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Masonry units and tiles These are made both from normal, dense concrete mixes and from

mixes with lightweight aggregates. These include concrete brick, block, or tile; floor and roof slabs, wall panels, cast stones, and precast beams and columns. It also include a wide variety of burnedclay units like common and face clay bricks, hollow clay tile, ceramic tile and architectural terracotta. c.1. Bricks Are kiln baked from various clay and shale mixtures. The chemical and physical characteristics of the ingredients vary considerably. These characteristics and the kiln temperatures combine to produce brick in a variety of colors and harnesses.

Brick surfaces nomenclature c.1.1 . Types Of Bricks a) Building brick, also called common, hard, or kiln-run brick, is made from ordinary clay or shale and is fired in kilns. These bricks have no special shoring, markings, surface texture, or color. Because building bricks are generally used as the backing courses in either solid or cavity brick walls, the harder and more durable types are preferred. b) Face brick is better quality and has better durability and appearance than building brick. Because of this, face bricks are used in exposed wall faces. The most common face brick colors are various shades of brown, red, gray, yellow, and white. c) Clinker brick is over burned in the kiln. Clinker bricks are usually rough, hard, durable, and sometimes irregular in shape. d) Pressed brick is made by a dry-press process rather than by kiln firing. Pressed bricks have regular smooth faces, sharp edges, and perfectly square corners. Ordinarily, they are used like face brick. e) Glazed brick has one surface coated with a white or colored ceramic glazing. Glazed bricks are particularly suited to walls or partitions in hospitals, dairies, laboratories, and other structures requiring sanitary conditions and ease of cleaning. f) Fire brick is made from a special type of clay. This clay is very pure and uniform and is able to withstand the high temperatures of fireplaces, boilers, and similar constructions. Fire bricks are generally huger than other structural bricks and are often hand molded. g) Cored bricks have ten holestwo rows of five holes each-extending through their beds to reduce weight. Walls built from cored brick are not much different in strength

than walls built from solid brick. Also, both have about the same resistance to moisture penetration. h) Sand-lime bricks are molded under mechanical pressure and are hardened under steam pressure. c.1.2.. Strength Of Brick Masonry The main factors governing the strength of a brick structure include: a) brick strength, b) mortar strength and c) elasticity, d) bricklayer workmanship, e) brick uniformity, and the f) method used to lay brick. c.1.3.. Bricklaying Methods a) good workmanship and b) efficiency Efficiency involves doing the work with the fewest possible motions. Each motion should have a purpose and should accomplish a definite result. c.1.4. Masonry Terms To efficiently and effectively lay bricks, you must be familiar with the terms that identify the position of masonry units and mortar joints in a wall. 1. Course . One of several continuous, horizontal layers (or rows) of masonry units bonded together 2. Wythe. Each continuous, vertical section of a wall, one masonry unit thick. Sometimes called a tier. 3. Stretcher. A masonry unit laid flat on its bed along the length of a wall with its face parallel to the face of the wall. 4. Header. A masonry unit laid flat on its bed across the width of a wall with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall. Generally used to bond two wythes. 5. Row lock. A header laid on its face or edge across the width of a wall. 6. Bull header. A rowlock brick laid with its bed perpendicular to the face of the wall 7. Bull stretcher. A rowlock brick laid with its bed parallel to the face of the wall. 8. Soldier. A brick laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall.

Masonry units and mortar joints c.1.5. Bonds 1. Structural Bond or Masonry Bond is a method of inter- locking or tying individual masonry units together so that the entire assembly acts as a single structural unit. Methods: 1. By overlapping (interlocking) the masonry units; 2. By embedding metal ties in connecting joints; and using 3. By the adhesion of grout to adjacent wythes of masonry 2. Mortar bond refers to the adhesion of the joint mortar to the masonry units or to the reinforcing steel. 3. Pattern bond refers to the pattern formed by the masonry units and mortar joints on the face of a wall. The pattern may result from the structural bond, or may be purely decorative and unrelated to the structural bond.

Types of masonry bonds c.2. Structural Clay Tile Masonry Hollow masonry units made of burned clay or shale are called, variously, structural tiles, hollow tiles, structural clay tiles, structural clay hollow tiles, and structural clay hollow building tiles, but most commonly called building tile. In building tile manufacture, plastic clay is purged through a die, and the shape that emerges is cut off into units. The units are then burned much as bricks are burned. Tile Structural clay tile may be used for exterior walls of either the load-bearing or no-loadbearing type. It is suitable for both below-grade and above-grade construction. Structural loadbearing tile is made from 4- to 12-in. thicknesses with various face dimensions. The use of these tiles is restricted by building codes and specifications, so consult the project specification. Nonload-bearing partition walls from the 4- to 12-in. Thicknesses are frequently made of structural clay tile. These walls are easily built, light in weight, and have good heat- and sound- insulating properties.

Structural tile used as a backing for bricks

Eight-inch structural clay tile wall CELLS. The apertures in a building tile which correspond to the cores in a brick or a concrete block. SHELL. The solid sides of a tile. WEB. The perforated material enclosed by the shell. SIDE-CONSTRUCTION tile. A tile that is laid on one of its shell faces. END-CONSTRUCTION tile. A tile that is laid on one of its web faces.

