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current-mode circuits
B. Wilson
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1 t l I
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Fig. 3 Four-transistor current mirror and symbol
PI
1 3 p 4
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1
I I
capacitance multiplier [77]. Senani [78] has also recently Fig. 7 Floating F D N R synthesis
described a floating inductance synthesis employing a
pair of standard voltage operational amplifiers, but with formulation were reported by Wilson [39] in his pub-
the disadvantage of requiring 12 resistors (two matched) lication of a high performance inverting conveyor
and a floating capacitor. employing an operational amplifier and two current
In parallel with the general shift of interest from purely mirrors.
inductive simulation to the more general FDNR circuits Two further floating FDNR circuits, utilising only two
for continuous time analogue filter synthesis there has conveyors, a voltage buffer and three unmatched passive
been a corresponding increase in the number of pub- components, were outlined by Higashimura and Fukui
lications concerning a current-mode approach to the [89] in 1986 that avoided the problem of parasitic capac-
design of GaAs amplifiers for switched capacitor filters itive components degrading performance. This line of
(Section 4.3). development has been continued by them with the recent
introduction [90] of four new floating FDNR simula-
3.1.2Frequency dependent negative resistance tions, ostensibly needing only two conveyors, but also
The function of frequency dependent negative resistance requiring a current inverting negative immittance conver-
(FDNR), occasionally referred to as a super capacitance, tor, which is itself usually implemented with a conveyor.
is an additional synthetic circuit element that is often Whilst a great amount of attention has been focused
required in active filter design. Early single conveyor for- on a range of frequency dependent negative resistance
mulation by Soliman [52], using a conveyor equivalent simulations, little work has been reported on frequency
of the Ford-Girling circuit, and Nandi [79], resulted in dependent positive resistance (FDPR) circuits, possibly
high loss resonators rather than an FDNR relationship, because of stability problems. The only conveyor FDPR
TWOfurther contributions by Soliman [80, 811, describe appears to be a publication by Pookaiyaudom and
a three conveyor circuit with a suggested FDNR capabil- Srisarakham [91] in which they describe a two conveyor
ity and a single conveyor circuit for realising both an implementation using three unmatched grounded passive
66 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . G , No. 2, A P R I L 1990
components, complete with practical results obtained functions, with Rathore [lo61 developing a systematic
from their own conveyor realisation. synthesis procedure, illustrating that previous circuits
[U, 103, 1041 were special cases of a more general
3.1.3 General immittance convertors approach. In a parallel development Nandi [I071 sug-
The first publication to consider the use of conveyors for gested in his comments on a publication by Ganguly
general immittance synthesis was that by Soliman [92] in [lo81 the use of conveyors in realising noninverting
1972 in which he presented a range of multiconveyor cir- bilateral transfer functions with a high input impedance.
cuits capable of producing transfer functions of a single Salawu [I091 attempted in 1980 to reduce the com-
specified order, either as positive or negative convertors. ponent count of Soliman’s original circuit [103], an
This procedure was extended in his next contribution attempt that was later discovered by Salawu [llO]
[93] to the wider problem of transfer functions realisable himself to be restricted to a first order function and not
through two general power series by adopting a nested the original second order allpass function, as noted by
configuration employing positive voltage generalised Soliman [Ill] and, later, Rathore [112] in a more
immittance convertors constructed from conveyors. The general context. Pal [113] contributed three allpass
third paper in the series [94] described a number of four multiple conveyor filters in 1981, the last of which was
conveyor realisations for generalised immittance found by Rathore [114] to contain an error, a point soon
invertors that offered, for the first time, the advantage of corrected by the original author himself [ll5]. Mean-
using only grounded impedances. Conversion from a while, Pal [I161 had also published a multiple conveyor
grounded to a floating immittance synthesis was made allpass filter structure that for the first time employed
possible by Senani [14] with the introduction of his only grounded capacitors. Two single conveyor first
immittance floatator using a generalised current convey- order allpass conveyor formulations, exhibiting high
or [23], in this case constructed from standard voltage input impedance for ease of cascading, have been recently
and transconductance operational amplifiers. reported by Higashimura [I 171, but neither unfor-
The application of current conveyors to grounded tunately has the advantage of utilising a grounded capa-
negative immittance conversion was first outlined by citor.
