Source 1 University of Colorado, Boulder, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department. (2003). Lab Techniques: Crystallization.

Retrieved August 20, 2010, from http://orgchem.colorado.edu/hndbksupport/cryst/cryst.html The process of making crystals or crystallization is the result of a chemical reaction. Crystallization is a technique which chemists use to purify solid compounds. The formation of crystals is based on the principles of solubility. The principle of solubility refers to how much of a solid can be dissolved into a compound before it becomes saturated. When a saturated hot solution is cooled, the solute is no longer soluble in the solvent and forms crystals of pure compound. Understanding the process of forming crystals is a basic function for chemistry students.

Source 2 Helmenstine, Anne Marie. (2009). How to Grow Great Crystals: Hints, Tips, and Techniques. Retrieved August 20, 2010, from http://chemistry.about.com/cs/growingcrystals/a/aa012604.htm Crystals are structures that are formed from a regular repeated pattern of connected atoms or molecules. It is possible to grow crystals through a chemical process where atoms or molecules that crystallize become dissolved into individual units. A chemical reaction occurs when the solute particles connect with each other and grow large. At the point where this crystal is big enough to fall out of the solution, crystallization has occurred. Basic crystal growing begins with a saturated solution made by adding solute (sugar, salt, borax) to a solvent, usually water. The rate at which the crystals grow will depend on the time available, temperature and condition of solute. Common household items like a string can be placed in a glass jar with saturated solution. Small crystals will form on the string, which can then be used to grow larger crystals. Source 3 Helmstein, Anne Marie (2010). Types of Crystals Shapes and Structures. Retrieved August 21, 2009, from http://chemistry.about.com/cs/growingcrystals/a/aa0lll04a.htm. Scientists categorize crystals according to size and chemical or physical properties. Crystals are also categorized by their shape. The seven main crystal shapes are: cubic or isometric, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, trigonal and monoclinic. Crystals shapes are also called lattices and these can be primitive or non-primitive. The physical or chemical properties resulting in crystallization includes covalent, metallic, ionic and molecular.

Source 4 "Facts about Crystals&Gems." eHow. Demand Media, Inc, 1999. Web. 23 Aug 2011. http://www.ehow.com/facts_5683615_crystals-gems.html Crystals have been looked upon as valuable items for thousands of years because of their beauty and monetary value. Crystals are taken out of caves around the world yet due to new technology scientists are now able to synthesize crystals in labs. They come in different categories like molecular solids and alloys. The categories are different depending on their ability to rust. Some characteristics of crystals may be that they are shiny or dull. Source 5 Haslego, Christopher. "Crystallization." Cheresources.com. N.p., 1997. Web. 24 Aug 2011. <http://www.cheresources.com/cryst.shtml>. Crystallization is the process by which solid crystals are produced from a homogenous solution. Crystals come in all different shapes and some of the main ones are orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. In order for crystallization to occur there must be a saturated solution. Supersaturation refers to a state in which the liquid (solvent) contains more dissolved solids (solute) than can ordinarily be accomodated at that temperature. The first stage of crystallization is called primary nucleation, and this happens when the homogenous solution has been created. This stage also includes the growth of a new crystal. The second stage of crystallization is called secondary crystallization, and this is the stage in which crystal growth is optimal. Source 6 Ophardt, Charles. "What are Mixtures and Solutions ." Study of Matter . N.p., 2003. Web. 22 Sep 2011. <http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/106Amixture.html>. A mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances. Mixtures are not like compounds which are chemically combined. They can be physically separated into smaller entities like elements. A mixture that is uniform throughout is called a homogeneous mixture, and this is the kind of mixture required for crystallization. Almost everything is a mixture for example sprite, brownies, cake and salt dissolving in water are all mixtures. Particle size distinguishes homogeneous solutions from other heterogeneous mixtures. Solutions have particles which are the size of atoms or molecules - too small to be seen.