Standard shapes of end-construction building tiles c.3. Ceramic Tile Ceramic tile is used extensively where sanitation, stain resistance, ease in cleaning, and low maintenance are desired. c.3.1. Uses Ceramic tiles are commonly used for walls and floors in bathrooms, laundry rooms, showers, kitchens, laboratories, swimming pools, and locker rooms. For decorative effects throughout buildings, both inside and outside. c.3.2. Classifications according to: a. Exposure: 1. interior 2. exterior b. Location 1. walls 2. floors

c.3.3. Finishes 1. glazed, 2. unglazed, 3. textured (matte) glazed porcelain, and 4. abrasive. Glazed and matte glazed finishes may be used for light-duty floors but should not be used in areas of heavy traffic where the glazed surface may be worn away. Glazed ceramic wall tiles usually have a natural clay body (nonvitreous, 7-to 9-percent absorption), and a vitreous glaze is fused to the face of the tile. This type of tile is not recommended for exterior use. Glazed tile should never be cleaned with acid, which mars the finish. Use only soap and water. Unglazed ceramic mosaics have dense, nonvitreous bodies uniformly distributed through the tile. Certain glazed mosaics are recommended for interior use only, others for wall use only. Porcelain tiles have a smoother surface than mosaics and are denser, with an impervious body of less than one-half of 1-percent absorption. This type of tile may be used throughout the interior and exterior of a building. An abrasive finish is available as an aggregate embedded in the surface or an irregular surface texture.

Tile edges.

Trimmer shapes.

c.3.4. Mortars And Adhesives The resistance of ceramic tile to traffic depends primarily on base and bonding material rigidity, grout strength, hardness, and the accurate leveling and smoothness of the individual tiles in the installation.

c.3.5. Four basic installation methods are: 1. cement mortar (the only thick bed method) Cement mortar for setting ceramic tiles is composed of a mixture of portland cement and sand. The mix proportions for floors may vary from 1:3 to 1:6 by volume. For walls, a portland cement, sand, and hydrated lime mix may vary from 1:3:1 to 1:5 1/2:1. These proportion ratios are dictated by the project specifications. The mortar is placed on the surface 3/4 to 1 inch thick on walls and 3/4 inch to 1 1/4 inches thick on floors. A neat cement bond coat is applied over it while the cement mortar is fresh and plastic. After soaking in water for at least 30 minutes, the tiles are installed over the neat cement bond coat. This type of installation, with its thick mortar bed, permits wall and floor surfaces to be sloped. This installation provides bond strength of 100 to 200 pounds per square inch. A waterproof backing is sometimes required, and the mortar must be damp-cured. 2. dry-set mortar Dry-set mortar is a thin-bed mortar of premixed portland cement, sand, and admixtures that control the setting (hardening) time of the mortar. It may be used over concrete, block, brick, cellular foamed glass, gypsum wallboard, and unpainted dry cement plaster, as well as other surfaces. A sealer coat is often required when the base is gypsum plaster. It is not recommended for use over wood or wood products. Dry-set mortar can be applied in one layer 3/32 inch thick, and it provides bond strength of 500 pounds per square inch. This method has excellent water and impact resistance and may be used on exteriors. The tiles do not have to be presoaked, but the mortar must be dampcured. 3. epoxy mortar Epoxy mortar can be applied in a bed as thin as 1/8 inch. When the epoxy resin and hardener are mixed on the job, the resulting mixture hardens into an extremely strong, dense setting bed. 4. organic adhesives (mastic)

Roof Framing

Introduction The roof's main purpose is to keep out the rain, cold, or heat. It must be strong enough to with stand high winds; sloped to shed water; and, in areas of heavy snow, it must be constructed more rigidly to bear the extra weight. A truss is a framed or jointed structure composed of straight members connected only at their intersections in such a way that if loads are applied at these intersections, the stress in each member is in the direction of its length Types of roof 1. A Shed roof has a single surface that slopes downward from a ridge on one side of the structure. 2. A Gable roof has two surfaces sloping downward from a ridge located between the sides of the structureusually midway between them. 3. A Hip Roof is pitched on the sides like a gable roof and also is pitched on one or both ends. Types of Roof Frame commonly use: a. Rafter type b. Truss type

c. Laminated

Kinds of Rafters Used in Construction: a. Common Rafters are rafters extended at the right angle from the plate or girts to the ridge.

b. Hip Rafters are rafters laid diagonally from the corner of plate or girts to the ridge. c. Valley Rafters any rafter which does not extend from the plate or girts to the ridge.

d. Jack Rafters - is the frame between the hip rafters and the girts classified as: 1. Hip jack the frame between the hip rafters and girts. 2. Valley jack the frame between the ridge and the valley rafters. 3. Cripple jack the frames between the hip and the valley rafters. e. Octagonal Rafters are rafters placed on an octagonal shaped plate at the central apex or ridge pole. Rafters - are framing members that support a roof. They do for the roof what joists do for the floor and what the studs do for the wall. They are generally inclined members that vary in size, depending on their length and the distance they are spaced. The tops of the inclined rafters are fastened in one of the various common ways, which is determined by the type of roof. The bottoms of the rafters rest on the plate member, which provides a connecting link between the wall and the roof and is really a functional part of both.

Collar Tie and Beam A collar tie or beam is a piece of stock fastened in a horizontal position to a pair of rafters between the plate and the ridge of the roof. This type of beam keeps the building from spreading.

Purlins Purlins are used in roof construction to support corrugated sheet metal if it is used, or to support the sheathing of roofs framed with trusses. Type of Trusses

Truss Lay Out To lay out a truss, use following steps: 1. Get the material to a level spot of ground where work benches will be almost level. 2. Obtain from the blueprints the measurement of all pieces to be used in the truss. 3. Lay out the length on the different sizes of the members and cut them accurately. 4. After all lengths are cut, lay them in their correct position to form a truss. 5. Weld them together temporarily. 6. Recheck the measurements for accuracy. 7. Finalize the weld connections after re-checking.

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