Sedra and Smith [2] in their introduction of class I1 con- In his conveyor implementation of a Ford and Girling
veyors, and illustrated later by Surakampontorn [95] in style circuit, Soliman [52] illustrated its use as a lowpass
a translinear conveyor. In 1983 a floating negative immit- filter with zeros in the open left half plane. Soliman’s
tance convertor composed of a pair of crosscoupled con- [I181 next paper concentrated on two realisations of
veyors, was published by Paul et al. [96], and later bandpass functions using resonators, in contrast to
implemented practically by Toumazou and Lidgey [76] Nandi [49] whose approach was through the use of
in a general impedance convertor, that required no grounded conveyor inductance simulation as a nested
passive components except the load impedance. The element within a separate conveyor resonator. Similarly,
analysis includes a method to compensate for the effects Pal [67] also described bandpass and reject filters
of conveyor transfer ratio errors by the expedient of a designed around conveyor inductance simulation. Naqsh-
single additional impedance, assuming that the precise bendi’s [I 191 improved configuration offered high input
nature of the transfer errors is known and invariant. This impedance and single resistor parameter adjustment in a
work stimulated two closely related negative immittance conveyor bandpass filter for the first time.
convertors and error compensation schemes by Nandi Turning to more classical forms, Soliman’s [92] syn-
[97, 981 differing only in the particular nature of their thesis procedure for generalised immittance convertors
cross-symmetry and conveyor polarities. A practical has made it possible to design various types of Butter-
realisation of a general immittance convertor using a dif- worth filters. However, the circuit originally due to
ferential current mirror structure shared by two oper- Nandi [120], simplified by Stephenson [121] and later
ational amplifiers has been described by Normand [99] modified by Dunning-Davies [122], has proved to be
in an attempt at component minimisation. Khan and more attractive owing to the use of grounded capacitors
Ahmed [lo01 have also demonstrated a dual trans- and equal valued components. Patranabis [62] has
conductance amplifier circuit for the synthesis of a float- implemented a third order Butterworth lowpass filter by
ing negative resistance, tunable by an external control the alternative route of using conveyors to simulate nega-
current. tive resistance inductors. Higher order conveyor filters
Higashimura and Fukui’s [ll] contribution of a for- may also be obtained, as shown by Senani [123] in his
malised nullator-norator conveyor model to assist with novel impedance scaling scheme where single conveyors
the process of immittance synthesis, shown by Senani with no component matching whatsoever are used to
[I21 to have been employed previously in a similar simulate a lossy inductance per stage in an example
context, has proved fruitful. The adoption of such a for- of a fourth order Butterworth lowpass filter.
malised method has allowed them to identify a great During early 1986 Nawrocki and Klein [124] pro-
number of possible multiconveyor configurations to posed a universal biquad formulation involving eight
implement specific higher order immittance functions transconductance amplifiers and two grounded capa-
[lOl, 1021, along with practical results for third order citors that allowed all major filter functions to be imple-
Butterworth low and highpass conveyor filters [74]. mented from the same structure, an improvement on
earlier designs where only a single filter function had
3.2 Filters been available from each biquad circuit [125, 1261.
Much of the early work on conveyor filters focussed on Within six months Nawrocki and Klein’s implementation
single conveyor allpass formulations, like the second was modified by Toumazou and Lidgey [127] who
order implementations reported by Soliman [103, 1041 in replaced all the operational transconductance amplifiers
1973 and modified by Gopal [81] to remove the dis- by current conveyors and resistors, Fig. 8.
advantage of constant loss with respect to phase. Aron- In late 1986 Chong and Smith [17] introduced
hime [I051 soon demonstrated the generality of the another variant on the conveyor theme which included a
conveyor approach for any real rational voltage transfer voltage inversion between the input terminals, realising
I E E PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P f . G, N o . 2, A P R I L I990 61
what they termed a CCII & 2 type conveyor. The improvement to reduce its sensitivity to conveyor offsets
purpose of the voltage inversion was to enable lowpass, and potential latch-up problems, Fig. 9.
