(iv) Compute the average derivative : PXav (t) = ½ [PX(t) + PX(t+ Ý¢Þ#ß
6-6
(v) Compute the final estimate: X (t+ ã¢ä#åæç5è«ä«å¢é‡êØç av (t) ãä
II. Fourth order Runge-Kutta Method

This is an explicit algorithm. The general formula giving the value of X for the
(n+1)th step is

Xn+1 = Xn + 1/6 (K1+ 2K2 +2K3 + K4) (6.9)

K1 = f(Xn, tn) ãä

K2 = f(Xn + K1/2, tn+ ë¢ì4í«î$ïðë¢ì
K3 = f(X + K /2, t + ëì4í4îWïðëì
n 2 n

K4 = f (X + K , t +ë¢ì#ï¢ë¢ì
n 3 n

6.4.4. Determination of Critical Clearing Time

Critical clearing time is the maximum allowable time between the occurrence of a
fault and clearing of the fault in a system for the system to remain stable. For a given
load condition and specified fault, the critical clearing time for a system is found out
as follows. Choose a large clearing time say 30 cycles and decrease the clearing time
in steps of say two cycles and check for stability at each time step until the system just
becomes unstable. Vary the clearing time around this point in small step till you find
the clearing time which is just critical. The clearing time margin for a fault may be
defined as

Clearing time margin = critical clearing time – clearing time specified

= tc (critical) - tc (clearing)

6.4.5. Stability Margin in MW

Consider that the machine connected to infinite bus delivers Po MW (Fig. 6.3) and a
fault is specified at the end of line no. 1 with a clearing time tc = 0.3 seconds.
Suppose the MW output of the machine is increased in steps and stability is checked
for each step of load with the same clearing time and fault, then the system becomes
just stable at a loading say Pm and a small increase in load beyond Pm causes
instability; then the MW stability margin is defined as Ps = Pm - Po

6.4.6. Critical Clearing Time and Clearing Angle From Equal Area Criteria
This method can be used for quick prediction of stability but is applicable only to
single machine connected to infinite bus. The fundamental concepts and principles of
stability can be explained very well. Consider the system shown in fig. 6.3. and its
model in Fig 6.5. The terminal power is given by equation 6.1 and the power angle
curves for various operating condition is given in fig. 6.7.

6-7
 A Pe - before fault
P

.
fB

. ..
a e A2
d g
Mechanical Power

.
A1
After fault clearing
c
b C During fault

ñ o ñ 1 ñ max

Fig. 6.7. Power angle curve

The steady state operating condition is given by point a and the corresponding rotor
ò óôWõ4ö1÷«ø ñ
o. Consider a three phase fault at location F on line 2 as shown in fig. 6.3.
The fault is cleared by opening the circuit breakers at both ends of the line. The p- ñ
plot for three network conditions are shown in fig. 6.7.

When the fault occurs, the operating point changes from a to b. Since Pm > Pe, the
rotor accelerates until the operating point reaches c where the fault is 1. ù õ«ö;ò ú ö8ûüòmý ñ
þ‘ÿ $ÿ
The operation shifts to e. Now Pe>PM


       !  bÿ šþ +ÿ +ÿ @ÿ
increase until the kinetic energy gained during the period of acceleration (Area A1) is
transferred to the system. The operating point moves from e to f such that area A2 is
equal to A1. The rotor angle will oscillate back and forth around at its natural
frequency such that |area A1| = |area A2|. This is known equal area criterion.

.
P3max " 
e 2
P
a. .. .d
f
A2
Pm

A1

b. c 3
P2max # !

 o   max

Fig. 6.8. Equal area criterion for critical clearing angle

Critical Creating Angle an Time
With delayed fault clearing as shown in fig. 6.8, the area A2 just equals to A1 at
$ %& '(*),+.-/'+.-%&0& 132' %.45/6
c. Any further delay in clearing causes area A2 above Pm less
than A2 (*&7*2.%84),+!-9) +:%;5!7<7=5>?7@3+$BA(53+!)C7DFEG4CA.)H7I'J+-%;&K6 c for which A1 = A2 is called
critical clearing angle. The critical clearing angle can be computed as
Applying equal area criterion to fig. 6.8.

