Propagation Basics

September 30, 1998
Propagation Basics
James Demetriou and Rebecca MacKenzie
This is a quick reference to propagation topics commonly used in the

communications industry
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Table of Contents
1.0 Antenna 4
1.1 Definition 4
1.2 Antenna Types 4
1.3 Induction and Radiation Fields 5
1.4 Polarization 5
1.5 Radiation Pattern 6
1.6 Antenna Pattern Distortion 9
1.7 Antenna Gain 9
1.8 Return Loss 10
1.9 Antenna Beamwidth (Horizontal/Vertical) 11
1.10 Front to Back Ratio 12
1.11 Antenna Bandwidth 13
1.12 RF Feeder Losses 13
1.13 Antenna Efficiency 15
1.14 Effects of Antenna Positioning (PCS/Cellular Communication Systems) 15
2.0 Environment 22
2.1 Clutter Data (Electronic) 22
2.2 Some Clutter and Terrain Descriptions 23
2.3 Line-of-Site (LOS) 24
3.0 Large-Scale Propagation Models - Path Loss 24
3.1 Free Space Propagation Model 25
3.2 Fresnel Zones 27
3.3 Propagation Over a Plane Earth 30
3.4 Rough Surface Criterion 33
3.5 Refraction and Equivalent Earth’s Radius 33
3.6 Transmission Over a Smooth Spherical Earth 34
3.7 XLOS 35
3.8 Knife Edge Diffraction 37
3.9 Log-distance Path Loss Model and Log-normal Shadowing 39
3.10 Longley-Rice (Irregular Terrain Model) 42
3.11 Okumura 43
3.12 Hata 45
3.13 COST-231-Hata 46
3.14 Slope and Intercept 48
3.15 Walfish-Ikegami Cost 231 49
3.16 Walfisch-Xia JTC 49
3.17 Bullington 49
3.18 dn Pathloss Model 51
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3.19 Diffracting Screens Model 53

3.20 Building Penetration 55
4.0 Small-Scale Propagation Models - Fading 56
4.1 Fade Margin 56
4.2 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time, Coherence Bandwidth,
Symbol Period 56
4.3 Flat Fading (i.e. no frequency selective behavior) 57
4.4 Frequency-Selective Fading 59
4.5 Fast Fading (observed at approximately 1/2 wavelength i.e. Rayleigh) 61
4.6 Slow Fading (observed at distances greater than 1/2 wavelength
i.e. log normal) 62
4.7 Rayleigh Fading/Multipath 63
4.8 Ricean Fading Distribution 68
5.0 Interference 69
5.1 Multiple-Carrier Intermodulation (IM) Products 69
5.2 Intermodulation Distortion 70
5.3 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) 71
5.4 Inter-System Interference (ISI) 71
5.5 Adjacent Channel Interference - Land-Mobile 72
5.6 Man-Made Noise and Interference 72
6.0 Standards and Units 74
6.1 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio): 74
6.2 Watts to dBm Conversion32: 74
6.3 dBi to dBd Conversion 74
6.4 Speed of Light : Wavelength 74
7.0 References 75
8.0 Other Useful References 76
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There are numerous books dealing with propagation basics and volumes of papers focusing on specific aspects with
regards to propagation. This paper is not intended to cover, in depth, the physics and mathematics behind the theory, nor
is it intended to encompass all subject matters associated with propagation. Provided are brief descriptions of propagation
topics most commonly used in the communications industry. References for expanded detail are given. Unless specified,
the information provided can be applied generally across technologies (wireline, wireless (analog and digital)).
1.0 Antenna
This section contains commonly used antenna-related terms. Logically this is the opening section since the antenna is the
receiver and transmitter of the propagated signal.
1.1 Definition
“Strictly speaking, an antenna is a device which converts an electric wave guided by a conductor into a free-space,
unguided electromagnetic wave, and vice versa. Electrical energy is fed to the antenna via a transmission line, a conduc-
tor which passes electrical energy from one point to another. A matching device is usually required to ease the abrupt
transition between the guided and the free wave. The wave guided by the line is radiated into space by the antenna.”22
[Orr, William, and Cowan, Stuart. 1993. The Beam Antenna Handbook. Lakewood: Radio Amateur Callbook (an
imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications, a division of BPI Communications, Inc.). pp. 6-7.]
1.2 Antenna Types
There a dozens of antenna types and variations of each. The type of antenna selected for use depends on the propagation
characteristics required. Following is a short listing of antenna types.
For a description of each, it is recommended that the reader locate a source which would contain antenna pattern, polariza-
tion, gain, directivity, efficiency and more details. For example, see Section 32 of [Jordon, Edward C. 1989. Reference
Data for Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. Seventh Edition. Indianapolis. Howard W.
Sams & Company. pp. 32-10.].
Or online:
[Antennas. [Electronic database]. August 7, 1996. U.S. Federal Government. Directory: http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-
1037/dir-001/_0018.htm.].
Some Antenna Types

1/2 Wave Dipole
Yagi
Horn
Leaky Coax
Helices
Yagi-Uda
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Frequency Independent
Log-Periodic
Loops
Slot Antennas
Printed Circuit Antennas
Antenna Arrays
1.3 Induction and Radiation Fields
“There are two different electromagnetic field areas associated with an antenna. The first, called the induction field is of
importance only in the immediate vicinity of the antenna. This field consists of the lines of force which are set up by the
voltage and current in the antenna conductors and which collapse back into the antenna twice each cycle. The induction
field contains only reactive energy because the electric and magnetic fields are 90° out of time phase.
The second field is the radiation field. This field consists of the lines of force which have become detached from the
antenna and are moving out into space as an electromagnetic wave. The radiation field contains real power that can be
measured with special instruments. The electric and magnetic fields are in time phase, so the actual power is removed
from the antenna and carried away by the field.
The intensity of the induction field varies as the inverse square of the distance from the antenna and the radiation field
intensity varies inversely as the distance. It is the radiation field which is principally important for communication pur-
poses, as it extends to great distances with sufficient intensity to be useful for transmitting information.
The intensity of the electric field is usually measured in volts per meter and the intensity of the magnetic field in ampers
per meter. One half of the wave energy is contained in the electric field and the remaining half is contained in the mag-
netic field. The product of the electric and magnetic field, with a given area in space, will have the units of watts per
square meter. ...An interesting point is that the impedance of free space to an electromagnetic wave is 377 ohms (pure
resistance). The fact that the impedance of free space is resistive supports the statement that the electric and magnetic
fields are in time phase much in the same manner that voltage and current are in time phase in a resistive network.”30
[USDOT Federal Aviation Administration. August 1990. FAA Academy Training Manual. pp. 1-1 thru 1-7. Antennas
and Radiation Patterns. 40152, Common Principles, Antennas, and Transmission Lines Course. http://www.acad-
emy.jccbi.gov/catalog/html/40152.htm.]
1.4 Polarization
“The polarization of the wave is, by definition, determined by the position of the E phasor (electric field phasor [vector])
with respect to a reflecting surface. In most instances the reflected surface will be the earth. [For example, if the E phasor
is parallel to the earth (reflecting plane) then] the wave in this case is said to be horizontally polarized.”30
Linear - E vector contained in one plane.
Horizontal - E vector parallel to horizontal plane.
Vertical - E vector parallel to vertical plane.
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Circular/Elliptical - “An electomagnetic wave is linearly polarized when the electric field lies wholly in one plane con-
taining the direction of propagation. A plane electromagnetic wave, at a given frequency, is elliptically polarized when
the extremity of the electric vector describes an ellipse in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, making
one complete revolution during one period of the wave. If the rotation is clockwise looking in the direction of propaga-
tion, the sense is right-hand. More generally, any field vector, electric, magnetic, or other, is elliptically polarized if its
extremity describes an ellipse.”9
Cross-Polarized Antenna - Two E vectors which may or may not propagate in-phase. As the phase between the two E
vectors varies, the polarization changes from linear to circular (or elliptical) polarization.
Dual-Polarized Antenna - An antenna which is described as being dual-polarized, is, infact, two antennas occupying the
same space. These antennas are normally used for diversity.
[Jordon, Edward C. 1989. Reference Data for Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. Seventh
Edition. Indianapolis. Howard W. Sams & Company. pp. 32-10.]
1.5 Radiation Pattern
“A radiation pattern is a plot of electric field intensity, at a fixed distance, as a function of direction from the antenna or
antenna array. Although radiation patterns [can be] determined mathematically, it is possible to obtain patterns by taking
actual field measurements. For example, the pattern in the horizontal plan may be determined by taking readings from an
RF indicating instrument at various azimuth angles. It is essential that the readings be taken at a constant distance from
the center of the array. If the RF indicating instrument is constructed to give readings that bear a linear relation to the
electric field intensity, a plot of those readings against azimuth angles will be the radiation pattern in the horizontal plan.
The figure below (right) illustrates measured data plotted in rectangular coordinates, while the figure on the left shows the
same data plotted in polar coordinates.
In either figure, the relative field intensity is zero at 0°, 90° 180° or at 270°. Points on the pattern where the relative field
intensity is zero are called nulls. Portions of the pattern between adjacent nulls are called lobes. Maximums are the points
of greatest field intensity. The maximums in our example plots occur at 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°. The pattern consists of
four lobes.
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Y
90°
Direction
1000
E
E
180° 0°
500
X
1000 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
Direction
270°
A slightly more complicated pattern is shown below. This pattern also contains four lobes but the maximums that occur at
90° and 270° have less field intensity than the maximums that occur at 0° and 180°. The lobes of a pattern having the
greatest intensity are called major lobes; minor lobes are those having smaller maximum values. Thus in the pattern
below, the major lobes occur at 0° and 180° and minor lobes at 90° and 270°.
90°
180° 0°
270°
Another term used in describing a radiation pattern is minimum. The figure below illustrates a pattern having minimums
at 90° and 270°. Note the field intensity at these minimums has a value greater than zero.
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90°
Minimum
180° 0°
Minimum
270°
A radiation pattern may be described according to the shape and phase of the field or fields it represents. The description
according to the shape of the pattern generally includes the locations of maximums and nulls. The locations of minor
lobes and minimums, if any, may or may not be of importance. There are several types of patterns that may be named
according to the manner in which energy is radiated from the antennas they represent. When an antenna, or array of
antennas, radiates energy equally well in all directions, the pattern is described as non-directional (i.e. omni-directional).
An antenna, or array, which radiates chiefly in two directions has a bi-directional pattern. If the radiation is concentrated
chiefly in one direction, the pattern is uni-directional. The figure below illustrates these three types of patterns. A radia-
tion patter is classified by phase by comparing the phase of the electric field at two or more points within the pattern. It is
essential that the points under comparison be located equi-distant from the center of the array; however, this is usually not
stated but must be assumed. If the phase of the electric field at all points in a pattern is the same, the pattern is described
as a uni-phase pattern. If there are two phase possibilities in a pattern, and if the phase is constant within each lobe, the
pattern is a biphase-pattern. Under certain conditions it is possible for the phase of the field to vary within a single lobe.
For this case, the pattern is said to be a variable-phase pattern.”30
Non-Directional Uni-Directional
Bi-Directional
(Omni-Directional)
(Isotropic)
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1/2 Wave Dipole
1.6 Antenna Pattern Distortion
“The real world performance of an antenna is different from that listed in the manufacturer’s antenna pattern specifica-
tions. The manufacturer’s specifications are based on measurements in an ideal environment of an antenna range. How-
ever, the actual implementation of the antenna in the system is not the same as on the antenna range. In the real system,
factors such as how the antenna is mounted (such as on the side of a building or tower) or its relative location with respect
to surrounding clutter has an effect on the antenna pattern. If the antenna is mounted below the majority of the surround-
ing clutter, the signal will be reflected due to this clutter which in effect distorts the antenna pattern, reducing the effective
protection from the directivity of the pattern. Since the mounting of the antennas and the surrounding ground clutter vary
from site to site, the antenna pattern distortion will also vary from site to site, as well as from sector to sector.
The ground clutter type and location with respect to the antenna is the important factor in determining ground clutter
reflections. The amount and placement of tall buildings in the antenna’s main lobe will affect the amount of reflections
which propagate behind the antenna. This effect is seen most often in dense urban and urban areas since there are more
tall building in these environments.
The antenna pattern distortion can affect the capacity of a site. If significant clutter exists in the area of an antenna’s main
lobe causing reflections which propagate behind the antenna, this in effect reduces the front-to-back ratio of the
antenna.”14
[Motorola. 1997. CDMA RF System Design Procedure. Version 2.0. [Online serial]. http://www.pamd.cig.mot.com/
nds/cts/rftech/public_html/Documents/DsgnProc2/bookTOC.html. pp. 3-1, 3-9, 3-12.]
Antenna Gain
“This is often referred to as "power gain" and is the ratio of the maximum radiation in a given direction to that of a refer-
ence antenna in the same direction for equal power input. Usually this gain is referenced to either an isotropic antenna or
a half wave dipole in free space at 0 degrees elevation.
Isotropic (dBi) generally refers to a theoretical antenna having a spherical radiation pattern with equal gain in all direc-
tions. When used as a gain reference, the isotropic antenna has a power of 0 dBi. The halfwave dipole (dBd) is an antenna
which is center fed as to have equal current distribution in both halves. When used as a theoretical reference antenna it has
a power gain of 0 dBd, which equates to a 2.14 dB difference compared to an Isotropic antenna.
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dBi = dBd + 2.14 dBd = dBi - 2.14
dBd Vs. dBi
The gain of an antenna has a direct interaction with other antenna parameters, (the technical depth of which is beyond the
scope of this document), the following paragraphs will provide the system engineer with general guidelines:
Vertical Beamwidth - Generally, the greater the gain of the antenna, the narrower the vertical beamwidth. The vertical
beam can be used to focus coverage in some circumstances, but the engineer should ensure that the optimum vertical
beamwidth is used to prevent the creation of "nulls" or coverage holes near to the site.
Physical Size - The size of an antenna will generally be greater as an antenna gain increases. This is due to the greater
number of dipole array and electrical elements required to reach the desired gain.
Height of Antenna - In general the 6 dB per octave rule will apply to the cell site antenna height in a flat terrain, that is
doubling the antenna height causes a gain increase of 6 dB. The system engineer should compare this possible gain
increase with the effects of doubling the transmission line loss and the possible appearance of nulls close to the site.”13
A few gain equations:27
Gain of a 1/2 Wave Dipole:
G(dBi) = 10*log(Gr) = 10*log(1.64) = 2.148 dB
Gr = directivity of resonant dipole
Parabolic Dish Antenna Gain:
G(dBi) = 20*log(f(MHz)) + 20*log(D(feet)) - 52.6
f = frequency in MegaHertz
D = aperture diameter in feet
for 54% illumination.
[Motorola. RF Planning Guide V2.0 [Online serial]. May 29, 1998. http://www.pamd.cig.mot.com/nds/cts/rftech/
public_html/Documents/RFPG2/rfguideV2.html.]
[Stedman, Robert. Handy Formulas [Online serial]. June 2, 1995. http://www.acpg.cig.mot.com/w3/APD/