highpass and bandpass filters with independently control- Additional current-mode oscillator formulations have
lable properties to be designed using a biquad style func- also been investigated using operational trans-
tion implemented through a single conveyor. Since that conductance amplifiers. Nandi's proposal [137], employ-
"I" -
7
Fig. 9 Conveyor oscillator
* “ o
G, =-R2/(2flq)
vlnTFf VO
4 Developments in current-mode circuits
A current-mode circuit may be taken to mean any circuit
in which current is used as the active variable in prefer-
ence to voltage, either throughout the whole circuit or
G:I+Rz/(ZR~) RI only in certain critical areas. In addition to current con-
veyors themselves, such circuits range from voltage to
a b current convertors through translinear circuits and
Fig. 10 Feedback voltage ampl@ers wing conveyors current-mode rectifiers to neural computation and many
a Inverting new amplifier topologies. For many of the applications
b Noninverting described a current-mode approach enables superior per-
formance to be achieved, even in cases where circuits
inverting cases respectively. The performance available have been synthesised from voltage-mode components
from the new style of conveyor amplifier topology is due to the lack of suitable alternatives.
impressive, with bandwidths greater than 3 MHz at all
gains up to 40dB being reported by Wilson [40, 1493, 4.1 Current convertors, amplifiers and translinear
behaviour equivalent to a gain-bandwidth product circuits
beyond 300MHz at 1OV ppk from an operational Early experimental designs of integrated voltage to
amplifier advertised as having a unity-gain bandwidth of current convertors as instrumentation subsystems offered
only 4 MHz. In addition voltage slew rate is also remark- good linearity, but were only optimised for a relatively
ably improved, especially in the inverting version, since narrow range of conversion gains [156, 1571. At that time
the output from the operational amplifier is connected as discrete formulations of voltage to current convertors
a virtual earth, and so does not move through any signifi- were either designed around an operational amplifier
cant voltage whatsoever, leaving that task to the current [33], a voltage follower [35] with an additional output
mirrors. The main limitations on high-gain behaviour stage consisting of current mirrors of various complexity
have been found to be determined by the high-frequency or a form of crosscoupled compensated mirrors [l58].
deviation in the X terminal impedance of the conveyor The reintroduction in 1979 by Haslett and Rao [36] and
[l50]. independently by Hart and Barker [34] of an operational
A universal conveyor instrumentation amplifier has amplifier supply current sensing technique, first explored
recently been demonstrated by Wilson [40, 149, 1511 by Graeme [159] a number of years earlier, permitted
through the adoption of a generalised dual conveyor greater circuit flexibility and performance to be obtained
approach to a current-mode configuration originally pro- in the design of convertors [34]. Nedungadi [152]
posed by Nedungadi [152] in 1980 and subsequently extended the scheme to encompass differential input
revised by Toumazou and Lidgey [7, 153-1551. The sym- signals whilst Huijsing and Veelenturf [32] produced a
metrical nature of the input circuit, as shown in Fig. 11, convertor in which the limitations of early pnp mirrors
were overcome by synthesis from npn devices and an
additional amplifier. Distortion performance was signifi-
cantly improved in 1981 with the publication by Wilson
[37, 411 of a new feedback convertor topology. Conver-
tors with extended output capability were demonstrated
by Nedungadi [160] employing a separate high-power
output stage and by Wilson [161] using an error feed-
forward technique to achieve low distortion with
unbiased output transistors. A convertor design suitable
CCII. for single supply operation has also recently been
V2 I described by Barker and Hart [162].
Fig. 11 Universal conveyor instrumentation ampl@er After the renewal of interest in current followers and
V, = ( I . - I J R , amplifiers by Jager and Smit [163] their evolution has
5 , =U‘, - VJRJR, traced a path similar to that of current convertors (since
most convertor circuits were essentially followers with
added conversion stages), but with only a limited amount
of theoretical material being published [148, 163, 1641.
ensures a differential input voltage capability with an The unipolar current amplifiers introduced by Hart [165]
intrinsically high common-mode rejection ratio without and Nedungadi [166] were soon modified to accommo-
the need for any resistor matching whatsoever, unlike the date supply current sensing and bipolar capability by
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. G , No. 2, A P R I L 1990 69
Nedungadi [152] and by Wilson [41, 1671 to operate current convertor, a current to voltage convertor and a
with feedback mirrors for lower distortion. Meanwhile, full instrumentation amplifier displaying a high common-
with the exceptions of early implementations by mode rejection ratio, without component matching,
Nedungadi [168, 1691 and Bel [170], very similar topol- could be obtained. Because of its versatility Nedungadh
ogies were being employed by Haslett and Rao [36], and approach has proved to be popular [7, 150, 153, 1551
later Lidgey and Toumazou [la,1451, to produce accu- and has also led to the development of a conveyor
rate current followers. At this stage, related developments version of an instrumentation amplifier [40,149, 1511, as
in translinear circuit theory began to influence the design noted previously in Section 3.4.