Source 7 Barron, Andrew, and Carissa Smith. "Crystal Structure." Connexions . N.p., 28 Jan 2010. Web. 24 Aug 2011. http://cnx.org/content/m16927/latest/ In any sort of discussion of crystalline materials, it is useful to begin with a discussion of crystallography: the study of the formation, structure, and properties of crystals. A crystal structure is defined as the particular repeating arrangement of atoms (molecules or ions) throughout a crystal. Structure refers to the internal arrangement of particles and not the external appearance of the crystal. However, these are not entirely independent since the external appearance of a crystal is often related to the internal arrangement. For example, crystals of cubic rock salt (NaCl) are physically cubic in appearance. Only a few of the possible crystal structures are of concern with respect to simple inorganic salts and these will be discussed in detail, however, it is important to understand the nomenclature of crystallography (Barron, and Smith). Source 8 Barron, Andrew, and Carissa Smith. "Crystal Structure." Connexions . N.p., 28 Jan 2010. Web. 24 Aug 2011. http://cnx.org/content/m16927/latest/ Crystallography- the Bravais Lattice The Bravais lattice is the basic building block from which all crystals can be constructed. The concept originated as a topological problem of finding the number of different ways to arrange points in space where each point would have an identical atmosphere. That is each point would be surrounded by an identical set of points as any other point, so that all points would be indistinguishable from each other. Mathematician Auguste Bravais discovered that there were 14 different collections of the groups of points, which are known as Bravais lattices. These lattices fall into seven different "crystal systems, as differentiated by the relationship between the angles between sides of the unit cell and the distance between points in the unit cell. The unit cell is the smallest group of atoms, ions or molecules that, when repeated at regular intervals in three dimensions, will produce the lattice of a crystal system. The lattice parameter is the length between two points on the corners of a unit cell. Each of the various lattice parameters are designated by the letters a, b, and c. If two sides are equal, such as in a tetragonal lattice, then the lengths of the two lattice parameters are designated a and c, with b omitted. The angles are designated by the Greek letters , , and , such that an angle with a specific Greek letter is not subtended by the axis with its Roman equivalent(Barron, and Smith).

Source 9 Barron, Andrew, and Carissa Smith. "Crystal Structure." Connexions . N.p., 28 Jan 2010. Web. 24 Aug 2011. http://cnx.org/content/m16927/latest/ Atom positions and crystal axes The structure of a crystal is defined with respect to a unit cell. As the entire crystal consists of repeating unit cells, this definition is sufficient to represent the entire crystal. Within the unit cell, the atomic arrangement is expressed using coordinates. There are two systems of coordinates commonly in use, which can cause some confusion. Both use a corner of the unit cell as their origin. The first, less-commonly seen system is that of Cartesian or orthogonal coordinates (X, Y, Z). These usually have the units of Angstroms and relate to the distance in each direction between the origin of the cell and the atom. These coordinates may be manipulated in the same fashion are used with two- or threedimensional graphs. It is very simple, therefore, to calculate inter-atomic distances and angles given the Cartesian coordinates of the atoms. Unfortunately, the repeating nature of a crystal cannot be expressed easily using such coordinates. For example, consider a cubic cell of dimension 3.52 . Pretend that this cell contains an atom that has the coordinates (1.5, 2.1, 2.4). That is, the atom is 1.5 away from the origin in the x direction (which coincides with the a cell axis), 2.1 in the y (which coincides with the b cell axis) and 2.4 in the z (which coincides with the c cell axis). There will be an equivalent atom in the next unit cell along the x-direction, which will have the coordinates (1.5 + 3.52, 2.1, 2.4) or (5.02, 2.1, 2.4). This was a rather simple calculation, as the cell has very high symmetry and so the cell axes, a, b and c, coincide with the Cartesian axes, X, Y and Z. However, consider lower symmetry cells such as triclinic or monoclinic in which the cell axes are not mutually orthogonal. In such cases, expressing the repeating nature of the crystal is much more difficult to accomplish (Barron, and Smith).

Source 10 Barron, Andrew, and Carissa Smith. "Crystal Structure." Connexions . N.p., 28 Jan 2010. Web. 24 Aug 2011. http://cnx.org/content/m16927/latest/ Description of Crystal Structures Crystal structures may be described in a number of ways. The most common manner is to refer to the size and shape of the unit cell and the positions of the atoms (or ions) within the cell. However, this information is sometimes insufficient to allow for an understanding of the true structure in three dimensions. Consideration of several unit cells, the arrangement of the atoms with respect to each other, the number of other atoms they in contact with, and the distances to neighboring atoms, often will provide a better understanding. A number of methods are available to describe extended solid-state

structures. The most applicable with regard to elemental and compound semiconductor, metals and the majority of insulators is the close packing approach ( Barron, and Smith).