SuperCell_Dev./Tech_Notes/Ants_Fs/Ants_Fields.html.]
1.7 Return Loss
“Return loss is the decibel difference between the power incident upon a mismatched continuity and the power reflected
from that discontinuity. Return loss can be related to the reflection coefficient VSWR as follows:
RLdB = 20 log (1/p) Where p = VSWR-1/VSWR+1
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VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
In other words, the return loss of an antenna can be considered as the difference in power in the forward and reverse direc-
tions due to impedance mismatches in the antenna design.
All other things being equal, the higher the antenna return loss, the better the antenna. The system engineer should choose
an antenna with a return loss of 14 dB or better. Note that 14 dB corresponds to a VSWR of 1.5:1 as per the following
example:”13
VSWR = 1.5/1 = 1.5 p = 1.5 - 1/1.5 + 1 = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2
RLdB = 20log (1/0.2)
RLdB = 13.979 dB
1.8 Antenna Beamwidth (Horizontal/Vertical)
“Antenna beamwidth is measured in degrees between the half power points (3 dB) of the major lobe of the antenna,
Beamwidth can be expressed in terms of azimuth (horizontal or H-plane) and elevation (vertical or E-plane).”13
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Degrees Above Horizon
-20°
3 dB
Pt.
-10°
Gain
=15 dB
20o 0°
+10°
3 dB
Pt.
+20°
-3 2 7 10 12 15 dB
Degrees Below Horizon
This particular pattern is a vertical antenna pattern (side view of the antenna) and
has a vertical beamwidth of approximately 20 degrees.
(Figure above is taken from [Clapp, Scott. March 8, 1995. China Frequency Planning and RF Propagation Analysis
Overview, REV B. Motorola, Inc. pp. 18.].
[Clapp, Scott. March 8, 1995. China Frequency Planning and RF Propagation Analysis Overview, REV B. Motorola,
Inc. pp. 18.]
1.9 Front to Back Ratio
“The front to back ratio of an antenna is an important measure of performance. It is the ratio of the power radiated from
the main ray beam forward to that radiated from the back lobe behind the antenna. Front to back ratio is normally
expressed in terms of dB, this means that a signal at the back of the antenna should be X dB down on a signal at a mirror
angle in front of the antenna. The following illustration show a front to back ratio of 25dB (typical for a PCS antenna).” 13
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0dB Reference Line

5dB Per Ring
25dB Front to Back Ratio
1.10 Antenna Bandwidth
“The range of frequencies over which the antenna functions efficiently, and over which a reasonable match between the
guided and the free waves can be made, is termed the bandwidth of the antenna and is a function of antenna and matching
system design. If the transition is smooth and the system design such that the wave characteristics do not undergo a sud-
den shift, the bandwidth of the antenna may be quite large. But if the transition is abrupt, a region of discontinuity exists
in the system and a portion of the guided wave is reflected back down the transmission line, much in the manner that an
ocean wave is reflected when it hits a sea wall. The reflected wave is compensated for by the matching device which cre-
ates equal and opposite reflection conditions to smooth the transition.
The operating bandwidth of an antenna is relative and one way of specifying it is to define the maximum limit of reflected
energy at any operating frequency. This limit may be expressed as a voltage standing wave ration (VSWR) or, more sim-
ply, SWR. This term is an expression of the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected voltage on the transmission line to the
amplitude of the direct voltage.”22
[Orr, William, and Cowan, Stuart. 1993. The Beam Antenna Handbook. Lakewood: Radio Amateur Callbook (an
imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications, a division of BPI Communications, Inc.). pp. 6-7.]
1.11 RF Feeder Losses
“RF feeder losses include all of the losses that are encountered between the base station cabinet and the base antenna, or
with respect to a mobile, all of the losses between the PA and the antenna. Since a majority of subscriber units for a mobil-
ity system being sold to customers are portable, there is minimal feeder loss. The feeder loss at the base site can account
for several dB of loss.
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Various items contained within the base station RF feeder loss are: top jumper, main transmission line, bottom jumper,
lightning arrestors, connectors, duplexers, splitters, combiners, etc. The loss associated with the RF feeder system is min-
imized by reducing the transmission line run between the base station and its antennas, and/or utilizing lower loss trans-
mission lines. Transmission lines can range from 1/2” to 1-5/8” diameter cables. The larger the diameter of the cable, the
less lossy the medium, but the sacrifice is more rigid lines, larger bending radius, greater weight, more wind loading and
larger area required. Transmission lines are also available with either air or foam dielectrics. The air dielectric cables are
more expensive to install and maintain, but are less lossy than the foam lines. The following figure reflects most of the dif-
ferent components that are encountered between the base site antenna and the base station equipment.
Typical Components in the RF Feeder Run
Antenna
(A) Top Jumper
(B) Main Transmission Line
Waveguide Entry Port

(C) Antenna Surge Protector
(D) Jumper to Directional Coupler
(E) Directional Coupler
(F) Jumper to Duplexer
(G) Duplexer
(H) Jumper to Tx and Rx Antenna Port
Note:Each Jumper consists of:

BTS Two connectors and
One line
Transmission cables are more lossy at higher frequencies. At 800 MHz, a 7/8” line may suffice but one may require 1-5/8”
line for 1,900 MHz to maintain a similar loss.
Refer to the "RF Antenna System" sections13 for additional information on transmission lines.”13
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1.12 Antenna Efficiency
“Antennas are transducers that convert electronic signals into electromagnetic fields, and vice versa. They are also used
to focus the electromagnetic energy in a desired direction. The larger the antenna aperture (area), the larger is the result-
ing signal power density in the desired direction. An antenna’s efficiency is described by the ratio of its effective aperture
to its physical aperture. Mechanisms contributing to a reduction in efficiency (loss in signal strength) are known as ampli-
tude tapering, aperture blockage, scattering, re-radiation, spillover, edge diffraction, and dissipative loss. Typical efficien-
cies due to the combined effects of these mechanisms range between 50 and 80%.”26
[Sklar, Bernard. 1988. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc. pp. 192.]
1.13 Effects of Antenna Positioning (PCS/Cellular Communication Systems)
“Background:
RF propagation is the transmitting of radio waves through a medium such as the atmosphere or a building. How a radio
wave propagates depends on its frequency, the medium its passing through and its energy.
Radio waves travel from a transmitting site either by ground waves of by sky waves. RF energy that remains near the
ground after leaving or propagating from an antenna results in ground waves. For frequency ranges between 150-2000
MHz, ground waves are more predominant for users of two-way radio communications.
Sky waves propagate up from the earth’s surface towards outer space and are reflected off the ionosphere. The frequency
of these waves are in the 25 MHz - 50 MHz range. As the frequency increases, the amount of radio wave energy that
passes through and that is absorbed by the ionosphere increases.
Cellular radio uses direct ground waves as its mode of travel. Direct waves contain not only waves following a line of
sight path but also waves due to:
1) Refraction - the bending of a wave or path of propagation at the boundary of two different mediums. This enables a
radio transmission to extend beyond the line of site.
2) Diffraction - bending around obstacles such as the edge of a roof on a building. This allows radio wave coverage behind
and around obstacles.
3) Reflection - the ability of a wave or path of propagation to “bounce” off a certain object or objects (buildings, moun-
tains, etc.). This creates multiple paths that are followed by the transmitted signal and received at the receiver at different
times.
Note that both refraction and diffraction decrease as frequency increases.
Site Locations and Antenna Heights:
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If it all possible, it is necessary to choose locations for cell sites and antennas carefully and consider issues such as proper
containment of coverage, alignment of sites into a specific hexagonal pattern, etc. Again, choices for sites may be limited
due to availability of space for equipment and antennas, accessibility for maintenance, and availability of links to the base
stations (either radio or physical) from the switch. Nevertheless, it is important to address certain considerations when
selecting a cell site. At least, by simply mounting antennas at a lower level (< 40 m), one can essentially reduce a cells
coverage area and increase the effectiveness of frequency reuse.
Containment of Coverage Through Reflection from Buildings:
In urban/suburban areas, where: 1) several cell sites may be required, 2) frequency reuse is unavoidable, and 3) in-build-
ing penetration is a must, selected sites should offer contained coverage. While downtilt and variations in ERP may help
to reduce the effective radius of each cell site, they nonetheless may not be sufficient enough. However, one can also rely
on the presence of buildings in the area to serve as radio-path shields thus limiting coverage area. Furthermore, reflection
from these buildings will also provide coverage to areas that normally would not be reachable through line-of-sight paths.
These additional paths would consequently increase in-building penetration within the contained area.
In order to achieve these results, it is important that antenna/base sites are chosen accordingly. First of all, the highest
point in the area will probably do more harm than good as a cell site location if the area can be considered as suburban or
urban. The reason why is that it will cause more interference to surrounding sites due to the fact that signals will propagate
out over the other, lower buildings into other coverage areas. Furthermore, street coverage and in-building penetration
immediately surrounding the site will probably be more limited due to the lack of reflections off surrounding buildings.
Examples of these situations are shown below:
Poor Frequency Re-use - Range Limited by Downtilt Only Better Frequency Re-use - Range Limited by Downtilt and Buildings
The choice of the highest point in an area for a cell site would most likely only work in low-density suburban or rural
areas where the overall number of sites needed to meet subscriber demands is small. Frequency reuse would not be neces-
sary and these sites could be considered as “broadcast”sites.
Hill-Top Cell Sites:
As another example, consider the placement of a cell site at the top of a hill overlooking a town or city. While coverage
will be adequate in the area immediately surrounding the cell site down to the side of the town facing the site, coverage
within the city may be limited due to signal path obstructions due to buildings on the edge of the town. In other words,
reflections off buildings on the edge of the city will provide coverage to areas between the buildings and the cell site, but
probably not on the opposite side of the obstructions. An example is shown below:
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Better
Location
. .
.
“Off-grid” Site Locations:
As was stated before, following a hexagonal pattern when assigning cell sites is a good starting point in reducing cochan-
nel interference as much as possible. However, due to possible limitations of adequate cell space for sites, locations may
need to be assigned that are “off grid.” An example of such a situation is shown below:
..
.. ..
.. ..
.. .. .. ..
.. ..
..
In any case, the hexagonal grid reflects an ideal situation. Terrain effects will obviously skew the pattern out of any type
of symmetry. As a result, some interference may appear in some areas regardless of how close you assign sites to the grid.
It is at this point where the engineer will consider ways to control this interference.
Link Budgets and System Balance:
For more detail on link budgets please refer to the RF Planning Guide:
Antenna Downtilt:
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By tilting the entire radiation pattern of a particular antenna, one can conceivably control its coverage pattern within a spe-
cific area. Controlling the beam path will allow the provider to focus the coverage area and, in some cases, eliminate
interference caused when the beam is allowed to propagate beyond its desirable coverage area.
Downtilt can be achieved in two ways, through mechanical as well as electrical downtilt.
Downtilt (Beamtilt):
“When the main radiation lobe is intentionally adjusted above or below [its plane of propagation], the resultant effect is
know as beamtilt. There are two categories of beamtilt, mechanical and electrical. Electrical beamtilt is obtained by
adjusting the phase relationships of radiating elements within the antenna by the factory. [For example, an electrical
beamtilt can be adjusted in the field by changing external phasing cables purchased from the vendor.] Mechanical
beamtilt may be accomplished by physically tilting the antenna away from the perpendicular by using a shim or downtilt
bracket. [For example, some manufacturer’s provide scissor-style brackets that eliminate guesswork about the setting in
degrees.] Downtilt of either variety should be specified only after a detailed understanding of the terrain and other propa-
gation factors have been acquired by the designer. Most legitimate uses of beamtilt involve signal coverage restrictions
required by cellular repeaters to prevent overlap with adjacent cells. Beamtilt is not a good substitute for null fill below
the horizon. A lower gain antenna might well over superior overall performance to a downtilted higher gain model.”2
[Mechanical downtilting will cause the backlobe to tilt upward (parallel to front lobe), while electrical downtilting causes
the backlobe to downtilt simultaneously. One other note to make, an electrical downtilt type of antenna could also be
downtilted mechanically.]
A great deal of caution must be used when downtilting a particular antenna. There are several “side effects” that can occur
with excessive downtilting.”3
The following Downtilt Effects graphs are provided by Terry Leonard of the Motorola RF Planning Group.11 The follow-
ing illustrations show mechanical downtilt effects (the backlobe stays parallel to the front lobe).
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Propagation Basics
DOWNTILT EFFECTS
3 x SRL410C4R130 Sector Antennas
Gain: 10 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 16°
Ant Ht: 164’ = 50m 153 dB Coverage

