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Tauhid

Adakah kamu mempersaksikan ketika hampir kematian Yaakub? Ketika ia bertanya kepada anaknya: Siapakah sembahanmu sesudah wafatku? Mereka menjawab: Tuhan nenek moyangmu Ibrahim, Ismail dan Ishak, iaitu Tuhan Yang Maha Esa. KepadaNyalah kami menyerahkan diri

{Maksud Al-Quran}

ASC0302_3_Gas Liquid Solid 3

ASC0302_3_Gas Liquid Solid 3

Persediaan awal menghadiri kelas Strategi menghadiri kelas Mencatit nota semasa di kelas Menyemak nota di kelas

1. Tahu tajuk = > Tanya Guru / Pensyarah 2. Dapatkan buku berkaitan tajuk 3. Buat bacaan awal 4. Catit nota (peta minda)

ASC0302_3_Gas Liquid Solid 3

ASC0302_3_Gas Liquid Solid 3

Belajar Berkesan

Pilih tempat yang sunyi / nyaman Pastikan masa belajar adalah sama setiap hari (routine) Jangka Masa yang digunakan untuk satu-satu sesi jangan melebihi 30 minit Selepas setiap 30 minit, luangkan masa untuk rehat selama 5 minit (untuk minum air, cuci muka, solat sunat dll) Nilai pembelajaran anda selepas setiap sesi

Gas, Liquid and Solid

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Matters

Gas - Gas Laws

Liquid Physical Properties of Liquids

Solid Types of solids, properties of solids and close packings

Properties can be understood in terms of how tightly the molecules are packed together and the strength of the intermolecular attractions between them.
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Properties of Liquids

Intermolecular attractions determine how tightly liquids and solids pack Two important properties that depend on packing are compressibility and diffusion Compressibility is a measure of the ability of a substance to be forced into a smaller volume Solids and liquids are nearly incompressible because they contain very little space between particles

DIFFUSION

Occurs in gases & liquids

The spontaneous mixing of different particles due thermal/kinetic energy of their random motion

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Properties of Liquids
Cohesive & Adhesive forces

Properties of Liquids
Capillary action Cohesion = intermolecular attraction between like molecules Adhesion = attraction between unlike molecules Adhesion Stronger

Attractive forces
(a) Cohesion = intermolecular attraction between like particles (b) Adhesion = intermolecular attraction between unlike molecules

Wetting
(a) Cohesive force > Adhesive force = Liquid has high surface tension & poor wetting action (b) Cohesive force < Adhesive force = Liquid has low surface tension & good wetting property

Capillary action
When a small vertical tube is dipped into a liquid, the meniscus is higher or lower depending on the strength of the cohesive or adhesive forces.

Cohesion Stronger

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Properties of Liquids
CAPILLARY ACTION

Properties of Liquids
SURFACE TENSION

A
A . Cohesive forces between molecules inside the liquid are shared by all neighbouring molecules

It is the competition between 2 opposite forces

B . Surface molecules have less neighbours; exhibit greater cohesive forces. This greater intermolecular attractive forces at the surface is called surface tension Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Attraction between Hg atoms > attraction between Hg & glass

Attraction between H2O molecules < attraction between H2O & glass

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The strength of intermolecular attractions determine many physical properties Volume and shape Attractions in gases are not strong enough to retain either volume or shape Attractions in liquids and solids are strong enough so they retain their volume Attractions in solids are stronger than for liquids so that solids also retain shape Surface tension is the tendency of a liquid to take a shape with minimum surface area

Molecules at the surface have higher potential energy than those in the bulk of the liquid The surface tension of a liquid is proportional to the energy needed to expand its surface area In general, liquids with strong intermolecular attractions have large surface tensions

Surface tension holds moist particles of sand together. Separation is resisted because the surface area of the water would increase.
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Table 12.3 Surface Tension and Forces Between Particles

Substance diethyl ether ethanol butanol water mercury Formula Surface Tension (J/m2) at 200C 1.7x10-2 2.3x10-2 2.5x10-2 7.3x10-2 48x10-2 Major Force(s) dipole-dipole; dispersion

Properties of Liquids
SURFACE TENSION

CH3CH2OCH2CH3 CH3CH2OH CH3CH2CH2CH2OH H 2O Hg

H bonding

As a result of surface tension, a drop of liquid tends to form a sphere because a sphere offers sphere, the smallest area for a definite volume Substances with low surface tension have a films. tendency to form films

H bonding; dispersion H bonding metallic bonding

When detergent is added to water, it lowers surface tension.

Surface tension is measured in dynes/cm; the force required to break a surface film 1.0cm. Liquid (20oC) Surface tension (dynes/cm) Mercury 465.0 Water 72.8 Ethyl alcohol 22.3
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WETTING AND ROLE OF SURFACTANTS

Wetting is the spreading of a liquid across a surface to form a thin film For wetting to occur, the intermolecular attractive force between the surface and the liquid must be about as strong as within the liquid itself Surfactants are added to detergents to lower the surface tension of water The wetter water can then gets better access to the surface to be cleaned

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Viscosity is the resistance to changing the form of a sample

VISCOSITY

Gases have viscosity, but respond almost instantly to form-changing forces Solids, such as rocks, normally yield to forces acting to change their shape very slowly Liquids are what most people associate with viscosity

Viscosity is also called internal friction because it depends on intermolecular attractions and molecular shape

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Phase Changes

Acetone is a polar molecule and experiences dipole-dipole and London forces. Ethylene glycol, which also has ten atoms, also participates is hydrogen-bonding. The viscosity of ethylene glycol is larger than the viscosity of acetone.