of current-mode circuits. More sophisticated current-mode behaviour involving
In 1975 Gilbert [MI, drawing on earlier work of his fully differential input and output capabilities has also
own [171] and of others [172], unified several areas of been proposed from time to time by various authors,
circuit theory with the publication of his translinear whether as current amplifiers [7, 81, simple or composite
circuit principle, later modified slightly by Hart [173]. seven terminal amplifiers [ 5 , 761 or operational floating
One of the many possible variations of a translinear amplifiers [184, 1851 in attempts to produce new basic
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 12, where a set of four building blocks from which both novel and traditional
electronic functions may be implemented.
m,,
multiplication, division and squaring, can be achieved by fast precision current-mode rectifier, Fig. 13. A positive
a suitable choice of driven currents. More complicated I , .v
analogue computational functions, square and other
roots for example, may be obtained by using more RPb R
complex topologies [172, 174, 1751. IYI
The translinear approach was soon adopted by Fabre
in a series of papers concerning voltage to current con-
vertors with single class A [176], class AB [177] or
multiple [178] outputs. By extracting the design of the
central current follower from the convertor Fabre was
able to produce a differential current follower [179] and
a range of suggested applications [l80]. The original four I- V
transistor translinear ring was extended by Toumazou Fig. 13 Current-mode rectifiation
and Lidgey E1811 to form a six transistor chain acting as
the input stage of a fully differential current amplifier input voltage causes a current, determined by R,, to flow
with a gain of two. By using controllable bias currents in the positive supply lead of A, and the negative lead of
within the translinear gain cell Fabre [182] has also A,. When the input polarity is reversed, the opposite
demonstrated a current amplifier with a similar gain, but occurs. The two split phases are then recombined at the
programmable over a restricted range. Returning to the input to the current mirror and finally converted back to
basic four transistor translinear ring, Toumazou and a voltage by a resistor and buffer amplifier. Only a single
Lidgey [7, 1831 have very recently added an operational npn current mirror is employed to avoid frequency
amplifier to produce a single ended current amplifier with restrictions imposed by pnp transistors. Even using a low
a moderate open-loop gain and bandwidth. The peak-to-peak input voltage of 500mV Toumazou and
approach would seem to have scope for extension as an Lidgey [188] report excellent results with no perceptible
operational conveyor by a suitable minor circuit modifi- distortion up to 1 MHz.
cation to gain access to the noninverting terminal of the
operational amplifier. 4.2.2 Analogue computing
In 1980 Nedungadi E1521 reported a general current- Analogue computation is an additional area of applica-
mode amplifier configuration, based on two operational tion of current conveyors and current-mode circuits,
amplifiers and a pair of current mirrors, capable of per- since current can be conveniently summed at a single
forming a number of related functions. By suitable point without the need for an extra summing amplifier.
choices of component values, a differential voltage to Linear programmable gain blocks may be obtained using
70 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P i . G , No. 2, A P R I L 1990
either a feedback current amplifier [45] along with float-
ing controllable resistors [190, 1913, gain programmable
current amplifiers [182] or electronically tunable current
conveyors [18]. Both current differentiation and integra-
tion are also available using conveyor circuits [Z]. in
addition to current-mode frequency selective circuits
[128] and current processing phase control schemes
[192]. Root and power-law functions are achievable
using the translinear circuits described previously.
Complex waveforms may also be synthesised by virtue of
the ease with which currents can be summed. A certain
amount of hardware reduction is possible when multiple
conveyors are employed since a single set of mirrors
may be used to sum the currents from the constituent
operational amplifiers [7]. Alternatively a differential
conveyor structure may be employed [142].
Q: 8" QJ
For slightly less demanding applications a simplified
output structure has been suggested by them in their
1988 review of GaAs design techniques [232]. In later
optimisations [233,234] they have reduced the simulated
settling time of the original design to 360 ps, with a modi-
fied design of negative mirror [235] enabling this to be
further reduced to 230 ps for a push-pull configuration;
an encouraging step towards switched-capacitor filters
operating with switching frequencies approaching 1 GHz.