0° Downtilt 5° Downtilt
DOWNTILT EFFECTS
3 x SRL410C4R130 Sector Antennas

15° Downtilt
Peanut Effect
10° Downtilt
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Propagation Basics
DOWNTILT EFFECTS
PD1132 Sector Antennas
DOWNTILT EFFECTS
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DOWNTILT EFFECTS
“ERP and Downtilt Limitations:
As mentioned above, when adjusting ERP and downtilt at particular site in order to control interference, special consider-
ations must be taken into account. There are limitations as to the amount of downtilt and ERP that is used at a given site.
For example, one does not want to increase the ERP of a particular base station significantly past the level that assures a
balanced path between it and the subscriber unit. If frequency reuse is present in the system, such a level would threaten to
cause cochannel and/or adjacent interference with nearby sites. On the other hand, there is also a lower limit to effective
use of ERP.
If used properly and carefully, downtilt can be an effective way to control the coverage area of a sectorized cell site and
thus reduce possible interference. Generally, large angles (greater than 5 degrees) are not recommended, for at this point,
a peanut shaped coverage may start to result, depending on the type and height of antenna being used. This may cause
patchy coverage between adjacent sectors in the site which could cause additional, unnecessary port changes. Also, as a
rule, there should be no more than 2 degrees difference in downtilt between adjacent sectors in any one site. Please refer to
the diagram below:
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Propagation Basics
0°
Downtilt
Angle θ
Side
Lobe 3dB
Beamwidth
Main Lobe
Rapidly
h Decreasing
Signal
Usable Strength
Signal Region
Area
Shadow
Area
Dmax
As one can see, coverage decreases dramatically outside of the main lobe of the transmitted signal. We can therefore aim
the outer edge of the main lobe at our cell boundary (which can be determined from a best server plot for system) to limit
coverage outside. If you can determine the approximate cell radius and are aware of the site’s antenna height above
ground level, you can determine an approximate downtilt to use by the equation:
Downtilt = arctan(h/Dmax) + (Vertical Beamwidth/2)”3
[Celwave. 1997. Product Selection Guide 197. Radio Frequency Systems. Inc. pp. 320.]
[Clapp, Scott. March 8, 1995. China Frequency Planning and RF Propagation Analysis Overview, REV B. Motorola,
Inc. pp. 18.]
[Leonard, Terry. Downtilt Effects Presentation. RF Planning Group. Motorola. pp 5-9.]
2.0 Environment
In an ideal situation, estimating propagation paths and signal fade would be straight forward. In the “real world”, physical
characteristics of the propagation environment will effect a signal’s ability to traverse through space. Environment
descriptions have been standardized in the communications industry.
2.1 Clutter Data (Electronic)
“There are various sources of clutter (morphological) data. The more current the clutter data, the more accurate the prop-
agation predictions will be. The most common source of clutter data is from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)*. It is
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Propagation Basics
easily obtained and is available digitally. However, there are certain limitations with this data. The USGS data catego-
rizes the land by how it is used (commercial, industrial, etc.), which does not necessarily coincide with categorizing the
land by its propagation characteristics. Also, the USGS data may not account for newly developed areas. In order to
obtain a more accurate determination for coverage, it is recommended that enhanced clutter data based on satellite imag-
ery and aerial photography be used when generating propagation studies. This data is more expensive and requires more
time to acquire than the USGS data, but provides more reliable results.”14
*U.S. Geological Survey web site is located at: http://www.usgs.gov/
2.2 Some Clutter and Terrain Descriptions
“Dense Urban:
Consists of densely built areas with mainly high buildings (over 20 stories). Typically there is little or no trees and vege-
tation within this area due to the density of buildings. Central parts of Chicago and New York are examples of dense
urban areas.
Urban:
Consist of metropolitan regions, industrial areas and closely spaced residential homes and multi-storied apartments.
Building density is high but may be interspersed with trees and other vegetation. Business centers of medium size cities
such as Tulsa and Indianapolis as well as portions of the outer areas of New York and Chicago are examples of this envi-
ronment.
Suburban:
Consists mainly of single family homes, shopping malls and office parks. Significant vegetation, trees and parking lots
are intermixed with buildings. Most buildings are 1 to 3 stories but significant exceptions do occur. Significant areas
within small and medium cities along with suburban communities surrounding major cities are examples of this environ-
ment.
Rural/Quasi-Open:
Consist generally of open space with few buildings or residences. Major interconnecting highways, farms, and barren
land are found within rural areas. The largest variations in cell coverage area are found in rural areas due to differences in
vegetation and terrain.”14
Open Rural/Open: Bare or open areas
Water: Lakes, rivers, ctc.
Terrain:
Terrain descriptions are literally focused on the land mass. Examples of terrain description are: mountainous, desert,
water (ocean, lake, stream), etc.
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Propagation Basics
Forest:
Foliage descriptions focus on the tree density and tree height.
Roads:
Roads are normally described in terms of their capacity to carry traffic. For example, highways are described as being pri-
mary if they are heavily traveled multi-lane roads (such as toll roads and inter-state highways). Smaller roads in and
around the city or town would be described as secondary roads, and rural roads or those less travelled would be described
as tertiary roads.
2.3 Line-of-Site (LOS)
“Radio transmission requires a clear path between antennas known as radio line of sight. It is necessary to understand the
requirements for radio line of sight when designing a network . Line of sight is the direct free-space path that exists
between two points. Using binoculars on a clear day, it is easy to determine if visual line of sight exists between two
points that are miles apart. To have a clear line of sight there must be no obstructions between the two locations. Often
this means that the observation points must be high enough to allow the viewer to see over any ground-based obstructions.
The following obstructions might obscure a visual link:

1. Topographic features, such as mountains
2. The curvature of the earth
3. Buildings and other man-made objects
4. Trees
If any of these obstructions rise high enough to block the view from end to end, there is no visual line of sight.
Obstructions that can interfere with visual line of sight can also interfere with radio line of sight. But one must also con-
sider the Fresnel effect. If a hard object, such as a mountain ridge or building, is too close to the signal path, it can damage
the radio signal or reduce its strength. This happens even though the obstacle does not obscure the direct, visual line of
sight.”29
[Solectek White Paper. Line of Site. [Online serial]. http://corfu.forthnet.gr/solectek/los.htm.]
3.0 Large-Scale Propagation Models - Path Loss
Propagation models are usually divided into large-scale or small-scale models. The large scale models normally are used
to predict the mean signal strength for transmitter-receiver separation distances of several hundred or even thousands of
meters apart. Small scale models, or fading models, describe rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very
short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations.25
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Propagation Basics
There are many path loss models available for use, however certain models or combinations of models are preferred. The
best models are those which are continuously compared against actual field data and adjusted for accuracy. The model
used in Motorola’s NetPlan tool is XLOS. XLOS has been developed utilizing other models; its description can be found
in this section.
[Rappaport, Theodore S. 1996. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 70, 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 163-167, 170-176, 188-189.]
3.1 Free Space Propagation Model
“The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is a distance of d from the transmitter antenna is given by
Friis free space equation.
λ 2
P R = P T ⋅ G ⋅ G R ⋅  ---------- 
T  4πd 
Where:
PT is the transmitted power
GT is the transmitting antenna gain
GR is the receiving antenna gain
d is the separation distance between antennas
The path loss which represents the signal attenuation as a positive quantity is defined as the difference between the effec-
tive transmitted power and the received power and may or may not include the effects of the antenna gains. The path loss
for the free space model when the antennas are assumed to have unity gain is provided by the following equation.
PT 4πd 2 4πdf 2
------- =  ----------  =  ------------ 
PR λ c
Expressed in dB as:
 P T 4πdf 2
L ( dB ) = 10 log  ------- = 10 log  ------------ = 20 log  ------------
4πdf
 R
P  c   c 
8
= 20 log ( 4π ) + 20 log ( d ) + 20 log ( f ) – 20 log ( 3 × 10 )
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Propagation Basics
= 21.98 + 20 log ( d ) + 20 log ( f ) – 169.54
= – 147.56 + 20 log ( d ) + 20 log ( f )
Where:
d is in meters
f is in Hertz
8
c is equal to the speed of light ( 3X10 meters per second)
If:
d is in kilometers
f is in MegaHertz (
6 Hertz)
10
km -  ----------------
)  6  = 0.3 ------------
MHz km -
( 3X10 )meter ⋅ Hertz ( ----------------
8
c is 1000m MHz
10 Hz
L dB = 21.98 + 20 log ( d km ) + 20 log ( f MHz ) – 20 log ( 0.3 )
= 21.98 + 20 log ( d km ) + 20 log ( f MHz ) – ( – 10.46 )
= 32.44 + 20 log ( d km ) + 20 log ( f MHz )
One is able to see from the above free space equations that 6 dB of loss is associated with a doubling of the frequency.
This same relationship also holds for the distance, if the distance is doubled, 6 dB of additional loss will be encoun-
tered.”13
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Propagation Basics
3.2 Fresnel Zones
“Fresnel zone: In radio communications, one of a (theoretically infinite) number of a concentric ellipsoids of revolution
which define volumes in the radiation pattern of a (usually) circular aperture. Note 1: The cross section of the first Fresnel
zone is circular. Subsequent Fresnel zones are annular in cross section, and concentric with the first. Note 2: Odd-num-
bered Fresnel zones have relatively intense field strengths, whereas even numbered Fresnel zones are nulls. Note 3:
Fresnel zones result from diffraction by the circular aperture.”6
The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an obstruction is explained by Fresnel zones.
Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length from the transmitter to receiver
which are nλ/2 greater than the total path length of a line-of-sight path. [The figure below] demonstrates a transparent
plane located between a transmitter and receiver. The concentric circle on the plan represent the loci of the origins of sec-
ondary wavelets which propagate to the receiver such that the total path length increases by λ/2 for successive circles.
These circles are called Fresnel zones. The successive Fresnel zones have the effect of alternately proving constructive
and destructive interference to the total received signal. The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by rn and can
be expressed in terms of n, λ, d1, and d2 by
nλd 1 d 2
rn = -------------------
d1 + d2
This approximation is valid for d1, d2 >> rn.
The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is nλ/2, where n is an integer. Thus, the path
traveling through the smallest circle corresponding to n = 1 in the figure will have an excess path length of λ/2 as com-
pared to a line-of-sight path, and circles corresponding to n = 2,3,etc. will have and excess path length of λ, 3λ/2, etc. The
radii of the concentric circles depend on the location of the plane. The Fresnel zones of the figure will have maximum
radii if the plane is midway between the transmitter and receiver, and the radii become smaller when the plane is moved
towards either the transmitter or the receiver. This effect illustrates how shadowing is sensitive to the frequency as well as
the location of obstructions with relation to the transmitter or receiver.
An obstacle may block the transmission path and a family of ellipsoids can be constructed between a transmitter and
receiver by joining all the points for which the excess path delay is an integer multiple of half wavelengths. The ellipsoids
represent Fresnel zones. Note that the Fresnel zones are elliptical in shape with the transmitter and receiver antenna at
their foci.”25
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Propagation Basics
T h R
O
1
d1 2 d2
3
Fresnel Zone in a Microwave Link:
“In a microwave link, the radio transmission exhibits wavelike characteristics, and the zone where wavelike interference
can affect the propagation path can be approximated by the Fresnel zone. The Fresnel zone is widest in the middle of the
link and can be calculated from the formula:
R FZ = 17.3X ( d 1 × d 2 ) ⁄ ( d × f )
where
RFZ = Fresnel zone radius
d1 = distance zone base 1 (km)
d2 = distance zone base 2 (km)
d = d1 + d2 or the length of the hop
f - frequency in GHz
the figure below show the calculation of the first Fresnel zone radius.
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Propagation Basics
Microwaves do not normally propagate within the atmosphere in straight lines; they ordinarily travel in curved paths (usu-
ally curved downward) due to atmospheric refraction. The amount of curvature is usually defined with respect to the
earth’s curvature, which is designated as K, where K X R (R = the earth’s actual radius) gives the effective radius of the
earth as seen by the microwave path.
If the Fresnel zone is obstructed, some additional path losses will occur. When there are no obstacles within 50 percent of
the Fresnel zone radius for K = 4/3 (the most usual value that approaches a “flat earth”), then the obstacle generally causes
negligible loss. When, however, an obstacle protrudes into the path of the link by more than 50 percent of the first Fresnel
zone, an adjustment must be made for the additional losses incurred.
The terrain loss LTR (in dB) can be calculated as
L TR = 10 – ( C ⁄ R FZ ) × 20
where
C = the clearance in meters of the obstacle in the Fresnel zone (as shown in the figure)
RFZ = Fresnel zone radius
Notice that
C can be negative if it protrudes into the Fresnel zone.
This approximation is valid only for -1.5 ≤ C/RFZ ≤ +0.5.
Because of changes in the refractive index of the atmosphere, the effective value of K varies with time. Smaller values of
K increase the attenuation due to obstructions, particularly on longer path lengths. You should check to ensure that poten-
tial variations in K will not degrade the service.
The change in clearance (CC) for changes in K can be approximated by
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Propagation Basics
 1 
C C = 0.078 × d1 × d 2 ×  0.75 –  ----  meters
 K 
The limiting values of K are
K = 1 for wet climates
K = 0.9 for temperate climates
K = 0.6 for desert climates
It is normal to check the path profile for the extremes of K = 4/3 to K = 0.8.” 1
[Boucher, Neil J. 1995. The Cellular Radio Handbook. A Reference for Cellular System Operation. Third Edition. Mill
Valley. Quantum Publishing, Inc. pp. 73-74, 185-186.]
[Glossary of Telecommunication Terms. [Electronic database]. August 7, 1996. U.S. Federal Government. Directory:
http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm.]
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 167, 170-176, 188-189.]
3.3 Propagation Over a Plane Earth
“Knowing the propagation characteristics over a smooth, conducting, flat earth provides a starting point for estimating the
effects of propagation over actual paths. The complex analytical results for propagation over a plane earth derived by
Norton have been simplified by Bullington38 by decomposing the solution of Norton into a set of waves consisting of
direct, reflected, and surface waves. The formula relating the power transmitted to the power received following the
approach of Bullington38 is
λ 2 j∆ j∆ 2
P r = P t ---------- gb g m 1 + Re + ( 1 – R )Ae + …
4πd
Within the absolute value symbols, the first term (unity) represents the direct wave, the second term represents the
reflected wave, the third term represents the surface wave, and the remaining terms represent the induction field and sec-
ondary effects of the ground.
The reflection coefficient, R, of the ground depends on the angel of incidence, θ, the polarization of the wave, and the
ground characteristics; it is given by
sin θ – z-
R = -------------------
sin θ + z
where
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Propagation Basics
2
ε 0 – cos θ
z = ----------------------- for vertical polarizaion,
ε0
2
z = ε 0 – cos θ for horizontal polarizaion,
ε 0 = ε – j60σλ ,
ε = the dielectric constant of the ground relative to unity in free space,
σ = the conductivity of the earth in mhos per meter.
The quantity ∆ is the phase difference between the reflected and the direct paths between transmitting and receiving
antennas, illustrated in [the figure below]. Let hb and hm be the heights of the base and mobile antennas; then ∆ is given
by
1--- 1---
2 2 2 2
2π h b + h m 2πd h b + h m
∆ = ------  -------------------- + 1 – ----------  -------------------- + 1
λ  d  λ  d 
For d greater than 5hbhm [∆ is given by],
4πhb h m
∆ ≈ ---------------------
λd
Since the earth is not a perfect conductor, some energy is transmitted into the ground, setting up ground currents that dis-
tort the field distribution relative to what it would have been over a perfectly reflecting surface. The surface wave attenu-
ation factor, A, depends on frequency, polarization, and the ground constants. An approximate expression for A is given
by
–1
A ≈ --------------------------------------------------------------
2
1 + j ( 2πd ⁄ λ ) ( sin θ + z )
which is valid for |A| < 0.1. More accurate values are given by Norton. Since the effect of this surface wave is only sig-
nificant in a region a few wavelengths above the ground, this effect can be neglected in most applications of microwave
mobile communications.
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Propagation Basics
hb
θ hm
Propagation paths over a plane earth.
It is of interest to note that in the limit of grazing angle of incidence the value of the reflection coefficient, R, approaches
-1 independent of the polarization. For frequencies above 100 MHz and for an “average” earth (see table [below]) and for
vertical polarization, |R| exceeds 0.9 for angles less than 10º above the horizon. For horizontal polarization above 100
MHz, |R| exceeds 0.5 for angles less than 5º, but must be of the order of a degree or less for |R| to exceed 0.9.
Typical Ground Constants