6-8
 L M N O!PHQ
Pm RTS c - S o) - UWV X Y Z\[][_^ U
2max # V 3max sin [?][ – Pm `T[ max - [ c)
a b c d
T

ef3g
hij*klgm,f.i?nogHprq"mshqtkJf!s=q"ou v.m,fixwTo3jzy

c
{}|!~€   {‚|!~t {ƒ|~€

c = Pm  max - o) + P3max max – P2max o (6.10)

(P3max – P2max)

The corresponding critical clearing time is given by te = „†…T‡3ˆI… ‰‹Š -‰ oŒŽ.. oPm)
‘.’,“F’H”;•–*”;—0—˜™rš •›rœ’ ›!žI˜™Ÿ† 

c and tc for different types of faults.

6.4.7. Modelling For Small Signal Stability

The electrical power output of the generator in p.u. is

‘.’,› 
Pe = |E’|E B ¡ (6.11)
X

In p.u. the air-gap torque is equal to air-gap power, Hence

‘¢’ › 
|E’|E B ¡ (6.12)
Te = P =
X
£€¤,¥!¦ §¨¤H©#¤;¥ªI«¬¢­H®l¯°±§J²!³´µ†§J¥\¤,¥.¤8µ¤C§ ¶!³·!¦¨§lµ¤ ¥ªI¸ ³¥¹¤ µ¤;³¥¢©€§lµ†º_»¼º
o

= ½¾ e ¿‚À ÁFÂÄÃ, B ÅBÆ!Ç#À o ȝ¿ÉÀÊ (6.13)

Îëê e
½ À X

¿ ¾ e ËFÌ=̀ÎÉÏ
where
|E’|E B ЂÑ}Ò Í#Ï o , called synchronising co-efficient.
Ks =
X
The state equations (6.8) are rewritten as

ÓÔ ÎÉÕ r) = [1/2H] (Tm – Te – KD ÎÉÕ r) (6.14)

dt

Ó Ï×Ö Ó‹Ø ËÕ o ÎÉÕ r (6.15)

where Tm , Te ÙJÚÛ9Ü ÝÞ†ß à!á ÎÉÕ ÚrÜ Í ÞÛÚ\àÝ!Ü Ø Í Þ!ÛBÛ ÓâÓ ÛBã!Ü;Ù Ø Ü Ò Ý!á Ï Ü Í ØHä ÛåÚ Ò Ø Ò ÚrÙÝ.æç;ÛèÜ Ý

o is
the base (rated) rotor speed in electrical radians per second,
Û çÛ é Ø Ú*Üé ÙçÚ*Ù Ó Ü;ÙBÝ Í á Õ
KD is the damping coefficient in p.u., H is in p.u (seconds).

Linearising equation (6.14) and using (6.15) we get,

6-9
(d2 ìÄí†îï 2ðzñlò<íôó o
ð±õ9ö#ò"í
÷3øùûúëü
m – ýxþ ú‚ì
– KD îì (6.16)

.. .
ó
o dt

ì_ÿ ì×ÿ ó úÉì_õó úëü

ý D ýIþ o o m (6.17)
2H 2H 2H

Ks
'(
r
_
+ &
'*) 1/2 Hs $ o/ s '+
m _

KD

6.9 Block Diagram for Equation (6.17)

Taking Laplace transform for the above equation

s2 úÉìñ þ
ð
-þ úÉì
o – 0 + KD ö þ
úÉìñ
þ
ð
- úÉì o
ùûÿ
ýxþ
ó
o
ú}ìñ
þ
ð±õó
o
úÉü
m (s) (6.18)
2H 2H 2H

s2 + KD þ ÿ
ýxþ
ó
o
ú ìñ
þ
ð±õ ñ
þ
ÿ
ý
íH÷3øxðûú
D
ì
o
ÿó
o
úëü
m (s) (6.19)
2H 2H 2H

Zero input response or force free response is obtained by setting

úëü
m (s) = 0


 

 (s + 20&n o (6.20)

(s2 + 2 0&nV &n )

2

(s + 20&n 
 o (6.21)
 &  
   
(s2 + 2 0&nV &n)

where 0 ½ KD+&n

&n =  Ks &o / 2H rad/ s

The characteristic equation is given by

s2 + 2 0&nV &n2 = 0

The undamped natural freq!#"%$ n

6-10
,.-0/214365798-:;3=<#> ?