M A current-mode approach has also started to appear
in the design of both low-noise and high-speed trans-
Fig. 15 Current memory using dynamic mirrors
impedance amplifiers intended for use with optical fibre
communication systems. Wilson and Darwazeh [236,
transistor current cells are again suggested for practical 2371 have regarded the amplifier as a true trans-
implementations of the basic method. Initial results, both impedance amplifier, rather than as a voltage amplifier,
for CAD simulation of a sixth order 1 MHz Chebyshev and designed it to exhibit a low input impedance in order
lowpass lilter and measurements on a current memory to remove source capacitance constraints. Van den Brink
module, confirm the potential of the method [219, 2201. [238] has reported significant noise benefits attainable by
As pressures increase on VLSI designers to use a lower actively generating feedback current in an optical fibre
supply voltage of 3.3 V rather than the present 5 V, such transimpedance receiver instead of relying on the output
current-mode digital signal processing techniques will voltage acting across the feedback element as is usually
surely become increasingly important and attractive. the case. Taking this concept a step further, a number of
Yet another area in which current-mode techniques authors [239-2421 have used an optical emitter driven
are playing an important rBle is that of analogue to directly from the voltage to current convertor to produce
digital convertors. Using current rather than voltage as an optical feedback signal, with subsequent noise
the signal variable Nairn and Salama [221, 2221 have improvements.
implemented a 6 bit algorithmic analogue to digital con-
verter using a standard 3 pm CMOS process requiring 5 Conclusions
approximately 0.4 mm2 of chip area, consuming less than
5 mW and operating at a sampling rate of 200 kHz. The This paper has sought to review historical and technical
internal structure of the convertor utilises bit cells based developments in current conveyor and related current-
on standard CMOS mirror and comparator structures mode developments over the last twenty years. Evidence
cascaded up to the required number of bits. Replacing that the area is experiencing a sustained and dramatic
the standard mirror formulation by a more accurate growth is highlighted by the fact that over one sixth of
active mirror [223], in which an auxiliary low-gain oper- the references were published during the first six months
ational amplifier is inserted between the drain and gate of of 1989. One striking feature that has emerged from such
the mirror input transistor (effectively turning the mirror a wide range of publications is that with a careful reading
72 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . G, No. 2, APRIL 1990
many of the seeds of later principles and circuits could be 14 SENANI, R.: ‘Novel application of generalised current conveyor’,
Electron. Lett., 1984.20, ( 4 , pp 169-170
discovered already embedded in earlier material. What 15 DOSTAL, T., and POSPfbIL; J.: ‘Current and voltage conveyors
seems to have changed is the ‘way of seeing’ such circuits, ~a family of three port immittance convertors’. IEEE Internation-
comparable to the manner in which other subjects al Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Rome, 1982, pp. 419422
periodically undergo a shift of perception or change of 16 DOSTAL, T., and POSPfSIL, J.: ‘Hybrid models of 3-port immit-
paradigm. We now have a number of different and tance convertors and current and voltage conveyors’, Electron.
Lett., 1982, 18, (20), pp. 887-888
related ways in which fundamental building blocks can 17 CHONG, C.P., and SMITH, K.C.: ‘Biquadratic filter sections
be both viewed and used to implement all the old, and employing a single conveyor’, Electron. Lett., 1986, 2% (22), pp.