Type of Surface s(mho/m) e
Poor ground 0.001 4
Average ground 0.005 15
Good ground 0.02 25
Sea water 5 81
Fresh water 0.01 81
Under the conditions where R equals -1 and A can be neglected, then [the power received equation] reduces to
2 2πh b h m
P r = 4P 0 sin  ---------------------
 λd 
where P0 is the expected power over a free space path. In most mobile radio applications, except very near the base sta-
tion antenna, sin 1/2 ∆ ≈ 1/2 ∆; thus the transmission loss over a plane earth is given by the approximation
 h b h m 2
P r = 4P t g b g m  --------------
 d2 
yielding an inverse fourth-power relationship of received power with distance from the base station antenna.
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Propagation Basics
The ground constants over the path of interest enter into both the calculations for line-of-sight and for diffraction attenua-
tion. At microwave frequencies it is usually the dielectric constant, ε, which has the dominant effect on propagation.
[The table above] gives values of typical ground constants. Applying these values to the formulas for the reflection coef-
ficient over a plane earth just derived, we find that for frequencies above 100 MHz the effect of the ground constants are
slight.”8
[Jakes, William C. 1974. Microwave Mobile Communications. An IEEE Press Classic Reissue. Picataway. American
Telephone and Telegraph Company. pp. 80-88.]
3.4 Rough Surface Criterion
“At the higher microwave frequencies the assumption of a plane earth may no longer be valid, due to surface irregulari-
ties. A measure of the surface “roughness” that provides an indication of the range of validity of [the formula relating the
power transmitted to the power received following the approach of Bullington38]
λ 2 j∆ j∆ 2
P r = P t ---------- gb g m 1 + Re + ( 1 – R )Ae + …
4πd
is given by the Rayleigh criterion, which is
C = 4πσθ
--------------
λ
where σ is the standard deviation of the surface irregularities relative to the mean height of the surface, λ is the wave-
length, θ is the angle of incidence measured in radians from the horizontal. Experimental evidence shows that for C<0.1
spectacular reflection results, and the surface may be considered smooth. Surfaces are considered “rough” for values of C
exceeding 10, and under these conditions the reflected wave is very small in amplitude. Bullington38 has found experi-
mentally that most practical paths at microwave frequencies are relatively “rough” with reflection coefficients in the range
of 0.2-0.4.”8
3.5 Refraction and Equivalent Earth’s Radius
“Because the index of refraction of the atmosphere is not constant, but decreases (except during unusual atmospheric con-
ditions) with increasing height above the earth (h), electromagnetic waves are bent as they propagate. The mean variation
in refractive index (n) can be considered linear with a constant gradient g of the form
n = n0 + gh
In a medium where there are abrupt changes in index of refraction, Descarte’s law applies:
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Propagation Basics
n ( a + h ) cos α = n 0 acos α 0
where α and α0 are the angles at the discontinuity at height h, above the surface of the earth of radius a. Note if the atmo-
sphere is uniform the equation for rectilinear propagation is
 1 + h--- cos α = cos a

 a 0
When n has a constant gradient the propagation is given approximately by
1 + h  1--- + g cos α ≈ cos α0

a
If we replace the earth’s radius a by a fictitious value a’, where
–1
a′ =  1--- + g
a
we now have an expression in the same form as that for rectilinear propagation.
Since the index of refraction in the troposphere is very nearly unity, the N-unit has been defined for convenience,
6
N s = ( n – 1 ) × 10
where n is the index of refraction in the atmosphere. Values of the minimum monthly mean value of Ns throughout the
world have been published. The most commonly used value for Ns is 301. This gives a value for the effective earth’s
radius a’ which corresponds to four-thirds of the actual earth’s radius. The empirical formula for a’ is given by
–1
a′ = 6370 [ 1 – 0.04665 exp ( 0.005577N s ) ] km
where 6370 km is used for the earth’s radius.” 8
3.6 Transmission Over a Smooth Spherical Earth
“At microwave frequencies, diffraction due to the earth severely limits the amount of energy that propagates beyond the
horizon. Considerable work has been done in an attempt to predict the signal attenuation over transhorizon paths. Gener-
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Propagation Basics
ally speaking, these predictions are semiempirical formulas which apply for frequencies below 1000 MHz. It is possible
to obtain analytic expressions for the diffraction over a perfectly conducting sphere; however, the expressions are not sim-
ple relationships between the factors of frequency, conductivity of the earth, antenna height, and distance which govern
the attenuation. ...Estimations of the attenuation due to diffraction over a smooth earth are particularly difficult in regions
just beyond line-of-sight. Furthermore, surface roughness again seriously affects propagation. It is, of course, desirable
to be able to estimate signal strengths beyond the horizon, particularly for cases where the same frequencies are being
used at separate base stations. Bullington38 has reduced the involved analytic relationships for the propagation over a
smooth spherical earth to various asymptotic forms.”8
3.7 XLOS
“The workhorse of the NetPlan tool is the XLOS propagation model developed and refined over the last 15 years by
Motorola engineers. The method used to refine estimate coverage is based on the diffraction and line of sight algorithms
found in Longley and Rice, "Prediction of Tropospheric Radio Transmission Loss Over Irregular Terrain. A Computer
Method" - 1968, for rough terrain conditions. As the terrain flattens out the range estimates approach the Okumura model
predictions, "Field Strength and Its Variability in VHR and UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service" -1968.
The model adjusts for built up or natural environments on top of the terrain by assuming a virtual obstruction height over
and above the existing terrain which is varied to correspond to urban, suburban, rural, foliage, water and other conditions.
The overlay (or obstruction) code is determined from maps which typically show this information as colors. This virtual
height is then scanned to find the major, or controlling, obstacles for each mobile position. Single diffraction points are
separated from extended obstructions and are treated in different ways to obtain an estimate of the degree of additional
transmission loss expected over free space.
At the same time that the obstruction search is going on, a straight line estimate of the average terrain is updated with each
new mobile position. This straight line approximation is used to obtain an equivalent adjusted base antenna height. The
adjusted base antenna height is further corrected for earth curvature and is applied to the line of sight routine to give an
estimated reflection loss term.
The final estimated total attenuation for each mobile position is a varying mix of both reflection and diffraction loss terms.
Adjustments are made by corrections applied to each loss term as a function of whether single or multiple diffraction is
taking place. Antenna horizontal and vertical patterns, downtilt angles, and sector power levels are also taken into
account.
Although the XLOS propagation model is based on Longley, Rice and Okumura algorithms, extensive field measure-
ments, in varying terrain conditions, have been used to modify the algorithms and to model local environmental clutter
(obstruction height).”17
The following slides taken from an Xlos Propagation Model18 presentation, depict the process and evolution of the tool
and shows the general mix formula used.
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Propagation Basics
T h e ge n e r a l “ p a t h ” lo ss e qu a t io n is gi v e n be lo w :
LP = AFS + C 1 AD + C 2 AD + AN T H V + P S
w h ere:
LP = “ p a th ” l o ss be t w e e n d i p o l e s
A FS = fr e qu e n cy + fr e e sp a ce co m p o n e n t
AD = d i ffr a cti o n l o ss
AR = r e fl e ct io n lo ss
A N T H V = a n t e n n a h o r i z o n ta l a n d v e r ti ca l p a tt e r n
PS = p o w e r a d ju st m e n t (r e l . T o 50 d Bm ) by se ct o r
C = m ixi n g co e ffi ci e n ts
A l th o u gh t h e Xlo s m o d e l i s ba se d o n Lo n gle y a n d R ice , a n d O k u m u r a

a lgo r it h m s, e xt e n si v e fie l d m e a su r e m e n t s, in v a r yin g te r r a i n co n d i ti o n s,
w e r e u se d to m o d i fy t h e a lgo r it h m s a n d to m o d e l lo ca l e n v i r o n m e n t a l clu tt e r
(v ir tu a l o bst r u ct io n h e igh t ).
' , * , 7 , = ( ' 9 ( 5 7 , & $ /

8 6 * 6 / 8 / &
8 6 * 6 $ 5 & 6 ( & 2 1 ' ' ( 0 $ 1 ' + 2 5 , = 2 1 7 $ /
' , * , 7 $ / ' $ 7 $
% , / ) 2 5 0 $ 7 3 $ 7 7 ( 5 1 6
6 $ 7 ( / / , 7 ( , 0 $ * (
&/877(5 7 ( 5 5 $ ,1 $17(11$
'$7$ '$7$ 3$77(51
XLOS PROCESS DIAGRAM

6 , 7 ( ' $ 7 $
;/2 6
6 , 7 ( & 2 2 5 ' , 1 $ 7 ( 6
$ 1 7 ( 1 1 $ + ( , * + 7
6 ( & 7 2 5 ' 2 : 1 7 , / 7 287387

6 ( & 7 2 5 + ( $ ' , 1 * ,0 $ * ( 6
6 ( & 7 2 5 ( 5 3
& 2 1 7 2 8 5
6 , * 1 $ / 6 7 5 ( 1 * 7 +
% ( 6 7 6 ( 5 9 ( 5
& ,
36 of 76
Propagation Basics
Based on:
/21*/(< 5,&(
2.8085$ ON GOING DEVELOPMENT
%8//,1*721
352727<3(
&20387(502'(/ ;/26
),(/'7(676
XLOS EVOLUTION
7HUUDLQ
:DVKLQJWRQ%DOWLPRUH7HVW%HG
6DQ)UDQFLVFR
+RXVWRQ
'LIIHUHQW&OXWWHU
[Motorola NetPlan Group. XLOS Propagation Model [Online serial]. http://www.sesd.cig.mot.com/xlos.html.]
[Motorola NetPlan Gourp. Xlos Propagation Model. Slide Presentation.]
3.8 Knife Edge Diffraction
“Very often in the mobile radio environment a line-of-sight path to the base station is obscured by obstructions such as
hills, trees, and buildings. When the shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill, it is instructive to treat the
object as a diffracting knife edge to estimate the amount of signal attenuation. The exact solution to the problem of dif-
fraction over a knife edge is well known as is discussed in many textbooks.
Within the shadow region of the knife edge, the electric field strength E, can be represented as
E = A exp ( i∆ )
------
E0
where E0 is the value of the electric field at the knife edge, A is the amplitude, ∆ is the phase angle with respect to the
direct path. The expressions for A and ∆ are obtained in terms of the Fresnel integrals:
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S+1⁄2
A = ----------------------------------
2 sin  ∆ + π ---
4
-1 S + 1 ⁄ 2
∆ = tan  -------------------- – π
---
C+1⁄2 4
where
h0
π 2
C =
∫ cos  --- v  dv
2 
0
h0
π 2
S =
∫ sin  --2- v  dv
0
where (from Fresnel zone geometry):
π 2
φ = --- v : Phase difference between the direct path and the diffracted path.
2
2 ( d 1 + d2 )
v = h --------------------------
-
λd 1 d 2
1 1-
= h --2-  -----
- + ----- 
λ  d1 d 2
For most microwave mobile radio applications several assumptions can be made to simplify the calculations. Consider an
infinite completely absorbing (rough) half-plane that divides space into two parts as in [the following figure]. When the
distances d1 and d2 from the half-plane to the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna are large compared to the
height h, and h itself is large compared with the wavelength, λ, that is,
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Propagation Basics
d 1, d 2 » h » λ
then the diffracted power can be given by the expression
P- = ---------------
1 -
-----
P0 2 2
2π h0
This result can be considered independent of polarization as long as the conditions of d1,d2>>h>>l, are met. In cases
where the earth’s curvature has an effect, there can be up to four paths. A simplified method of computing knife edge dif-
fraction for such cases is treated by Anderson and Trolese35. Closer agreement with data over measured paths has been
obtained by calculations that better describe the geometry of the diffracting obstacle.”8
Geometry for propagation over a knife edge.
d1 d2
3.9 Log-distance Path Loss Model and Log-normal Shadowing
“[The figure below] shows log normal fading. This process is called log normal fading because the field strength distribu-
tion follows a curve that is a normally distributed curve, provided the field strength is measured logarithmically.”1
Log normal fading that is due to obstruction is known as “shadowing” or “diffraction losses.”
“Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average received signal power decreases loga-
rithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or indoor radio channels. Such models have been used extensively in the lit-
erature. The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R (transmit-receive) separation is expressed as a function of
distance by using a path loss exponent, n.
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d n
PL ( d ) ∝  ------
d0
or
PL ( dB ) = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log  ------

d
d 
0
where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases with distance, d0 is the close-in
reference distance which is determined from measurements close to the transmitter, and d is the T-R separation distance.
The bars in (the above) equations denote the ensemble average of all possible path loss values for a given value of d.
When plotted on a log-log scale, the modeled path loss is a straight line with a slope equal to 10n dB per decade. The
value of n depends on the specific propagation environment. For example, in free space, n is equal to 2, and when
obstructions are present, n will have a larger value.
It is important to select a free space reference distance that is appropriate for the propagation environment. In large cover-
age cellular systems, 1 km reference distances are commonly used, whereas in microcellular systems, much smaller dis-
tances (such as 100 m or 1 m) are used. The reference distance should always be in the far field of the antenna so that
near-field effects do not alter the reference path loss. The reference path loss is calculated using the free space path loss
formula... or through field measurements at distance d 0. [The table below] lists typical path loss exponents obtained in
various mobile radio environments.
3DWK/RVV([SRQHQWVIRU'LIIHUHQW(QYLURQPHQWV
(QYLURQPHQW 3DWK/RVV([SRQHQWQ
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
obstructed in factories 2 to 3
The model in [the log-distance] equation does not consider the fact that the surrounding environmental clutter may be
vastly different at two different locations having the same T-R separation. This leads to measured signals which are vastly
different than the average value predicted by [the log-distance] equation. Measurements have shown that at any value of
d, the path loss PL(d) at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB) about the mean dis-
tance-dependent value. That is
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PL ( d ) [ dB ] = PL ( d ) + X σ = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log  ------ + X σ

d
d0
and
P r ( d ) [ dBm ] = P t [ dBm ] – PL ( d ) [ dB ]
(antenna gains included in PL(d))
where Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard deviation σ (also in dB).
The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a large number of measurement
locations which have the same T-R (transmit-receive) separation, but have different levels of clutter on the propagation
path. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing. Simply put, log-normal shadowing implies that mea-
sured signal levels at a specific T-R separation have a Gaussian (normal) distribution about the distance-dependent mean
of [the previously mentioned PL equation], where the measured signal levels have values in dB units. The standard devi-
ation of the Gaussian distribution that describes the shadowing also has units in dB. Thus, the random effects of shadow-
ing are accounted for using the Gaussian distribution which lends itself readily to evaluation.
The close-in reference distance d0, the path loss exponent n, and the standard deviation σ, statistically describe the path
loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R separation, and this model may be used in computer simulation
to provide received power levels for random locations in communication system design and analysis.
In practice, the values of n and σ are computed from measured data, using linear regression such that the difference
between the measured and estimated path losses is minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide range of measure-
ment locations and T-R separations. The value of PL(d0) in [the previously mentioned path loss equation] is based on
either close-in measurements or on a free space assumption from the transmitter to d0. An example of how the path loss
exponent is determined from measured data follows.
Since PL(d) is a random variable with a normal distribution in dB about the distance-dependent mean, so is Pr(d), and the
Q-function or error function (erf) may be used to determine the probability that the received signal level will exceed (or
fall below) a particular level. The Q-function is defined as
∞  x 2
Q ( z ) = ---------- ∫ exp  – ------ dx = --- 1 – erf  -------
1 1 z
2π z  2 2 2
where
Q ( z ) = 1 – Q ( –z )
the probability that the received signal level will exceed a certain value γ can be calculated from the cumulative density
function as
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Propagation Basics
 γ – P r ( d )
Pr [ P r ( d ) > γ ] = Q  ---------------------
 σ 
similarly, the probability that the received signal level will be below γ is given by”25
  P r ( d ) – γ 
Pr [ P r ( d ) < γ ] = Q  -------------------------
 σ 
 