The roots of the characteristic equation

?A@
s1 = - n BDCFE d
s2 = - G E n – CFE d
H9IJKLJ
E d is the damped frequency of oscillation given by
E dM E n NO - G 2

Taking inverse Laplace transform of equation (6.20) and (6.21) and taking P Q o = 10o
= 0.1745 radians; we get the equation for motion of rotor relative to synchronously
revolving field and the rotor angular frequency

P QRTS;U M P Q o e- V W X Y Z[6\^]`_ dtc

a bed (6.22)
fg - h 2
i _j]Tk dml -_ n i n o e- oqp XrY Z
[=\2]`_ dt) (6.23)
fsg - h 2
t9uvwLv
Z -1h
x
b c
l {
y z
| uv}wLv v v
ZL~ z \Z k;[€ y{z \4Zkƒ‚0\„k …‡†cˆŠ‰F‹Œ0Ž n)
†%‘’‹“4” o D)

6.5 EXERCISES
6.5.1 A power system comprising a thermal generating plant with four 555 MVA,
24kV, 60HZ units supplies power to an infinite bus through a transformer and
two transmission lines (refer Fig 6.10)

H.T

L.T line 1
Transformer Infinite Bus
G

Et line 2
P+jQ EB

Fig. 6.10 Single Machine Infinite Bus System

The data for the system in per unit on a base of 2220 MVA, 24 kV is given
below:

6-11
 An equivalent generator representing the four units, characterized by classical
model: Xd’ = 0.3 p.u H= 3.5 MW-s/MVA

Transformer : X = 0.15 p.u

Line 1 : X = 0.5 p.u
Line 2 : X = 0.93 p.u

Plant operating condition:

P = 0.9 p.u ; Power factor: 0.9 lagging; Et = 1.0 p.u

Case 1:
It is proposed to examine the transient stability of the system for a three-phase-to-
ground fault at the end of line 2 near H.T bus occurring at time t= 0 sec. The fault
is cleared at 0.07 sec. by simultaneous opening of the two circuit breakers at both
the ends of line 2.

(a) Calculate the initial conditions necessary for the classical model of the
machine for the above pre-fault operating condition, determine the
critical clearing angle and time for the fault using “Equal Area Criterion”
and hence comment on the stability of the system for this fault.

(b) Simulate the above sequence of fault occurrence and clearance using the
software available and plot the swing curve (rotor angle versus time) as
well as the curves showing angular velocity and real power delivered by
the plant versus time.

(c) Determine the critical clearing angle and time for the above fault through
trial and error method by repeating the simulation in (b) for different fault
clearing times and compare the critical clearing angle and time
obtained with that obtained by Equal Area Criterion in (a).

6.5.2 For the system given in exercise 6.5.1 and for the same operating condition,
examine the transient stability using the software available for the following
faults.

Case 2:
Three-phase-to-ground fault at the end of line 2 near infinite bus occurs at
t=0 sec and is cleared at t=0.07 sec by the simultaneous opening of two
breakers in line 2.

Case 3:
Three-phase-to-ground fault at the mid point of line 2 occurs at t=0 sec and is
cleared at t=0.07 sec by the simultaneous opening of two breakers in line 2.

Comment on the transient stability of the system under case 2 and case 3 and
compare the severity of the faults; cases 1,2 and 3 from the point of view of
maximum rotor swing and also by comparing the clearing time margin
available.

6-12
6.5.3 Determine the steady-state stability margin (MW) available for the system
under the given operating condition in exercise 6.5.1. Also determine the
transient stability margin (MW) available for the operating condition given in
exercise 6.5.1. for the three cases of fault, case 1, case 2 and case 3. Can the
severity of the fault be measured using this margin?

6.5.4 It is proposed to examine the small-signal stability characteristics of the

system given in exercise 6.5.1. about the steady-state operating condition
following the loss of line 2; Assume the damping coefficient KD = 1.5 p.u
torque / p.u speed deviation.

(a) Write the linearized swing equation of the system. Obtain the
characteristic equation, its roots, damped frequency of oscillation in Hz,
damping ratio and undamped natural frequency. Obtain also the force-free
µ ¶ response, • –˜—T™ƒšœ›`„ž Ÿ!¡£¢¡¢6™;¢=Ÿ¥¤x¦{‘¡§¢¨™;¢q‘¡ª©«0žr™­¬„žL®ŸŠ™;¢­¡ • – ¯ °‘±^²´³ and
o
time
¯r°±²c°¸·º¹4»¼=½¾D¿TÀÁÃÂ0Ä4Â{¼qÅqÂ0ÆÅ=ÁD»ÈǸÉT¿qÊ#ÂË
Á‘Ì
6.5.5 Repeat the small-signal stability analysis carried out using the software
package in exercise 6.5.4 with the following parameters and comment on the
relative stability of each case:

(a) KD = 0 p.u and –1.5 p.u

(b) KD = 1.5 p.u but with P = 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0 p.u

6-13