many new, circuit functions. 1162-1 164
Pressure from a number of circuit designers to per- 18 SURAKAMPONTORN, W., and THITIMAJSHIMA, P.: ‘Inte-
grable electronically tunable current conveyors’, IEE Proc. G , 1988,
suade various manufacturers to produce one or other 135, (2), pp. 71-77
integrated current-mode circuits seems largely to have 19 SMITH, K.C., and SEDRA, A.: ‘A new simple wide-band current
been in vain, except that now a limited range of ampli- measuring device’, IEEE Trans., 1969, IM-18, pp. 125-128
fiers employing current-mode feedback are becoming 20 BLACK, C.G.A., FRIEDMANN, R.T., and SEDRA, A.: ‘Gyrator
available. The semiconductor industry can be both inno- implementation with integrable current conveyors’, IEEE J., 1971,
SCd, pp. 396399
vative and strangely conservative at the same time! There 21 SHARIF-BAKHTIAR, M., and ARONHIME, P.: ‘A current con-
would seem to be a strong case now for a joint concerted veyor realisation using operational amplifiers’, Int. J. Electron.,
research and development programme between uni- 1978.45, pp. 283-288
versities and industry to decide on a series of current- 22 SENANI, R.: ‘Novel circuit implementation of current conveyors
mode circuits for monolithic fabrication, whether they be using an OA and an OTA’, Electron. Lett., 1980, 16, (l), pp. 2-3
23 HUERTAS, J.L.: ‘Circuit implementation of current conveyor’,
current conveyors, operational conveyors, differential Electron. Lett., 1980, 16, (6), pp. 225-226
current amplifiers, seven terminal operational amplifiers 24 WILSON, B. : ‘Current mirrors, amplifiers and dumpers’, Wireless
or operational floating amplifiers. World, 1981,87, pp. 47-50
It is inevitably in any undertaking of this nature that a 25 WILSON, G.R.: ‘A monolithic junction FET-npn operational
amplifier’, IEEE J., 1968, SC-3, pp. 341-348
number of references will have been overlooked. 26 HART, B.L., and BARKER, R.W.J.: ‘Early-intercept voltage: a
However, it is to be hoped that the method of cross- parameter of voltage driven BJTs’, Electron. Lett., 1976, 12, (7), pp.
checking adopted during compilation has resulted in only 174-175
minor lapses. No doubt aggrieved authors will inform me 27 HART, B.L., and BARKER, R.W.J.: ‘DC matching errors in the
of any bibliographical shortcomings. Wilson current source’, Electron Lett., 1976, 12, (15). pp. 389-390
28 GILBERT, B.: ‘Wideband negative-current mirror’, Electron. Lett.,
1975, 11, (6), pp. 126-127
29 RAO, M.K.N., and HASLETT, J.W.: ‘A modified current mirror
6 Acknowledgments with level shifting capability and low input impedance’, IEEE J.,
1979, SC-14, pp. 762-764
It is with pleasure that I acknowledge many interesting 30 HART, B.L., and BARKER, R.W.J.: ‘Modified current mirror with
and stimulating discussions with Dr. Lidgey and Dr. a “voltage-following’’ capability’, Electron. Lett., 1982, 1%(22). pp.
Toumazou and other research workers and students too 97W972
31 BARKER, R.W.J., and HART, B.L.: ‘Negative current-mirror
numerous to mention individually. I am also indebted to using n-pn transistors’, Electron. Lett., 1977, 13, (ll), pp. 311-312
Linda Morris for her continued patience and painstaking 32 HUIJSING, J.H., and VEELENTURF, C.J.: ‘Monolithic class AB
efforts in helping to prepare the text. operational mirrored amplifier’, Electron. Lett., 1981, 17, (3), pp.
119-120
33 HART, B.L., and BARKER, R.W.J.: ‘A precision bilateral voltage-
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34 HART, B.L., and BARKER, R.W.J.: ‘Universal op-amp convertor
1 SMITH, K.C., and SEDRA, A.: ‘The current conveyor - a new technique using supply current sensing’, Electron. Lett., 1979, 15,
circuit building block‘, IEEE Proc., 1 9 6 8 , s pp. 1368-1369 (16), pp. 49-97
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veyor and its applications’,IEEE Trans., 1970, (3-17, pp. 132-134 current convertor’, Electron. Lett., 1978, 14, (24), pp. 762-764
3 KUMAR, U,: .Current conveyors: a review of the state of the art’, 36 HASLETT, J.W., and RAO, M.K.N.: ‘A high quality controlled
IEEE Circuits and Syst. Mag., 1981,3, pp. 1W14 current source’,IEEE Trans., 1979, IM-2% pp. 132-140
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mode signal processing circuits’. IEEE International Symposium 39 WILSON, B.: ‘Floating FDNR employing a new CCII- conveyor
on Circuits and Systems, Helsinki, 1988, 3, pp. 266S2668 implementation’,Electron. Lett., 1985, 21, (21), pp. 996997
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1 1 HIGASHIMURA, M., and FUKUI, Y.: ‘Novel method for reali- 46 NISHIO, M., SATO, H., and SUZUKI, T.: ‘A gyrator constructed
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~- ~- ~ ~~