3.10 Longley-Rice (Irregular Terrain Model)
“The Longley-Rice model, is applicable to point-to-point communication systems in the frequency range from 40 MHz to
100 GHz, over different kinds of terrain. The median transmission loss is predicted using the path geometry of the terrain
profile and the refractivity of the troposphere. Geometric optics techniques (primarily the 2-ray ground reflection model)
are used to predict signal strengths within the radio horizon. Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated using
the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife-edge models. Forward scatter theory is used to make troposcatter predictions over long dis-
tances, and far field diffraction losses in double horizon paths are predicted using a modified Van der Pol-Bremmer
method. The Longley-Rice propagation prediction model is also referred to as the ITS irregular terrain model.
The Longley-Rice model is also available as a computer program to calculate large-scale median transmission loss rela-
tive to free space loss over irregular terrain for frequencies between 20 MHz and 10 GHz. For a given transmission path,
the program takes as its input the transmission frequency, path length, polarization, antenna heights, surface refractivity,
effective radius of earth, ground conductivity, ground dielectric constant, and climate. The program also operates on path-
specific parameters such as horizon distance of the antennas, horizon elevation angle, angular trans-horizon distance, ter-
rain irregularity and other specific inputs.
The Longley-Rice method operates in two modes. When a detailed terrain path profile is available, the path-specific
parameters can be easily determined and the prediction is called a point-to-point mode prediction. On the other hand, if
the terrain path profile is not available, the Longley-Rice method provides techniques to estimate the path-specific param-
eters, and such a prediction is called an area mode prediction.
There have been many publications and corrections to the Longley-Rice model since its original publication. One impor-
tant modification deals with radio propagation in urban areas, and this is particularly relevant to mobile radio. This mod-
ification introduces an excess term as an allowance for the additional attenuation due to urban clutter near the receiving
antenna. This extra term, called the urban factor (UF), has been derived by comparing the predictions by the original
Longley-Rice model with those obtained by Okumura.
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Propagation Basics
One shortcoming of the Longley-Rice model is that it does not provide a way of determining corrections due to environ-
mental factors in the immediate vicinity of the mobile receiver, or consider correction factors to account for the effects of
buildings and foliage. Further, multipath is not considered.”25
3.11 Okumura
“The Okumura model is based on data taken from 150 to 1500 MHz with less data taken at 150 MHz. Above 216 MHz,
use the Okumura model. Between 132 and 216 MHz, the Okumura and Bullington models are equally valid. Use the Bull-
ington model for frequencies below 132 MHz.”20
“Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free space (A mu), in an urban area over a
quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective antenna height (hte) of 200 m and a mobile antenna height (hre) of 3 m.
These curves were developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both the base and
mobile, and are plotted as a function of frequency in the range 100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of distance from
the base station in the range 1 km to 100 km. To determine path loss using Okumura’s model, the free space path loss
between the points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f,d) (as read from the curves) is added to it
along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The model can be expressed as
L 50 ( dB ) = L F + A mu (f,d) – G ( h te ) – G ( h re ) – G AREA
where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e. median) value of propagation path loss, LF is the free space propagation loss, Amu is
the median attenuation relative to free space, G(hte) is the base station antenna height gain factor, G(hre) is the mobile
antenna height gain factor, and GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment. Note that the antenna height gains are
strictly a function of height and have nothing to do with antenna patterns.
Plots of Amu(f,d) and GAREA for a wide range of frequencies are shown in [the figures] below. Furthermore, Okumura
found that G(hte) varies at a rate of 20 dB/decade and G(hre) varies at a rate of 10 dB/decade for heights less than 3 m.
h te
G ( h te ) = 20 log  --------- 1000 m > hte > 30m
200
h re
G ( h re ) = 10 log  -------- hre ≤ 3m
3
h re
G ( h re ) = 20 log  -------- 10 m > hre > 3 m
3
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Propagation Basics
Other corrections may also be applied to Okumura’s model. Some of the important terrain related parameters are the ter-
rain undulation height (∆h), isolated ridge height, average slope of the terrain and the mixed land-sea parameter. Once the
terrain related parameters are calculated, the necessary correction factors can be added or subtracted as required. All these
correction factors are also available as Okumura curves.
Okumura’s model is wholly based on measured data and does not provide any analytical explanation. For many situa-
tions, extrapolations of the derived curves can be made to obtain values outside the measurement range, although the
validity of such extrapolations depends on the circumstances and the smoothness of the curve in question.
35
Uban Area
ht = 200 m
hr = 3 m 30
ea
Ar
Correction Factor, GAREA (dB) e n
25 Op Area
100 n
Ope
i
Median Attenuation, A(f,d) (dB)
80 as
70 20 Qu
60
50
d (km)
40
15 ea
n Ar
30 a
b ur b
20 Su
10
10
5
2 5
1
0
70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f (MHz) Frequency f (MHz)
Okumura’s model is considered to be among the simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature
cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered environments. It is very practical and has become a standard for sys-
tem planning in modern land mobile radio systems in Japan. The major disadvantage with the model is its slow response
to rapid changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban and suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas.
Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss values are around 10 dB to 14 dB.”25
For more information please read Okumura’s paper [Okumura, Y., Ohmori, E., Kawano, T., Fukada, K. 1968. Field
strength and ITs Variability in VHF and UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service, Rev. Elec. Commun. Lab., 16. pp. 825-873.].
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[Mozaik Web Page. Okumura Propagation Model. [Online serial]. http://rdeserver.comm.mot.com/mozaik/oku-

mura.htm.]
3.12 Hata
“Among the many technical reports that are concerned with propagation prediction methods for mobile radio, Okumura’s2
report is believed to be the most comprehensive one. In his report, many useful curves to predict a median value of the
received signal strength are presented based on the data collected in the Tokyo area. The Tokyo urban area was then used
as a basic predictor for urban areas. The correction factors for suburban and open areas are determined based on the trans-
mit frequency. Based on Okumura’s prediction curves, empirical formulae for the median path loss, Lp, between two iso-
tropic antennae were obtained by Hata and are known as the Hata Empirical Formulae for Path Loss3. The Hata
propagation formulae are used with the link budget calculation to translate a path loss value to a forward link cell radius
and a reverse link cell radius.
For Urban Area:
L U = 69.55 + 26.16 × log ( fc ) – 13.82 × log ( H b )

– A Hm + [ 44.9 – 6.55 × log ( H b ) ] × log ( r )
For Suburban Area:
fc 2
L S = L U – 2 × log - –5.4
 -----
 28
For Quasi Open Area:
2
L q = L U – 4.78 × [ log ( f c ) ] + 18.33 × log ( f c ) – 35.94
For Open Rural Area:
2
L q = L U – 4.78 × [ log ( f c ) ] + 18.33 × log ( f c ) – 40.94
where:
AHm Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height
For a Medium-Small City:
A Hm = [ 1.1 × log ( f c ) – 0.7 ] × H m – [ 1.56 × log ( f c ) – 0.8 ]
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For a Large City:
2
A Hm = 3.2 × [ log ( 11.75 × H m ) ] – 4.97
Lu , Ls , Lq = isotropic path loss values
fc = carrier frequency in MHz (valid 150 to 1,000 MHz)
Hb = base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)
Hm = mobile antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)
r = radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)
This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-top levels of buildings adjacent
to the base station).
Measurements which have been taken at 1,900 MHz have shown the path loss difference between 800 MHz and 1,900
MHz closer to 11 dB. The COST-231-Hata model was developed to account for this difference.
Hata is similar to COST-231-Hata with the exception of two terms:”13
Hata yields 69.55 + 26.16 log ( f c )
COST-231-Hata yields 46.3 + 33.9 log ( f c )
3.13 COST-231-Hata
“The COST 231 Subgroup on Propagation Models proposed an improved propagation model for urban areas to be applied
above 1,500 MHz4. Like Hata’s model, the COST-231-Hata model is based on the measurements of Okumura. The
COST-231-Hata propagation model has been derived by analyzing Okumura’s propagation curves in the upper frequency
band. Hata’s analysis was restricted to frequencies below 1,000 MHz. The COST-231-Hata propagation model extended
the range of parameters to include 1,500 to 2,000 MHz. Their modified model was based on Hata’s formula for the basic
transmission loss in urban areas (see above).
For Urban Area
L U = 46.3 + 33.9 × log ( fc ) – 13.82 × log ( Hb )

– A Hm + [ 44.9 – 6.55 × log ( H b ) ] × log ( r )
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For Suburban Area:
fc 2
L S = L U – 2 × log  ------ – 5.4
28
For Quasi Open Area:
2
L q = L U – 4.78 × [ log ( f c ) ] + 18.33 × log ( f c ) – 35.94
For Open Rural Area:
2
L q = L U – 4.78 × [ log ( f c ) ] + 18.33 × log ( f c ) – 40.94
where:
AHm Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height
For a Medium-Small City:
A Hm = [ 1.1 × log ( f c ) – 0.7 ] × H m – [ 1.56 × log ( f c ) – 0.8 ]
For a Metropolitan Center:
A Hm = [ 1.1 × log ( f c ) – 0.7 ] × H m – [ 1.56 × log ( f c ) – 0.8 ] – 3
Lu , Ls , Lq = isotropic path loss values
fc = carrier frequency in MHz (valid 1,500 to 2,000 MHz)
Hb = base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)
Hm = mobile antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)
r = radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)
This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-top levels of buildings adjacent
to the base station).
Measurements which have been taken at 1,900 MHz have shown the path loss difference between 800 MHz and 1,900
MHz closer to 11 dB. The COST-231-Hata model was developed to account for this difference.
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A comparison between the Hata and COST-231-Hata equations show that they are similar except for the following two
terms:”13
Hata yields 69.55 + 26.16 log ( f c )
COST-231-Hata yields 46.3 + 33.9 log ( f c )
3.14 Slope and Intercept
There are a number of different kinds of statistical, empirical and custom pathloss models available today. Most of the
models are represented by an equation, describing the various parameters that contribute to the pathloss model. Such an
expression is shown below, borrowed from the Custom Pathloss Model (CPM) application note.
PL ( indBd ) = K1 + K2 log ( d ) + K3 log ( Hb ) + K4 log ( Hb ) log ( d ) + K5 log ( Hm )

+ K6 log ( f ) ) + K7 ⋅ D + ( LU ) ⁄ ( CSL )
Where: D is the Diffraction, LU is the Land Use and CSL is the Cover Set Loss as described in the CPM application note.
K1 through K7 parameters are also described in more details in the CPM application note.
(The K1 and K2 parameters are the subject of this discussion.) K1 and K2 are the intercept and slope of the pathloss
model respectively. The figure below illustrates the slope and intercept parameters for the HATA 800 Model (reference
from the CPM Application Note15).
HATA 800 MODEL
Intercept =
Signal Strength (dBm)
2
K1 = 27.81 + 0.7 ⋅ Hm – ( 4.78 ⋅ ( log ( f ) ) ) – 4.3
Slope = K2 = 44.9 dB/decade
1 km
HATA Intercept Log(Distance (km))
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What the graph shows is that the greater the distance from the serving site the lower the signal strength will be. The K1
value is a constant which is the intercept of the graph with the abscissa. The K1 value for the HATA 800 and COST-231
models can be found in the CPM application note for various environments. The K2 value is the slope of the line and rep-
resents the slope in dB per decade that the signal strength (or the Pathloss (PL)) will be diminishing with respect to dis-
tance.
[Motorola NetPlan Group. May 12, 1998. NetPlan Application Note Custom Pathloss Model. NetPlan V3.2. Revision
0.1.]
3.15 Walfish-Ikegami Cost 231
“The Walfisch-Ikegami model, also developed by a subgroup of the European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and
Technical Research, factors in parameters that describe obstructions found in urban environments. Walfisch-Ikegami is
suitable for modeling small cells in the 800-2000 MHz frequency ranges where deployment is above building level.
Walfisch-Ikegami uses user-specified area and city qualifications (correction factors) to adapt the model for urban and
suburban areas. In addition, users specify values for the following parameters: average building height, average building
separation, average street width, and road orientation.”16
[Motorola NetPlan Group. Statistical [Online serial]. http://www.sesd.cig.mot.com/statistical/.]
3.16 Walfisch-Xia JTC
“The Walfisch-Xia JTC model is a new propagation model adopted by the Joint Technical Committee of the Telecommu-
nications Industry Association (TIA) and the Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA). Walfisch-Xia JTC is
suitable for modeling small, large, and micro cells in the 300-2000 MHz frequency ranges with deployments above, at, or
below building level. Walfisch-Xia JTC uses user-specified area and city qualifications (correction factors) to adapt the
model for urban, suburban, residential, and rural areas. In addition, users specify values for the following parameters:
average building height, average building separation, and average street width.”16
[Motorola NetPlan Group. Statistical [Online serial]. http://www.sesd.cig.mot.com/statistical/.]
3.17 Bullington
“The Bullington model is based on data taken from 54 to 216 MHz. The Bullington model is generally considered to be
preferable at frequencies below 132 MHz. Between 132 and 216 MHz, the Bullington and Okumura models are equally
valid. Do not use Bullington at frequencies above 216 MHz.
Mozaik(sm)'s Bullington model is based on formulae and techniques described in "Radio Propagation for Vehicular Com-
munications", Kenneth Bullington, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Volume VT-26, Number 4, November
1977.”19
The following figure is Bullington’s nomograph for calculating the diffraction loss due to an isolated obstacle.23
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[Bullington, Kenneth. November 1997. Radio Propagation for Vehicular Communications. IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology. Volume VT-26. Number 4.]
[Mozaik Web Page. Bullington Propagation Model. [Online serial]. http://rdeserver.comm.mot.com/mozaik/

bullngtn.htm.]
[Parsons, David. 1996. The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel. London. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 44, 162-164,
190-195.]
3.18 dn Pathloss Model
“The dn path loss model is generally used to predict the power transfer between a transmitter and a receiver. This model
takes into account the decrease in energy density suffered by the electromagnetic wave due to spreading, as well as the
energy loss due to the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the propagation environment. Path loss is the term
used to quantify the difference (in dB) between the transmitted power, Pt (in dBm), and received power, Pr (in dBm). (The
gains of the transmitting and receiving antennas may be implicitly included or excluded in these power quantities).
The dn model predicts that the mean path loss, PL(d) , measured in dB, at a T-R separation d will be
PL ( dB ) = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log  ------ ( dB )

d
10 d 0
where PL(d0) is the mean path loss in dB at close-in reference distance d0, and n is the empirical quantity - the path loss
exponent. Note that when n=2, the path loss is the same as free space - received signals fall off by 20 dB per decade
increase in distance. The reference distance, d0, is chosen to be in the far-field of the antenna, at a distance at which the
propagation can be considered to be close enough to the transmitter such that multipath and diffraction are negligible and
the link is approximately that of free-space. Typically, d0 is chosen to be 1 m for indoor environments and 100 m or 1 km
in outdoor environments. The free space distance must be in the far-field of the antenna, which is related to the physical
size and frequency of the antenna. Without explicit measured information on the close-in receive distance PL(d0), it can
be measured or estimated by the following formula:
4πd 0
PL ( d 0 ) = 20 log  ------------
10 λ 
where λ = c/f is the wavelength of the transmitted signal (c is the speed of light, 3*108 m/s and f is the frequency of the
transmitted signal in Hz).
The path losses at different geographical locations at the same distance d (for d > d0) from a fixed transmitter exhibit a
natural variability due to differences in local surroundings, blockage or terrain over which the signals travel. This variabil-
ity over a large number of independent measured locations the same distance away from the transmitter results in log-nor-
mal shadowing and is usually found to follow a Gaussian distribution (with values in dB) about the distance-dependent
mean path loss, PL(d), with standard deviation σ dB about the mean path loss PL(d).
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The path loss exponent, n, is an empirical constant that is often measured, but can also be derived theoretically in some
environments. It varies depending upon the radio propagation environment. [The table below], taken from Rappaport25,
gives typical values for n. Typical values for the log-normal shadowing in outdoor environments range between 8 and 14
dB. Path loss exponents for indoor environments are presented [below], which also presents measured values of σ.”24
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n

Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
obstructed in factories 2 to 3
Freq.
Environment (MHz) n s (dB)
Indoor-Retail Store 914 2.2 8.7
Indoor-Grocery Store 914 1.8 5.2
Indoor-Hard Partition Office 1500 3.0 7.0
Indoor-Soft Partition Office 900 2.4 9.6
Indoor-Soft Partition Office 1900 2.6 14.1
Indoor-Factory (LOS) 1300 1.6 - 3.0 -
2.0 5.8
Indoor-Factory (LOS) 4000 2.1 7.0
Indoor-Suburban Home 900 3.0 7.0
Indoor-Factory (Obstructed) 1300 3.3 6.8
Indoor-Factory (Obstructed) 4000 2.1 9.7
Indoor-Office Same Floor 914 2.76 - 5.2 -
3.27 12.9
Indoor-Office Entire Building 914 3.54 - 12.8 -
4.33 13.3
Indoor-Office Wing 914 2.68 - 4.4 --
4.01 8.1
Indoor-Average 914 3.14 16.3
Indoor-Through One Floor 914 4.19 5.1
Indoor-Through Two Floors 914 5.04 6.5
Indoor-Through Three Floors 914 5.22 6.7
[Rappaport. dn Path Loss Model - Range vs. Battery/Power Drain. [Online serial]. http://www.mprg.ee.vt.edu/research/
glomo/node3.html#SECTION00021000000000000000.]
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3.19 Diffracting Screens Model
“The model described here is based on a geometrical generalization. Walfisch and Bertoni modeled the rows of city build-
ings as a series of absorbing diffracting screens of uniform height. For the case of a fixed antenna height above the build-
ing roofline, they gave an overall propagation model starting with the forward diffraction, along the screens, and with a
final diffraction down to the street level. The model is shown in the figure below. Since absorbing screens are used, this
model is essentially polarization independent.
Hb
Hm
b
d
s
Wave Propagation in Homogeneous Urban region
Maciel, Bertoni and Xia extended the Walfisch-Bertoni model to allow the fixed-site antenna to be below as well as
above the rooftop levels as shown in the figure below.
Hm
Hb
b
d
s
Suburban Propagation between two sites below roof Level
The resulting expression for the path propagation Lds, based on the models of Maciel, Bertoni, Xia and Walfisch is writ-
2
Lds = – F – Le1 – Le2 – 18 log 17H b+d
ten as : -------------------------
-
17H b
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Gm ( θ ) 1 - 2
Le1 = – 10 log ----------------------------------------------------------- ⋅ --1- – -------------------
2 2 θ 2⋅π+θ
π ⋅ k ⋅ ( b – Hm ) + w
F = 32.448 + 20 log ( f ⋅ d )
Parameters for the Diffracting Screens Model

Parameter Definition
Lds Diffracting screens propagation, average signal, dB
F Free-space loss
Le1 Final Diffraction down rooftop level
Le2 Losses due to diffraction along the rooftops
Hb Fixed-site antenna height, m
Hm Mobile antenna height, m
b Building height, m
s Separation between rows of buildings, m
w Distance from mobile to building on street, m
d Range, Km (not beyond radio horizon)
f Frequency, MHz
Gm Mobile antenna gain in the roof-edge direction
k Wave number
Gb Fixed-site antenna gain in the roof direction (usually taken to be unity)
θ Angle from the roof edge to the mobile found from (see figure below)
λ Wavelength
b – Hm
θ = atan ------------------ see figure below for the angle θ
w
2
Le2 = – 10 log [ Gb ⋅ Q ]
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Q is either Qe or Ql depending on whether the fixed-site antenna is elevated above or lower than the rooftop level. Practi-
cally, Qe is chosen when the fixed-site antenna height Hb is more than λ ⋅ s above rooftop level b, and Ql is chosen
when Hb is below rooftop level by more than 0.5 ⋅ λ ⋅ s .”10
b
w
Hm
s
s
------------------------------
d ⋅ 1, 000 – s 1 1
Ql = ------------------------------------------------------------------- ⋅ --------------------------------
- – -------------------------------------------------
-
2 2 atan ---------------- b – Hb b – Hb
2 ⋅ π ⋅ k ⋅ ( b – Hb ) + s 2 ⋅ π + atan ----------------
s s
Hb 0.9
Qe = 2.35 ⋅ atan ---------------------- ⋅ --s-
d ⋅ 1, 000 λ
[Kazimierz Siwiak. Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communicationsi. Boston/London: ISBN 0-
89006-755-4. Artech House.]
3.20 Building Penetration
There is a great interest in characterizing the radio communication channel between a base station and a mobile located
inside a building.
The problem of modeling radiowave penetration into buildings differs from vehicular case in several aspects. The main
aspects are:
1. The problem is three dimensional because at a fixed distance from the base station the mobile can be at a number of
heights corresponding to the floor of the building on which is located.
2. The local environment within a building consists of a large number of obstructions (constructed of a variety of mate-
rials) close to the mobile.
Building penetration loss is dependent on a number of factors:
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1. Mobile orientation with respect to the base station

2. Number and size of the windows
3. Height of the transceiver within the building
4. Propagation conditions along the transmission path
5. Carrier frequency
When the transmitter is outside, the signal within a building can be characterized as follows:
1. The small scale signal variation is Rayleigh distributed.
2. The large scale signal variation is log-normally distributed with a standard deviation related to the condition of trans-
mission and the area of the floor.
3. The building penetration loss decreases at higher frequencies.
4. When no line-of-sight path exists between the transmitter and the building concerned (i.e. scattering is the predomi-
nant mechanism of wave propagation) the standard deviation of the local mean values is approximately 4 dB. When
partial or complete line-of-sight conditions exist, the standard deviation rises to 6-9 dB.
5. The rate of change of penetration loss with height within the building is about 2 dB per floor.
190-195.]
4.0 Small-Scale Propagation Models - Fading
Propagation models are usually divided into large-scale or small-scale models. The large scale models normally are used
to predict the mean signal strength for transmitter-receiver separation distances of several hundred or even thousands of
meters apart. Small scale models, or fading models, describe rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very
short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations.25
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 70, 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 163-167, 170-176, 188-189.]
4.1 Fade Margin
“The fade margin is the amount of "extra" signal that is present between 2 antennae. The more extra signal is present, the
more reliable the wireless link. Fade margin can be calculated during system design and measured during system installa-
tion. Because fade margin can be measured, it is possible to install wireless links that are extremely reliable, even exceed-
ing the reliability of a wired link. Significance - Knowing the fade margin, you can predict system reliability.”33
[Wireless Infonet. [Online serial]. http://www.ask-wi.com/training.html]
4.2 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time, Coherence Bandwidth, Symbol Period
“Delay spread and coherence bandwidth are parameters which describe the time dispersive nature of the channel in a local
area. however, they do not offer information about the time varying nature of the channel caused by either relative motion
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between the mobile and base station, or by movement of objects in the channel. Doppler spread and coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
Doppler spread BD is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio channel
and is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero. When a pure
sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have com-
ponents in the range fc - fd to fc + fd, where fd is the Doppler shift. The amount of spectral broadening depends on fd
which is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle θ between the direction of motion of the mobile
and direction of arrival of the scattered waves. If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than BD, the effects of
Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver. This is a slow fading channel.
Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the
frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain. The Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely propor-
tional to each other.”25
Coherence Bandwidth:
“While the delay spread is a natural phenomenon caused by reflected and scattered propagation paths in the radio channel,
the coherence bandwidth is a defined relation derived from the rms delay spread. Coherence bandwidth is a statistical
measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered “flat” (i.e., a channel which passes all spec-
tral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase). IN other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of
frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.”25
Symbol Period:
The symbol period is equal to the reciprocal of the bandwidth.25
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 163-167, 170-176, 188-189.]
4.3 Flat Fading (i.e. no frequency selective behavior)
“Small-Scale Fading (Based on Multipath Time Delay Spread)”25:

1. Bandwidth of Signal < Bandwidth of Channel
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
“If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received signal will undergo flat fading. This type of fading is historically
the most common type of fading described in the technical literature. In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel
is such that the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver. However the strength of the
received signal changes with time, due to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath. The characteristics
of a flat fading channel are illustrated [below].
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s(t) h(t,τ) r(t)
s(t) h(t,τ) r(t)

t t t
0 TS 0τ 0 TS+τ τ<<TS
S(f) H(f) R(f)
∫∫ f ∫∫ f ∫∫ f
fc fc fc
Flat fading channel characteristics
It can be seen from [the above illustration] that if the channel gain changes over time, a change of amplitude occurs in the
received signal. Over time, the received signal r(t) varies in gain, but the spectrum of the transmission is preserved. In a
flat fading channel, the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much larger than the multipath time delay spread
of the channel, and hb(t,τ) can be approximated as having no excess delay (i.e., a single delta function with τ = 0). Flat
fading channels are also known as amplitude varying channels and are sometimes referred to as narrowband channels,
since the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth. Typically flat fad-
ing channels cause deep fades, and thus may require 20 or 30 dB more transmitter power to achieve low bit error rates
during times of deep fades as compared to systems operating over non-fading channels. The distribution of the instanta-
neous gain of flat fading channels is important for designing radio links, and the most common amplitude distribution is
the Rayleigh distribution. The Rayleigh flat fading channel model assumes that the channel induces an amplitude which
varies in time according to the Rayleigh distribution.
To summarize, a signal undergoes flat fading if
BS « BC
and
TS » στ
where TS is the reciprocal bandwidth (e.g. symbol period) and BS is the bandwidth, respectively, of the transmitted modu-
lation, and στ and BC are the rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth, respectively, of the channel.”25
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4.4 Frequency-Selective Fading
“Small-Scale Fading (Based on Multipath Time Delay Spread)”25:

1. Bandwidth of Signal > Bandwidth of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period
“The earlier discussion concentrated in general on describing the envelope and phase variations of the signal received at a
moving vehicle when an unmodulated carrier is radiated by the base station transmitter. The question now arises as to the
adequacy of this channel description when real signals, which occupy a finite bandwidth, are radiated. It is clear that in
practice we need to consider the effects of multipath propagation on these signals and to illustrate the point we consider
the case of two frequency components within the message bandwidth. If these frequencies are close together then the dif-
ferent propagation paths within the multipath medium have approximately the same electrical length for both components
and their amplitude and phase variations will be very similar. In other words, although there will be fading due to multi-
path, the two frequency components will behave in a very similar way. More generally, provided the message bandwidth
is sufficiently small, all frequency components within it behave similarly and flat fading is said to exist. As the frequency
separation increases, however, the behavior at one frequency tends to become uncorrelated with that at the other fre-
quency because the phase shifts along the various paths are different at the two frequencies. The extent of the decorrela-
tion depends on the spread of time delays since the phase shifts arise from the excess path lengths. For large delay spreads
the phases of the incoming components can vary over several radians even if the frequency separation is quite small. Sig-
nals which occupy a bandwidth greater than that over which spectral components are affected in a similar way will
become distorted since the amplitudes and phases of the various spectral components in the received version of the signal
are not the same as they were in the transmitted version. The phenomenon is known as frequency-selective fading and
appears as a variation in received signal strength as a function of frequency. In analogue FM systems the frequency selec-
tivity limits the maximum usable frequency deviation for a given amount of signal distortion. The bandwidth over which
the spectral components are affected in a similar way is known as the coherence, or correlation bandwidth.
The fact that the lengths of the individual propagation paths vary with time due to motion of the vehicle provides a method
of gaining further insight into the propagation mechanism since the changing time of arrival suggests the possibility of
associating each delayed version of the transmitted signal with a physical propagation path. However, it is not possible to
distinguish between different paths merely by considering the difference between the time of arrival, the spatial direction
of arrival also has to be taken into account. If we consider only single-scattered paths then all scatterers associated with a
certain path length can be located on an ellipse with the transmitter and receiver at its foci. Each time delay between
transmitter and receiver defines a confocal ellipse as shown in [the figure below]. If we consider scatterers located at A, B
and C, then we can distinguish between paths TAR and TBR, which have the same angle of arrival, by their different time
delays and between TAR and TCR which have the same time delay, but there are different angles of arrival.
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B τ+∆τ
A τ
Tx . Line of sight . Rx
C Direction
of motion
Path of Geometry for Single Scattering
Transmitted
Pulse Echoes
t=0 t
Overall
response
Illustrating how the receiver responses to a number of echoes of a transmitted pulse can
overlap, causing intersymbol interference
The angles of arrival can be determined by means of Doppler shift. As we have already seen, whenever the receiver or
transmitter is in motion the received RF signal experiences a Doppler shift, the frequency shift being related to the cosine
of the spatial angle between the direction of arrival of the wave and the direction of motion of the vehicle. If, therefore,
we transmitted a short RF pulse and measured both its time of arrival and Doppler shift at the receiver, we could identify
the length of the propagation path and the angle of arrival. Of course, there is left/right ambiguity inherent in the Doppler
shift measurement but this could be resolved, if necessary, by the use of directional antennas.
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An important and instructive feature of [the above figure] is that for a particular receiver location, a suitably scaled dia-
gram with several confocal ellipses can be produced in the form of a map overlay. Co-ordinated use of this overly,
together with experimental results for the location in question allows the identification of significant single scatterers or
scattering areas, and gives an indication of the extent of the contribution from multiple scattering.
It is clear from the above that these time-delayed echoes can overlap, as shown in [the figure above], causing error in dig-
ital systems due to intersymbol interference. In this case, increasing the signal-to-noise ratio will not cause a reduction in
error rate and so the delay spread sets the lower bound on error performance for a specified data rate. This limit is often
termed the irreducible error rate, although in practice the performance can be further improved by the use of channel
equalization techniques.”23
190-195.]
4.5 Fast Fading (observed at approximately 1/2 wavelength i.e. Rayleigh)
“Small-Scale Fading (Based on Doppler Spread):

1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel Variations Faster than Baseband Signal Variations
Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel, a
channel may be classified either as a fast fading or slow fading channel. In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse
response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the sym-
bol period of the transmitted signal. This causes frequency dispersion (also called time selective fading) due to Doppler
spreading, which leads to signal distortion. Viewed in the frequency domain, signal distortion due to fast fading increases
with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fad-
ing if
TS > TC
and
BS < BD
Where:
TS = Reciprocal Bandwidth (e.g. Symbol Period)
TC = Coherence Time (Time Domain Dual of Doppler Spread)
BS = Bandwidth
BD= Doppler Spread
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It should be noted that when a channel is specified as a fast or slow fading channel, it does not specify whether the channel
is flat fading or frequency selective in nature. Fast fading only deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion.
In the case of the flat fading channel, we can approximate the impulse response to be simply a delta function (no time
delay). Hence, a flat fading, fast fading channel is a channel in which the amplitude of the delta function varies faster than
the rate of change of the transmitted baseband signal. In the case of a frequency selective, fast fading channel, the ampli-
tudes, phases and time delays of any one of the multipath components vary faster than the rate of change of the transmit-
ted signal. In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates.”25
4.6 Slow Fading (observed at distances greater than 1/2 wavelength i.e. log normal)
“Small-Scale Fading (Based on Doppler Spread):