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A change in state is called a phase change Evaporation is the change in state from liquid to gas Sublimation is the change from solid to gas Both deal with the motion of molecules You have also probably noticed that the evaporation of liquids produce a cooling effect

Molecules that are able to escape from the liquid have kinetic energies larger than the average. When they leave, the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules is less, so the temperature is lower.

The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature, surface area, and strength of the intermolecular attractions
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At higher temperature, the total fraction of molecules with kinetic energy large enough to escape is larger so the rate of evaporation is larger.

Similar equilibria are reached in melting and sublimation

At the melting point a solid begins to change into a liquid as heat is added. As long no heat is added or removed melting (red arrows) and freezing (black arrows) occur at the same rate an the number of particles in the solid remains constant.
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For a given liquid, the rate of evaporation per unit surface area is greater at a higher temperature

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When molecules evaporate, the molecules that enter the vapor phase exert a pressure called the vapor pressure The equilibrium vapor pressure is the vapor pressure once dynamic equilibrium has been reached The equilibrium vapor pressure is usually referred to as simply the vapor pressure Vapor pressures can be measured using a manometer

The boiling point of a liquid can be defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the prevailing atmospheric pressure The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is 1 atm Molecules with higher intermolecular forces have higher boiling points

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Solids
Solid

Properties of Gas, Liquid and Solid

Types of solids, properties of solids and close packings

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STATES OF MATTER

Structures, Properties, and Applications of Solids

SOLID:
a form of matter that has a rigid, fixed volume and shape. Solids are generally arranged with unique symmetrical regularity. Solids are tightly held together with little space between the molecules (or atoms), they are incompressible. Strong electrostatic forces, which vary from compound to compound, hold the molecules together.

When substances freeze, or separate as a solid from solution, they tend to form crystals Crystals have highly regular features and are said to possess symmetry or be symmetrical

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The Solid State

Ice is only one form of a solid. Crystalline solids have ordered uniform arrangement of the atoms. Some crystalline solids are diamonds, metals, and salts. Amorphous solids are disordered and do not break cleanly. Some amorphous solids are glass and plastics. All solids have some molecular motion. All solids have vibrational modes of energy.

Crystals can be divided into four types: ionic, molecular, covalent, and metallic Ionic crystals have cations and anions at the lattice sites Tend to be brittle, have high melting points, and are nonconducting in the solid phase and conducting in the liquid phase. Molecular crystals have neutral molecules at the lattice sites Due to the relatively weak intermolecular attractions, solids made from small molecules tend to be soft with low melting points. They are nonconducting in both the liquid and solid phase.

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Covalent crystals have atoms at the lattice sites covalently bonded to other atoms

These are also called network solids and the crystal is essentially one large molecule. A typical example is diamond which is very hard, has a very high melting point, and is a nonconductor of electricity.

Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four others at the corners of a tetrahedron. The structure extends throughout the entire crystal.

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Metallic crystals have cations at the lattice sites surrounded by mobile electrons

Metallic crystals conduct heat and electricity well, have metallic luster, and tend to have high melting points.

A highly simplified view of a metallic solid. Metal atoms lose valence electrons to the solids as a whole and exist as positive ions surrounded by a mobile sea of electrons.

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Figure 12.26

The crystal lattice and the unit cell

How many lattice points &/or atoms "belong" to a unit cell ?

Corners : - Points at the corner of the cell are shared by the surrounding unit cells, so each one is shared by 8 in total and is only "worth" 1/8 to each cell cell.

Faces : - these lattice points are shared by 2 cells, each one is "worth" 1/2 to each cell cell.

Body : - this is the sole possesion of that cell, worth 1 to each cell. cell.

Total number lattice points : Primitive cubic = 8(1/8) = 1 FCC = 6x1/2 + 8(1/8) = 4 BCC = 8(1/8) + 1 = 2

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Atoms per Cell

Figure 12.27 (1 of 3)

The three cubic unit cells

Simple Cubic

1/8 atom at 8 corners

Atoms/unit cell = 1/8 * 8 = 1 coordination number = 6

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The simplest and most symmetrical three- dimensional lattice is called a simple cubic or primitive cubic lattice

Only 1/8 of each atom lies in a particular simple cubic unit cell Each simple cubic unit cell contains:
8 corners 1/8 atom 1 atom corner

(a) A simple cubic unit cell showing the lattice points. (b) A portion of a simple cubic lattice. (c) Only a portion of each atom of a substance that forms a simple cubic lattice lies within a particular unit cell.
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Two additional cubic lattices are possible: face-centered cubic (fcc) and body-centered cubic (bcc)

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Figure 12.27 (3 of 3) Figure 12.27 (2 of 3)

The three cubic unit cells

The three cubic unit cells

Body-centered Cubic
1/8 atom at 8 corners 1 atom at center Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8) + 1 = 2 coordination number = 8
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Face-centered Cubic
1/8 atom at 8 corners 1/2 atom at 6 faces

coordination number = 12

Atoms/unit cell = (1/8*8)+(1/2*6) = 4

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A unit cell of NaCl shows how to weigh lattice points: corners have a weight of 1/8, faces a weight of 1/2, and edges a weight of 1/4. This unit cell contains four sodium and four chloride ions.

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A change in state is called a phase change Evaporation is the change in state from liquid to gas Sublimation is the change from solid to gas Both deal with the motion of molecules You have also probably noticed that the evaporation of liquids produce a cooling effect

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Figure 12.2

Phase changes and their enthalpy changes

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