1. Low Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
3. Channel Variations Slower than Baseband Signal Variations
“In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband sig-
nal s(t). In this case, the channel may be assumed to be static over one or several reciprocal bandwidth intervals. in the
frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband
signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes slow fading if
TS << TC
and
BS >> BD
Where:
TS = Reciprocal Bandwidth (e.g. Symbol Period)
TC = Coherence Time (Time Domain Dual of Doppler Spread)
BS = Bandwidth
BD= Doppler Spread
It should be clear that the velocity of the mobile (or velocity of objects in the channel) and the baseband signaling deter-
mines whether a signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading.
Over the years, some authors have confused the terms fast and slow fading with the terms large-scale and small-scale fad-
ing. It should be emphasized that fast and slow fading deal with the relationship between the time rate of change in the
channel and the transmitted signal, and not with the propagation path loss models.”25
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4.7 Rayleigh Fading/Multipath
For an interesting and fun look at Raleigh Fading check out the Wireless Communications Web Page by Jean-Paul M.G.
Linnartz5 at:
http://ns.baltzer.nl/wirelesscd/rayleigh.htm
“Multipath, or Rayleigh, fading is a salient feature of mobile communications and, to some significant extent, limits the
coverage of mobile systems when the mobile is moving in a multipath environment. It is not such a dominant factor in
hand held mobile usage but, in low-field-strength areas, it can be detected by variations in noise levels as the receiver is
moved.”1
“In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of
the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or the envelope of an individual multipath component. It is well known that
the envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution. [The figure below]
shows a Rayleigh distributed signal envelope as a function of time. The Rayleigh distribution has a probability density
function (pdf) given by
2
 r ⁄ σ 2 exp  – ---------
r - 
 (0 ≤ r ≤ ∞)
p(r) =   2σ 2 

 0  (r < 0)
where σ is the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection, and σ2 is the time-average power the
received signal before envelope detection. The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a
specified value R is given by the corresponding cumulative distribution function (CDF).
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Typical Simulated Rayleigh Fading at the Carrier

Receiver Speed = 120 km/hr
10
5
Signal Level (dB about rms)
-5
-10
-15
-20
λ/2
-25
-30
-35
-40 0 50 100 150 200 250
Elapsed Time (ms)
R
 R2 
P ( R ) = Pr ( r ≤ R ) =
∫ p ( r ) dr = 1 – exp  – ----------
 2σ 2
0
The mean value rmean of the Rayleigh distribution is given by
∞
π
r mean = E [ r ] =
∫ rp( r )dr = σ --- = 1.2533σ
2
0
2
and the variance of the Rayleigh distribution is given by σ r , which represents the ac power in the signal envelope
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∞
2
σ π
∫
2 2 2 2
σr = E [ r ] – E [ r ] = r p ( r ) dr – ----------
2
0
σr = σ  2 – π
--- = 0.4292σ
2 2 2
 2 
The rms value of the envelope is the square root of the mean square, or 2σ .
The median value of r is found by solving
r median
∫
1--- = p ( r ) dr
2
0
and is
r median = 1.177σ
Thus the mean and the median differ by only 0.55 dB in a Rayleigh fading signal. Note that the median is often used in
practice, since fading data are usually measured in the field and a particular distribution cannot be assumed. By using
median values instead of mean values it is easy to compare different fading distributions which may have widely varying
means. [The figure below] illustrates the Rayleigh pdf. The corresponding Rayleigh cumulative distribution function
(CDF) is shown in [the figure below].”25
Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)
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OBS light clutter, Site C

LOS heavy clutter, Site E
LOS light clutter, Site D
% Probabilty
Signal Level
< Abscissa
Log-normal σ=7.5 dB
Rayleigh
Rician K=6 dB
Signal Level (dB about median)

CDF (Cumulative Distribution Function)
“Two-Ray Rayleigh Fading Model:
Clark’s model and the statistics for Rayleigh fading are for flat fading conditions and do not consider multipath time delay.
In modern mobile communication systems with high data rates, it has become necessary to model the effects of multipath
delay spread as well as fading. A commonly used multipath model is an independent Rayleigh fading 2-ray model (which
is a specific implementation of the generic fading simulator shown in [the figure below].
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s(t)
Signal
under test
τ1 ... τΝ
Rayleigh
Fading a0
Simulator
Rayleigh
Fading a1
Simulator
Rayleigh
Fading aN
Simulator
∑ r(t)
A signal may be applied to a Rayleigh fading simulator to determine performance in a wide range of
channel conditions. Both flat and frequency selective fading conditions may be simulated, depending
on gain and time delay settings.
[The following illustration] shows a block diagram of the 2-ray independent Rayleigh fading channel model. The impulse
response of the model is represented as
hb ( t ) = α 1 exp ( jΦ 1 )δ ( t ) + α 2 ( 1 ) exp ( jΦ 2 ( 1 ) )δ ( t – τ )
input output
∑
α1exp(jφ1)
τ
α2exp(jφ2)
Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model.
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Where α1 and α2 are independent and Rayleigh distributed, ρ1 and ρ2 are independent and uniformly distributed over
[0,2π], and τ is the time delay between the two rays. By setting α2 equal to zero, the special case of a flat Rayleigh fading
channel is obtained as
hb ( t ) = α 1 exp ( jΦ 1 )δ ( t )
By varying τ, it is possible to create a wide range of frequency selective fading effects. The proper time correlation prop-
erties of the Rayleigh random variables α1 and α2 are guaranteed by generating two independent waveforms, each pro-
duced from the inverse Fourier transform of the spectrum described [in the section entitled “Simulation of Clarke and
Gans Fading Model”].”25
4.8 Ricean Fading Distribution
For an interesting and fun look at Ricean Fading check out the Wireless Communications Web Page by Jean-Paul M.G.
Linnartz5 at:
http://ns.baltzer.nl/wirelesscd/rice.htm
“When there is a dominant stationary signal component present, such as a line-of-sight propagation path, the small-scale
fading envelope distribution is Ricean. In such a situation, random multipath components arriving at different angles are
superimposed on a stationary dominant signal. At the output of an envelope detector, this has the effect of adding a dc
component to the random multipath.
Just as for the case of detection of a sine wave in thermal noise [Ric48], the effect of a dominant signal arriving with many
weaker multipath signals gives rise to the Ricean distribution. As the dominant signal becomes weaker, the composite
signal resembles a noise signal which has an envelope that is Rayleigh. Thus, the Ricean distribution degenerates to a
Rayleigh distribution when the dominant component fades away.
The Ricean distribution is given by
 2
–( r + A )
2
 r -  Ar
-------------------------- for (A≥ 0, r ≥ 0)
p ( r ) =  ------ e 2σ 2 I 0  ------
 σ2  σ 2
 0 for (r < 0)
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.
The parameter A denotes the peak amplitude of the dominant signal and I0( ) is the modified Bessel function of the first
kind and zero-order. The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a parameter K which is defined as the ratio
between the deterministic signal power and the variance of the multipath. It is give by K = A2/(2σ2) or, in terms of dB
2
A -
K ( dB ) = 10 log --------- dB
2
2σ
The parameter K is known as the Ricean factor and completely specifies the Ricean distribution. As A → 0, K → −∞ dB,
and as the dominant path decreases in amplitude, the Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution.”25
5.0 Interference
5.1 Multiple-Carrier Intermodulation (IM) Products
“When several signals having different carrier frequencies are simultaneously present in a nonlinear device, the result is a
multiplicative interaction between the carrier frequencies which can produce signals at all combinations of sum and dif-
ference frequencies. The energy apportioned to these spurious signals (intermodulation or IM products) represents a loss
in signal energy. In addition, if these IM products appear within the bandwidth region of these or other signals, the effect
is that of added noise for those signals.”26
Frequencies of Intermodulation Products:
“Frequencies of IM products can be defined in the following manner:
Order - corresponding to the classification of IM products by the number of constituent frequencies (e.g. 2nd, 3rd, 4th,...
Nth). Order is equal to the sum of the harmonics of the constituent frequencies.
Fundamental Frequencies - referring to constituent fundamental frequencies from which the IM products are derived.
Harmonics - corresponding to the whole number multiples of a fundamental frequency.
For example, a 3rd order IM signal centered at frequency C could result from the combination of the 2nd harmonic of a sig-
nal whose fundamental center frequency is A and a second signal whose fundamental center frequency is B:
C = 2A + (1)B (where order = 2 + 1 = 3)
Some examples of 2nd through 5th order intermodulation products are provided in [the following table]:
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Order Intermodulation Products
2nd A+B, A-B
3rd 2A+B, 2A-B, 2B+A, 2B-A, A+B+C
4th 2A+2B, 2A-2B, 3A+B, 3A-B
5th A+4B, A-4B, 4A+B, 4A-B, 2A+3B, 2A-

3B...
Note that third and fifth order intermodulation are most prevalent. The signal strength level of harmonic decreases rapidly
with its order (e.g. 3A would be weaker than 2A). Higher order IM products are less prevelent due to the low probability
of many different transmitters being keyed simultaneously (e.g. A+B+C+2D+2E) for the IM to occur. Even order IM
products may fall out of the local systems’ operating bands.”4
[Clapp, Scott. Inter-Band Interference Control. Motorola. pp. 4.]
[Sklar, Bernard. 1988. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc. pp. 192.]
5.2 Intermodulation Distortion
“Linear circuits are used in communications where it is important that an exact or nearly exact reproduction of an infor-
mation bearing signal must be transmitted to a destination. "Good Linearity" is synonymous with "Low Distortion". In
this paper, the type of linearity being discussed is primarily amplitude linearity, although it is equally valid to consider
phase linearity.
Examples of signals that require linearity are: human voice, multilevel data signals, a microwave baseband signal com-
posed of FDM channels, or RF signals which are modulated (at least partly amplitude modulated) by such signals.
M-QAM microwave transmitters are simultaneously phase and amplitude modulated by multilevel data signals, and
depending on the number "M" require some degree of linearity from the circuits which amplify or process the microwave
signals. For example, 64-QAM requires much more perfect linearity than 4-QAM, in fact, 64-QAM requires linearity in
the IF and RF circuits approaching that previously required in the baseband circuits in analog microwave radios.
The term Intermodulation Distortion or IMD indicates that the distortion phenomenon being referred to is characterized
by multiple signals, or a composite signal with multiple frequency components, where the components mix with each
other (intermodulate) in an imperfectly linear electrical circuit and as a result produce undesired signal components (dis-
tortion). By way of comparison, the more familiar Harmonic Distortion only requires one signal or signal component to be
present, and the undesired products generated are at multiples (harmonics) of the original signal frequency.
IMD is similar to Harmonic Distortion in that both are caused by nonlinear imperfections in an electrical circuit that is
supposed to be linear. However, a simple mathematical analysis will show that odd order terms of the transfer function of
a non-linear circuit will cause the in-band distortion products referred to as IMD, while the even order terms normally
cause Harmonic Distortion products which, in many cases, fall out of the frequency band or off channel, and thus may be
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removed by filtering. Thus, IMD is usually the more serious of the two types of distortion, since it often falls in or close to
the frequency band occupied by the desired signal and cannot be removed easily by filtering.
The term Intermodulation Ratio or IMR indicates the ratio of the desired signal to the undesired (IMD) signal power.
The term Intercept Point is used to describe a fictitious condition where the IMD products of interest (usually the 3rd
order products, because they are normally the largest) would be equal to the desired signals, and the IMR would be 0 dB.
This condition is not usually achievable, because the circuit becomes highly non-linear or saturates at signal levels lower
than would be necessary.”28
For mathematical descriptions please refer to Robert Stedman’s Intermodulation Distortion Basics paper.28
[Stedman, Robert. Intermodulation Distortion Basics [Online serial]. November 9, 1990. http://www.acpg.cig.mot.com/
w3/APD/Supercell_Dev./Tech_Notes/Intermod/IMD.html.]
5.3 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
“In a digital transmission system, distortion of the received signal, which distortion is manifested in the temporal spread-
ing and consequent overlap of individual pulses to the degree that the receiver cannot reliably distinguish between
changes of state, i.e. , between individual signal elements. Note 1: At a certain threshold, intersymbol interference will
compromise the integrity of the received data. Note 2: Intersymbol interference attributable to the statistical nature of
quantum mechanisms sets the fundamental limit to receiver sensitivity. Note 3: Intersymbol interference may be mea-
sured by eye patterns. 2. Extraneous energy from the signal in one or more keying intervals that interferes with the recep-
tion of the signal in another keying interval. 3. The disturbance caused by extraneous energy from the signal in one or
more keying intervals that interferes with the reception of the signal in another keying interval.”6
[Glossary of Telecommunication Terms. [Electronic database]. August 7, 1996. U.S. Federal Government. Directory:
http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm.]
5.4 Inter-System Interference (ISI)
“When a CDMA system is designed as an overlay over an existing system, reusing the same frequency band, such as
CDMA over AMPS in North America, or 900 MHz CDMA over TACS as in China, it is necessary to anticipate and min-
imize any intersystem interference that might result from the deployment.
This is not a problem unique to CDMA, it is a radio-systems issue. The same issues will occur in a GSM system if it is
overlaid on a TACS system in the same frequency band. All technologies have the same set of contributing factors. Some
key variables for the interfering transmitter are: ERP (directed towards the receive antenna), Transmit nominal power and
Sideband splatter. A few key variables for the receiver which might be interfered with are: IM (intercept point) of the
receiver, Filter protection available and Gain of the receive antenna system.
After the potential for interference has been assessed, corrective action, if required, can then be taken. Corrective action
can be in the form of improving the filtering at the receive site, or it can be related to any of the other variables noted
above; improve Tx splatter, adjust ERP, frequency planning, etc. In all cases, the potential for interference, and the best
corrective action, are site specific. There is no generic solution and site engineering is required. Recommendations for
corrective action is addressed where deemed appropriate.
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Propagation Basics
One additional note, rogue transmitters are rare and illegal occurrences. If they are high enough in power, they may cause
problems to one or more sectors of a CDMA system. In some cases, surrounding CDMA cell will increase in size to miti-
gate the problem.”13
5.5 Adjacent Channel Interference - Land-Mobile
“The origin of adjacent channel interference is shown in [the figure below]. The figure portrays two transmissions occur-
ring on adjacent channels. Inevitably some signal components spread beyond the channel boundaries and can be inter-
cepted by receivers tuned to the adjacent channel. When the signal strength of the adjacent channel transmission becomes
so large that the power intercepted by an on-channel receiver approaches that of the desired on-channel signal source,
interference occurs. The ratio of the signal strengths of the two transmissions at the point at which interference is first
noted is called the adjacent channel interference protection ratio (ACIPR).”8
ACIPR
Relative signal strength
Desired signal
Interfering signal
Idealized receiver selectivity
Adjacent channel Desired channel

Frequency
Origin of Adjacent Channel Interference
Telephone and Telegraph Company. pp. 80-88, 138-139.]
5.6 Man-Made Noise and Interference
“The performance of any communication system is dependent on the characteristics of the transmission medium and it
can often be improved by use of techniques which successfully exploit these characteristics, for example by using an opti-
mum modulation method. As far as the communications engineer is concerned the important characteristics are the fre-
quency and time responses of the channel and the magnitude and nature of the noise. The former characteristics have
been discussed in earlier chapters; we now deal with the problem of noise. There are two basic reasons for a study of
noise. Firstly there is a need to gain an understanding of the nature of the noise in order to devise methods by which it can
be characterized. Knowledge of the sources of noise may also lead to methods by which it can be suppressed. Secondly
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Propagation Basics
there is a vital need to be able to predict the performance of communication systems that have to operate in noisy environ-
ments.
A mobile radio system is beset with noise from various sources and each source may have different characteristics. Firstly
there is receiver noise which is Gaussian in nature and arises from the receiving system itself. Receiver noise is usually
expressed in terms of nkT0B, n being the factor by which the total receiver noise exceeds ambient noise. Atmospheric
noise may also be present, but it decreases rapidly with frequency and is generally negligible in the VHF range. Galactic
noise is also insignificant in the VHF band as it is well below the background noise. By far the most important source of
noise as far as mobile communication is concerned is that radiated by electrical equipment of various kinds. This noise,
commonly termed ‘man-made’ noise is impulsive in nature, and therefore has characteristics quite different from Gauss-
ian noise. It can be detected at frequencies up to 7 GHz. ...The characterization of Gaussian noise is fairly straightfor-
ward, but impulsive noise is a quite different matter.
There are several potential sources of impulsive noise which could play a role in mobile communication systems. The
radio is often installed in a vehicle which is itself a source of noise due to its own ignition and other electrical systems and
the vehicle commonly operates in urban, suburban and industrial areas where it is close to other noisy vehicles. There are
various extraneous sources of noise such as power lines and neon signs, industrial noise from heavy current switches, arch
welders and the like, and noise from various items of domestic electrical equipment. These may or may not be significant
contributors in any specific situation. In practice the level of man-made noise varies markedly with location and time, so
from a limited series of observations it is only possible to derive typical values and obtain some estimate of the variability.
In urban areas it is generally conceded that vehicle ignition noise is a major source of interference to VHF mobile radio
systems.
Throughout the literature, the terms Gaussian and impulsive are used to denote two distinct types of noise. Only the
power spectral density of Gaussian noise is affected by linear filtering; the probability density function remains Gaussian.
The in-phase and quadrature components of narrowband Gaussian noise are independent, as are the envelope and phase
distributions. For any other type of noise, both the power spectral density and the probability density function are
changed by filtering; the in-phase and quadrature components, although uncorrelated, are not independent. In the general
case, the envelope and phase of random noise are independent, the phase being uniformly distributed in the interval
(0,2π).
In general terms we may consider an impulse as a transient that contains an instantaneous uniform spectrum over the fre-
quency band for which it is defined, a uniform spectrum requiring that all frequencies are present, of equal strength and in
phase over the frequency band. Impulsive noise is the combination of successive impulses which have random ampli-
tudes and random time-spacings; these factors may sometimes be such that adequate separation of successive impulse
responses by a narrowband receiver is not possible.
Thermal noise can produce an annoying “hiss” on a voice channel, but does not significantly degrade intelligibility unless
its RMS value is relatively high. Impulsive noise causes clicks, which, although disturbing, may be tolerable. The degra-
dation of the channel is not easily defined and is usually based on some kind of subjective assessment, although the quasi-
peak measurement, which will be mentioned later, has been shown to have some correspondence with the subjective
annoyance on a.m. radio and television. In some ways digital transmissions are easier to deal with since the bit error rate
(BER) provides a good quantitative indication of how well the communication system reproduces the transmitted infor-
mation. The BER produced by thermal noise is readily available in several textbooks. As far as impulsive noise is con-
cerned we will discuss the methods that exist for expressing the properties of the noise, and to what extent these methods
provide information which is directly useful in predicting performance degradation in communication systems.” 23
190-195, 255-257.]
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Propagation Basics
6.0 Standards and Units
6.1 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio):
“Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is another parameter used to describe an antenna performance. It deals with the
impedance match of the antenna feed point to the feed or transmission line. The antenna input impedance establishes a
load on the transmission line as well as on the radio link transmitter and receiver. To have RF energy produced by the
transmitter radiated with minimum loss or the energy picked up by the antenna passed to the receiver with minimum loss,
the input or base impedance of the antenna must be matched to the characteristics of the transmission line.”13
VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
6.2 Watts to dBm Conversion32:
Power in dBm = 10 log ( watts × 1000 )
 dBm
------------
 10 
Power in Watts = 10
------------------------
1000
[Watts to dBm Conversion Chart [Online serial]. http://infonow.ecid.cig.mot.com/EMD/TMG/Watt_dBm/

Watts_dBm.html.]
6.3 dBi to dBd Conversion
dBd = dBi – 2.14
dBi = dBd + 2.14
6.4 Speed of Light : Wavelength
8
c = 3 × 10
74 of 76
Propagation Basics
λ = c⁄f
λ = wavelength (m)
c = speed of light (m/s)
f = frequency (Hz)
7.0 References
1. Boucher, Neil J. 1995. The Cellular Radio Handbook. A Reference for Cellular System Operation. Third Edition.
Mill Valley. Quantum Publishing, Inc. pp. 73-74, 185-186.
2. Celwave. 1997. Product Selection Guide 197. Radio Frequency Systems. Inc. pp. 320.
3. Clapp, Scott. March 8, 1995. China Frequency Planning and RF Propagation Analysis Overview, REV B. Motor-
ola, Inc. pp. 18.
4. Clapp, Scott. December 15, 1997. Inter-Band Interference Control. Motorola. pp. 4.
5. COST 231 TD (91) 73. September 1991. COST 231 - UHF Propagation, Urban Transmission Loss Models for
Mobile Radio in the 900- and 1,800- MHz Bands. The Hagne.
6. Glossary of Telecommunication Terms. [Electronic database]. August 7, 1996. U.S. Federal Government. Direc-
tory: http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm.
7. Hata, M. 1980. Empirical Formula for Propagation Loss in Land Mobile Radio Services. IEEE Trans. on Vehicular
and Technology, VT-29. pp. 317-325.
8. Jakes, William C. 1974. Microwave Mobile Communications. An IEEE Press Classic Reissue. Picataway. Ameri-
can Telephone and Telegraph Company. pp. 80-88, 138-139.
9. Jordon, Edward C. 1989. Reference Data for Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications.
Seventh Edition. Indianapolis. Howard W. Sams & Company. pp. 32-10.
10. Kazimierz Siwiak. Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communicationsi. Boston/London: ISBN 0-
89006-755-4. Artech House.
11. Leonard, Terry. Downtilt Effects Presentation. RF Planning Group. Motorola. pp 5-9.
12. Linnertz, Jean_Paul M.G. Wireless Communication. Wireless Channels. Multipath Fading [Online serial]. 1995.
http://ns.baltzer.nl/wirelesscd/rayleigh.htm.
13. Motorola. RF Planning Guide V2.0 [Online serial]. May 29, 1998. http://www.pamd.cig.mot.com/nds/cts/rftech/
public_html/Documents/RFPG2/rfguideV2.html.
14. Motorola. 1997. CDMA RF System Design Procedure. Version 2.0. [Online serial]. http://
www.pamd.cig.mot.com/nds/cts/rftech/public_html/Documents/DsgnProc2/bookTOC.html. pp. 3-1, 3-9, 3-12.
15. Motorola NetPlan Group. May 12, 1998. NetPlan Application Note Custom Pathloss Model. NetPlan V3.2. Revi-
sion 0.1.
16. Motorola NetPlan Group. Statistical [Online serial]. http://www.sesd.cig.mot.com/statistical/.
17. Motorola NetPlan Group. XLOS Propagation Model [Online serial]. http://www.sesd.cig.mot.com/xlos.html.
18. Motorola NetPlan Gourp. Xlos Propagation Model. Slide Presentation.
19. Mozaik Web Page. Bullington Propagation Model. [Online serial]. http://rdeserver.comm.mot.com/mozaik/
bullngtn.htm.
75 of 76
Propagation Basics
20. Mozaik Web Page. Okumura Propagation Model. [Online serial]. http://rdeserver.comm.mot.com/mozaik/oku-
mura.htm.
21. Okumura, Y., Ohmori, E., Kawano, T., Fukada, K. 1968. Field strength and ITs Variability in VHF and UHF Land-
Mobile Radio Service, Rev. Elec. Commun. Lab., 16. pp. 825-873.
22. Orr, William, and Cowan, Stuart. 1993. The Beam Antenna Handbook. Lakewood: Radio Amateur Callbook (an
imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications, a division of BPI Communications, Inc.). pp. 6-7.
23. Parsons, David. 1996. The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel. London. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 44, 162-
164, 190-195, 255-257.
24. Rappaport. dn Path Loss Model - Range vs. Battery/Power Drain. [Online serial]. http://www.mprg.ee.vt.edu/
research/glomo/node3.html#SECTION00021000000000000000.
25. Rappaport, Theodore S. 1996. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 70, 93-94, 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 163-167, 170-176, 188-189.
26. Sklar, Bernard. 1988. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Prentice-Hall, Inc. pp. 192.
27. Stedman, Robert. Handy Formulas [Online serial]. June 2, 1995. http://www.acpg.cig.mot.com/w3/APD/
SuperCell_Dev./Tech_Notes/Ants_Fs/Ants_Fields.html.
28. Stedman, Robert. Intermodulation Distortion Basics [Online serial]. November 9, 1990. http://
www.acpg.cig.mot.com/w3/APD/Supercell_Dev./Tech_Notes/Intermod/IMD.html.
29. Solectek White Paper. Line of Site. [Online serial]. http://corfu.forthnet.gr/solectek/los.htm.
30. USDOT Federal Aviation Administration. August 1990. FAA Academy Training Manual. pp. 1-1 thru 1-7. Anten-
nas and Radiation Patterns. 40152, Common Principles, Antennas, and Transmission Lines Course. http://
www.academy.jccbi.gov/catalog/html/40152.htm.
31. U.S. Geological Survey [Electronic database]. 1998. Directory: http://www.usgs.gov/.
32. Watts to dBm Conversion Chart [Online serial]. http://infonow.ecid.cig.mot.com/EMD/TMG/Watt_dBm/
Watts_dBm.html.
33. Wireless Infonet. [Online serial]. http://www.ask-wi.com/training.html
34. Yang, Samuel C. 1998. CDMA RF System Engineering. Norwood, Massachusettes. Artech House, Inc. pp. 15.
8.0 Other Useful References
35. Anderson, L.J. and Trolese, L.G. July 1958. Simplified Method for Computing Knife Edge Diffraction in the
Shadow Region. IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. Vol. 6. pp. 281.
36. Antennas. [Electronic database]. August 7, 1996. U.S. Federal Government. Directory: http://
www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/dir-001/_0018.htm.
37. Balanis, Constantine A. 1989. Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. New York. John Wiley and Sons.
38. Bullington, Kenneth. November 1997. Radio Propagation for Vehicular Communications. IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology. Volume VT-26. Number 4.
39. Motorola. RF Technology Team Antenna Vendor List. [Online serial]. http://www.pamd.cig.mot.com/nds/cts/
rftech/public_html/AntennaVendor.html
40. On-Line CDMA Glossary [Electronic database]. November 9, 1995. Motorola Technical Education and Documen-
tation. Directory: http://www.cig.mot.com/Org.new/TED/glossary.html. Version 0.3.
41. On-Line Cellular Glossary [Electronic database]. June 24, 1996. Motorola Technical Education and Documenta-
tion. Directory: http://www.cig.mot.com/Org.new/TED/cellglos.html. Version 1.
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September 30, 1998

This is a quick reference to propagation topics commonly used in the

3.19 Diffracting Screens Model 53

1.2 Antenna Types

Some Antenna Types

1.3 Induction and Radiation Fields

Linear - E vector contained in one plane.

Horizontal - E vector parallel to horizontal plane.

Vertical - E vector parallel to vertical plane.

1.5 Radiation Pattern

1/2 Wave Dipole

1.6 Antenna Pattern Distortion

dBi = dBd + 2.14 dBd = dBi - 2.14

dBd Vs. dBi

A few gain equations:27

Gain of a 1/2 Wave Dipole:

G(dBi) = 10*log(Gr) = 10*log(1.64) = 2.148 dB

Gr = directivity of resonant dipole

Parabolic Dish Antenna Gain:

G(dBi) = 20*log(f(MHz)) + 20*log(D(feet)) - 52.6

D = aperture diameter in feet

for 54% illumination.

[Stedman, Robert. Handy Formulas [Online serial]. June 2, 1995. http://www.acpg.cig.mot.com/w3/APD/

1.7 Return Loss

RLdB = 20 log (1/p) Where p = VSWR-1/VSWR+1

VSWR = 1.5/1 = 1.5 p = 1.5 - 1/1.5 + 1 = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2

RLdB = 20log (1/0.2)

1.8 Antenna Beamwidth (Horizontal/Vertical)

Degrees Above Horizon

1.9 Front to Back Ratio

0dB Reference Line

25dB Front to Back Ratio

1.10 Antenna Bandwidth

1.11 RF Feeder Losses

Typical Components in the RF Feeder Run

(A) Top Jumper

(B) Main Transmission Line

Waveguide Entry Port

(D) Jumper to Directional Coupler

(E) Directional Coupler

(F) Jumper to Duplexer

(H) Jumper to Tx and Rx Antenna Port

Note:Each Jumper consists of:

1.12 Antenna Efficiency

1.13 Effects of Antenna Positioning (PCS/Cellular Communication Systems)

Note that both refraction and diffraction decrease as frequency increases.

Site Locations and Antenna Heights:

Containment of Coverage Through Reflection from Buildings:

Examples of these situations are shown below:

Hill-Top Cell Sites:

“Off-grid” Site Locations:

Link Budgets and System Balance:

Gain: 10 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 16°

Ant Ht: 164’ = 50m 153 dB Coverage

3 x SRL410C4R130 Sector Antennas

Gain: 10 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 16°

Gain: 16 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 8°

Ant Ht: 164’ = 50m 153 dB Coverage

Gain: 16 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 8°

Ant Ht: 164’ = 50m 153 dB Coverage

Gain: 16 dB Vertical Beamwidth: 8°

Ant Ht: 164’ = 50m 153 dB Coverage

8° Downtilt 10° Downtilt

“ERP and Downtilt Limitations:

G(dBi) = 10log(Gr) = 10log(1.64) = 2.148 dB

G(dBi) = 20log(f(MHz)) + 20log(D(feet)) - 52.6

' , * , 7 , = ( ' 9 ( 5 7 , & $ /

6 ( & 7 2 5 ' 2 : 1 7 , / 7 287387